Rethinking language education and linguistic diversity in ...
Transcript of Rethinking language education and linguistic diversity in ...
Rethinking language education and linguistic diversity in schools
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Directorate-General for Education Youth Sport and Culture
Directorate B - Youth Education and Erasmus+
Unit B2 - Schools and multilingualism
Contact Kristina Cunningham
E-mail KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
European Commission B-1049 Brussels
Rethinking language education and linguistic
diversity in schools
Thematic report from a programme of expert
workshops and peer learning activities (2016-17)
Prepared by Anja Meierkord and Laurie Day (Ecorys UK)
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Directorate-General for Education Youth Sport and Culture
2017 EN
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contained therein
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Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union 2017
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0
Table of Contents
Table of Contents 0 Introduction 1 Context 2
Increasing diversity in European classrooms 2 A progressively interconnected world 3 Advancing language technologies 3
Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe 4 Learners with different home languages 4 Foreign language learning in European schools 5
Rethinking language teaching 7 Making the case for change 7 Rethinking key-concepts of language learning 9
New ways of teaching languages in schools 10 Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner 10 Supporting language learning throughout the education system 11 Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings 11 Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies 12 Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment 13 Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments for linguistic diversity 13
Conclusions 14
1
Introduction In 2006 the European Parliament and the Council adopted the Recommendations on Key
Competences for Lifelong Learning1 The framework sets out eight competences which
citizens need for lsquopersonal fulfilment and development active citizenship social inclusion
and employmentrsquo Language competences play a prominent role in the framework with
two key competences being defined as lsquocommunication in the mother tonguersquo and
lsquocommunication in foreign languagesrsquo
A decade later the European Commission (EC) is reviewing the Key Competence
Framework in the context of the New Skills Agenda for Europe2 With literacy and
mastery of the language of schooling providing the foundation for any further learning
the recommendations of the key competence framework warrant updating to reflect
todayrsquos realities They must address challenges and opportunities for language learning in
a progressively interdependent world technological change increased mobility and
diversity of populations
In this context the EC organised four Thematic Workshops on the subject of lsquorethinking
literacies and language learningrsquo3 These workshops brought together academics
European and national experts in the areas of multilingualism key competences and the
integration of migrants and representatives of the policy networks ELINET SIRIUS and
KeyCoNet4
This report summarises the results of these workshops and provides insights from the
wider research literature on language learning in Europe and beyond It encourages
policy makers and other stakeholders to lsquothink differentlyrsquo when it comes to language
education in schools and provides inspiration for how language teaching and assessment
could be designed in the future
The report is structured as follows
Chapter one provides an introduction to the report
Chapter two sets out the context for language learning in Europe including the
increasing linguistic diversity of the European school population globalisation and
technological change
Chapter three summarises key data on linguistic diversity and language education
in European schools today
Chapter four discusses ways to rethink language learning and challenges
traditional concepts such as literacy multilingualism and mother tongue
Chapter five provides an overview of practical new ways in which languages can
be taught in schools
1 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on key competences for lifelong learning
18122016 (2006962EC)
2 EC (2016) A new skills agenda for Europe Working together to strengthen human capital employability and
competitiveness COM (2016) 381 final
3 The workshops were complemented with two Peer Learning Activities (PLAs) which took place in Stockholm
and Dresden and explored topics relating to migrant education in further depth More information available on
the European Commissions page on school education for migrants
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
4 The European Literacy Policy Network (ELINET) the Policy Network on Migrant Education (SIRIUS) and the
Key Competence Network on School Education (KeyCoNet)
2
Chapter six summarises and draws conclusions
Context The European Union (EU) has long promoted language learning and linguistic diversity
across Europe with the view to increase mutual understanding and provide access to
other countries and cultures5 It sees the ability to communicate in a range of languages
as key to economic progress and social cohesion6 Following the Presidency Conclusions
from the European Councils meeting in Barcelona 2002 the EU has supported the
principle that every citizen should have the opportunity to learn at least two foreign
languages from a very early age This guideline is sometimes referred to as the simplified
concept mother tongue plus two which is also reflected in the 2006 European key
competence framework with the separation between mother tongue and foreign
languages7 Later policy papers have stressed the need to ensure that learners do not
lose touch with their language of origin8
Fifteen years on it is necessary to question if these definitions and recommendations are
still appropriate in the context of societal changes such as new migration globalisation
and economic and technological change
Increasing diversity in European classrooms
On 1 January 2016 351 million people who were born outside the EU lived in an EU
Member State An additional 207 million EU citizens lived in a Member State different to
their country of birth9 This diversity is increasing it is estimated that in 2015 24
million citizens of non-member countries moved to the EU while 14 million EU citizens
moved to a Member State different to the country where they hold citizenship10 This is
higher than the number of people emigrating from the EU in the same year More than
one in ten 15-year old learners in European schools are now first or second-generation
migrants11 As the population structure in Europe is becoming more diverse an
increasing number of young people in European school systems speak a different
language at home than in the classroom
Individuals have different reasons for migrating including work study and family
reasons In recent years in-flows to European Member States have also included large
numbers of asylum seekers In 2015 and 2016 alone more than 25 million people
applied for asylum in European Member States of which close to 550000 were children
under the age of 1412 These recent arrivals have more diverse countries of origins and
linguistic backgrounds than migrants from previous waves of migration Refugee
children for example have often stayed in several countries before arriving in their host
5 httpseceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualism_en (accessed 20062017)
6 EC (2017) Education and Training Monitor 2016 Luxembourg Publication Office of the European Union p
29
7 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on key competences for lifelong learning
18122016 (2006962EC)
8 See eg EC (2008) Multilingualism an asset for Europe and a shared commitment COM(2008)566 final
9 Eurostat indicator migr_pop3ctb (accessed 20062017) Luxembourg (452) Cyprus (204) Austria
(182) Sweden (17) and Ireland (169) display the largest shares of lsquoforeign bornrsquo of their overall
population
10 httpeceuropaeueurostatstatistics-explainedindexphpMigration_and_migrant_population_statistics
(accessed 20062017)
11 EC (2016) Pisa 2015 EU performance and initial conclusions regarding education policies in Europe
December 2016
12 Eurostat indicator migr_asyappctza (accessed 20062017)
3
country and will have acquired a diverse repertoire of linguistic competences on their
way while some will have been born on route and hold a different language of origin to
their parents13
In the context of these developments we must ask how relevant is the lsquomother tongue
plus tworsquo recommendation for those young people whose mother tongue is different from
the language of schooling
A progressively interconnected world
People have long exchanged ideas goods and capital across borders but accelerated
technological change has transformed the speed and nature of globalisation Today
economies societies and cultures around the world interconnect more than ever through
trade communication immigration and transportation Supply chains for goods and
services for example span across the globe and around half of the worldrsquos gross
domestic product (GDP) relates to trade In the 1970s this was only the case for 20 of
the GDP14
Information and data flows between countries have also increased exponentially Cross-
border bandwidth is now 45 times larger than in 2005 and digital platforms transform the
way business works across borders15 The increased interconnectedness implies that
many environmental health economic migration and security challenges are now
transnational by nature16 The countries and cultures we are connected with today go far
beyond our immediate neighbour countries
Faced with globalisation and the rise of new economic and political powers we must ask
if the purpose of language learning is to lsquoincrease mutual understanding and provide
access to different countries and culturesrsquo as well as to lsquocontribute to economic progress
and social cohesionrsquo And indeed if this is the case then which languages should be
taught in schools to best equip our children to thrive now and in their adult lives
Advancing language technologies
Traditionally not being able to read speak and understand a language often posed a
barrier to accessing other countries and cultures A wide range of knowledge information
and data was only available in the national language(s) Advances in language
technologies including speech recognition machine translation content analytics and
text to speech analysis now allow more people to understand and interact in languages
where they hold lower levels of proficiency Language technology has exponentially
improved access to both structured (eg text) and unstructured data (eg human
speech)17
We must ask what is the value of learning several languages when English is widely
spoken and translation becomes increasingly automated
13 Le Pichon E (2016) New patterns of migrant and society New needs for language teaching input paper
for thematic panel on rethinking literacies and language learning Brussels 11072016
14 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
15 McKinsey Global Institute (2016) Digital Globalisation The new era of global flows March 2016
16 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
17 See eg httpseceuropaeudigital-single-marketenprogramme-and-projectslanguage-technologies-
project-information and httpswwwgala-globalorglanguage-industrylanguage-technology (accessed
20062017)
4
Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe The linguistic landscape in Europe has always been diverse and complex Several
Member States have more than one official language or large populations of speakers of
minority languages while a number of Member States have large migrant populations
who speak a home language different from the official language(s) In this context the
terms lsquomother tonguersquo and lsquoforeign languagesrsquo become relative concepts and mean
different things for different people
This makes it difficult to map the state of language learning and competences across the
EU using traditional methods and concepts At a general level we can gain an overview
of the number of pupils with a home language different from the language of schooling
using data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
2015 and data on foreign language learning using Eurostat data
Learners with different home languages
According to data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA) 2015 an average of around one in ten (9) of 15-year old learners speak a
different language at home than the language of schooling across EU Member States18
There are large differences between Member States with very low shares of less than two
in one hundred in Hungary (18) and Poland (09)
Table 1 ndash Share of 15-year old learners who speak another language at home () 2015
Total Non- migrants
Migrants Total Non- migrants
Migrants
MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54
LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57
CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71
AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51
ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31
IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38
BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12
SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03
DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22
LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06
UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na
FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16
BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na
SK 77 77 00 PL 09 09 na Source Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Annex B17
18 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
PISA records home language(s) different from the test language rather than language of schooling
5
In some countries this linguistic diversity is primarily due to first or second
generation migrant learners Countries with significant shares of migrants with
different home languages include Austria (151) and Sweden (118) Other countries
display large shares of native learners with different home languages This includes Malta
(844) Cyprus (14) Spain (127) and Italy (117) These countries are all
characterised by having two or more official languages or specific regions with distinct
minority languages Luxemburg is a special case with three official state languages and a
very high proportion of first and second generation migrant children
Across EU Member States the languages spoken at home if different from the language
of schooling is most often Spanish Turkish or Russian The strong prevalence of Spanish
can partly be explained by the fact that large shares of Spanish speaking learners are
taught in schools where the main language of schooling is a regional language
(Valencian Galician or Basque) Learners who speak Turkish at home are primarily found
in schools where the language of schooling is Danish Dutch German Finnish or French
while most learners who speak Russian at home can be found in schools where the
language of schooling is Czech Estonian Finnish German Latvia Lithuanian or Polish19
Schools face the challenge of great language heterogeneity in the classroom Across the
EU 97 of learners are taught in schools where more than 25 of learners speak a
home language different from the language of schooling Highest shares of learners in
linguistically diverse schools exist in Austria Belgium Cyprus Germany Luxembourg
Malta Spain and Sweden20 While diversity increases there is also some evidence that
the segregation of natives and migrants into specific schools has increased in some
Member States21
Foreign language learning in European schools
In contemporary European schools learners start learning a first foreign language22 at an
earlier age than 10 years ago Overall 838 of primary school children learned at least
one foreign language in 2014 (figure 1) compared to only 673 in 200523 In most
countries compulsory foreign language learning starts between the age of 6 and 8
All or close to all primary school children study at least one foreign language in Austria
Croatia Cyprus France Italy Luxembourg Malta Poland and Spain This implies that
foreign language learning is introduced in the primary school curriculum at the entry-
level grade At the other end of the spectrum are Belgium (Flemish and French
community) Slovenia and Portugal where less than half of all primary school children
study foreign languages In most cases this implies that foreign language learning is
introduced into the curriculum in the higher primary school grades and at lower
secondary level In the case of the Flemish community in Belgium for example a first
19 All data ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition
Eurydice Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
20 ibid p 27
21 Brunello G De Paola M (2017) School Segregation of Immigrants and its effects on Educational
Outcomes in Europe EENEE Analytical Report No 30
22 lsquoForeign languagesrsquo are a relative concept which are defined differently across Member States and can
include modern foreign languages second and third languages and classical languages in some Member States
While this report uses the definition applied by each respective responsible education authority existing data
only provides an incomplete picture of the extent of language learning across the EU There is little comparative
evidence on actual linguistic competency of learners across Member States
23 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 11
6
foreign language is compulsory from the age of 10 only so that only the small group of
(older) children study languages at the primary level
Figure 1 ndash Share of primary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 no data for IE and UK
The vast majority of learners continue with foreign language learning throughout
compulsory education 988 study at least one foreign language at lower secondary
level and 597 study two foreign languages or more Not all learners maintain these
levels of language learning at upper secondary level with 858 of learners studying at
least one language at that level There are vast differences between Member States in
the extent to which language learning takes place at upper secondary level While all or
close to all learners at upper secondary level study at least one foreign language in
France Luxembourg Malta Romania Slovakia and Sweden less than half of learners do
so in the United Kingdom (figure 2)
Differences also exist between vocational and general educational tracks While
908 of learners in general upper secondary education study at least one foreign
language only 79 of learners in vocational tracks do24
Figure 2 - Share of secondary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 incomplete data for IE and UK
24 Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 (accessed 20062017)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
EU LU MT
CY
AT IT HR ES FR PL
SE SK RO
BG EL EE LV LT CZ FI DE
NL
HU DK
BE-
FR SI PT
BE-
FL
0
20
40
60
80
100
EU LU MT SE RO SK FR AT
BE-
FL CY FI IT BG LV HR PL SI CZ
HU LT EE EL NL
ES
BE-
FR PT
DE
DK
UK IE
lower secondary upper secondary
7
As the share of language learners has expanded overall there is a strong dominance of
English as the first ndash and often only - foreign language Studying two foreign
languages is compulsory for all learners in many Member States but not in all The
Member States where only one foreign language is compulsory for all learners include
Croatia Germany Ireland Belgium (French community) Hungary Spain Sweden and
the United Kingdom25 However in some of these countries learners are entitled to learn
two foreign languages if they so wish
In most countries English is the most studied foreign language followed by French and
German In Ireland and the United Kingdom French is most widely taught In
Luxembourg the two official State languages German and French are more widely taught
than English as are the different community languages in Belgium26
These statistics indicate a positive overall trend in access to languages from an early age
although the level of ambition for linguistic competency across Europe nonetheless falls
short of the Barcelona objective of two foreign languages
Rethinking language teaching Addressing todayrsquos societal economic and technological challenges requires re-thinking
the traditional way of teaching and learning languages both for monolingual and
multilingual learners There are a variety of good reasons for school systems and
practices to adapt to the increased diversity of European classrooms and effectively work
with multilingual learners Key concepts such lsquoliteracyrsquo lsquomultilingualismrsquo and lsquomother
tonguersquo will have to be reconceptualised to meet the new realities in European schools
Making the case for change
Young peoplersquos migration and linguistic backgrounds continue to be strong determinants
of their educational success OECD PISA data shows that there are vast achievement
gaps between the reading mathematics and science competences of learners with a
home language different from the language of schooling and those who speak the
language of schooling at home In some countries this achievement gap is equivalent to
15-2 years of schooling27 Low competence in literacy is especially problematic as it is a
foundation skill and pre-requisite for progress in other subject areas28
From an educational equity and inclusion perspective it is therefore essential to
ensure that all learners especially those with less competence in the language of
schooling are supported to develop literacy skills and provided with equal opportunities
to thrive alongside their peers This includes children with a migrant background
bilingual and multilingual learners but also monolingual lsquonativersquo learners with low levels
of literacy skills Effective multilingual teaching and learning has the potential to close the
achievement gap of migrant students compared to lsquonativersquo learners while enhancing the
cultural and civic education of all learners
25 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 30
26 ibid p 71
27 Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Paris OECD Publishing Annex B17
28 Council of Europe Language Policy Unit (2015) The Language dimension in all Subjects ndash A Handbook for
Curriculum Development and Teacher Training Council of Europe 2015
8
In addition to educational disadvantage it is not uncommon that migrant and
multilingual learners are discriminated against by pupils teachers or the school more
widely for not speaking the language of schooling correctly or using their home language
(the lsquowrong languagersquo) in the school context These learners are often encouraged to
supress a large part of their linguistic repertoire Educational practices can convey that
learnerrsquos home languages are low value29 and migrant and multilingual learners may face
closer scrutiny than their lsquonativersquo counterparts even when they master the language of
schooling30 From a human rights perspective the discrimination of learners based on
their language violates article 2 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
which specifies non-discrimination grounds including a childrsquos language31 These issues
must be addressed starting by the recognition that different languages form part of the
identity of multilingual learners and by enabling them to develop and maintain their
linguistic repertoire
Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire ie their
home language(s) language of schooling and any other language(s) they might speak
may have benefits beyond communication alone Several clinical studies have shown
positive effects of bi- and multilingualism including on metalinguistic awareness
cognitive control of behaviour attentional control and social cognition32 These health
benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth but also for
people who became bilingual later in life33 Evidence has also shown that positive effects
are sustained over the life-course34 and have been found to play a role in delaying the
onset of dementia35 It is important to note however that research on the cognitive
benefits of bilingualism is not conclusive and results seem to be context dependent36
The above issues show that there is a wide range of benefits of language learning As
regards the competence in languages the issue should not be lsquohow many languagesrsquo
one should learn but which language competences best correspond to each learnerrsquos
needs circumstances and interests An expanding language repertoire may spread from
the original nucleus of the language(s) spoken at home and the immediate social
environment to the language of schooling and the more academic languages with the
required levels of competence not necessarily being the same in every context This
requires a re-valuation of partial competence in multiple languages (or lsquoplurilingualismrsquo)
as a potential asset forming part of the individual learnersrsquo social cultural and linguistic
capital The challenge in this respect is perhaps one of assessment and validation in the
29 Mehmedbegovic D (2016) What every educator needs to know about cognitive benefits of bilingualism
Moving towards lsquolanguage hierarchy freersquo policy and practice Discussion Paper for the Thematic Panel on
languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27 September 2016
30 Kambel E-R (2016) The cost of doing nothing Educating language-minoritized students Discussion Paper
for Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27
September 2016
31 httpwwwohchrorgenprofessionalinterestpagescrcaspx For a link to the full document refer to UN
General Assembly (1989)
32 See eg Kovacs AM Mehler J (2009) Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106 (16)6556-6560 Bialystock E (1999) Cognitive complexity and attentional
control in the bilingual mind Child Development 70(3) 636-644
33 Vega-Mendoza M West H Sorace A Bak TH (2015) The impact of late non-balanced bilingualism
on cognitive performance Cognition 137 40-46
34 Kave G et al (2008) Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old Psychology and Ageing 23(1)
70-78
35 Alladi S Bak T et al (2013) Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia independent of education and
immigration status American Journal of Neurology 81 (22) 1938-44
36 Bak T (2016) Cooking pasta in La Paz Bilingualism bias and the replication crisis in Rothman J
Unsworth S (eds) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 65 John Benjamins Publishing Company p 655-717
9
context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to
formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the
timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning
Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress
across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different
levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the
ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing
number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple
languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people
may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of
competence
Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different
languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and
learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that
teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one
language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to
support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37
Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to
language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for
their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School
systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this
implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into
account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining
functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons
relevant to their own context
Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction
between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother
tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating
to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo
recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of
the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and
encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own
linguistic repertories are essential for their development
37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing
taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50
38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion
paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Directorate-General for Education Youth Sport and Culture
Directorate B - Youth Education and Erasmus+
Unit B2 - Schools and multilingualism
Contact Kristina Cunningham
E-mail KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
European Commission B-1049 Brussels
Rethinking language education and linguistic
diversity in schools
Thematic report from a programme of expert
workshops and peer learning activities (2016-17)
Prepared by Anja Meierkord and Laurie Day (Ecorys UK)
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Directorate-General for Education Youth Sport and Culture
2017 EN
LEGAL NOTICE
This document has been prepared for the European Commission however it reflects the views only of the
authors and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information
contained therein
More information on the European Union is available on the Internet (httpwwweuropaeu)
Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union 2017
PDF ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0 doi 102766584023 NC-02-18-066-EN-N
copy European Union 2017
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged
Image(s) copy Shutterstock 2017 copy Ronald Bonss wwwronaldbonsscom (all other pictures)
EUROPE DIRECT is a service to help you find answers to your questions about the European Union
Freephone number () 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or
hotels may charge you)
0
Table of Contents
Table of Contents 0 Introduction 1 Context 2
Increasing diversity in European classrooms 2 A progressively interconnected world 3 Advancing language technologies 3
Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe 4 Learners with different home languages 4 Foreign language learning in European schools 5
Rethinking language teaching 7 Making the case for change 7 Rethinking key-concepts of language learning 9
New ways of teaching languages in schools 10 Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner 10 Supporting language learning throughout the education system 11 Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings 11 Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies 12 Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment 13 Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments for linguistic diversity 13
Conclusions 14
1
Introduction In 2006 the European Parliament and the Council adopted the Recommendations on Key
Competences for Lifelong Learning1 The framework sets out eight competences which
citizens need for lsquopersonal fulfilment and development active citizenship social inclusion
and employmentrsquo Language competences play a prominent role in the framework with
two key competences being defined as lsquocommunication in the mother tonguersquo and
lsquocommunication in foreign languagesrsquo
A decade later the European Commission (EC) is reviewing the Key Competence
Framework in the context of the New Skills Agenda for Europe2 With literacy and
mastery of the language of schooling providing the foundation for any further learning
the recommendations of the key competence framework warrant updating to reflect
todayrsquos realities They must address challenges and opportunities for language learning in
a progressively interdependent world technological change increased mobility and
diversity of populations
In this context the EC organised four Thematic Workshops on the subject of lsquorethinking
literacies and language learningrsquo3 These workshops brought together academics
European and national experts in the areas of multilingualism key competences and the
integration of migrants and representatives of the policy networks ELINET SIRIUS and
KeyCoNet4
This report summarises the results of these workshops and provides insights from the
wider research literature on language learning in Europe and beyond It encourages
policy makers and other stakeholders to lsquothink differentlyrsquo when it comes to language
education in schools and provides inspiration for how language teaching and assessment
could be designed in the future
The report is structured as follows
Chapter one provides an introduction to the report
Chapter two sets out the context for language learning in Europe including the
increasing linguistic diversity of the European school population globalisation and
technological change
Chapter three summarises key data on linguistic diversity and language education
in European schools today
Chapter four discusses ways to rethink language learning and challenges
traditional concepts such as literacy multilingualism and mother tongue
Chapter five provides an overview of practical new ways in which languages can
be taught in schools
1 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on key competences for lifelong learning
18122016 (2006962EC)
2 EC (2016) A new skills agenda for Europe Working together to strengthen human capital employability and
competitiveness COM (2016) 381 final
3 The workshops were complemented with two Peer Learning Activities (PLAs) which took place in Stockholm
and Dresden and explored topics relating to migrant education in further depth More information available on
the European Commissions page on school education for migrants
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
4 The European Literacy Policy Network (ELINET) the Policy Network on Migrant Education (SIRIUS) and the
Key Competence Network on School Education (KeyCoNet)
2
Chapter six summarises and draws conclusions
Context The European Union (EU) has long promoted language learning and linguistic diversity
across Europe with the view to increase mutual understanding and provide access to
other countries and cultures5 It sees the ability to communicate in a range of languages
as key to economic progress and social cohesion6 Following the Presidency Conclusions
from the European Councils meeting in Barcelona 2002 the EU has supported the
principle that every citizen should have the opportunity to learn at least two foreign
languages from a very early age This guideline is sometimes referred to as the simplified
concept mother tongue plus two which is also reflected in the 2006 European key
competence framework with the separation between mother tongue and foreign
languages7 Later policy papers have stressed the need to ensure that learners do not
lose touch with their language of origin8
Fifteen years on it is necessary to question if these definitions and recommendations are
still appropriate in the context of societal changes such as new migration globalisation
and economic and technological change
Increasing diversity in European classrooms
On 1 January 2016 351 million people who were born outside the EU lived in an EU
Member State An additional 207 million EU citizens lived in a Member State different to
their country of birth9 This diversity is increasing it is estimated that in 2015 24
million citizens of non-member countries moved to the EU while 14 million EU citizens
moved to a Member State different to the country where they hold citizenship10 This is
higher than the number of people emigrating from the EU in the same year More than
one in ten 15-year old learners in European schools are now first or second-generation
migrants11 As the population structure in Europe is becoming more diverse an
increasing number of young people in European school systems speak a different
language at home than in the classroom
Individuals have different reasons for migrating including work study and family
reasons In recent years in-flows to European Member States have also included large
numbers of asylum seekers In 2015 and 2016 alone more than 25 million people
applied for asylum in European Member States of which close to 550000 were children
under the age of 1412 These recent arrivals have more diverse countries of origins and
linguistic backgrounds than migrants from previous waves of migration Refugee
children for example have often stayed in several countries before arriving in their host
5 httpseceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualism_en (accessed 20062017)
6 EC (2017) Education and Training Monitor 2016 Luxembourg Publication Office of the European Union p
29
7 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on key competences for lifelong learning
18122016 (2006962EC)
8 See eg EC (2008) Multilingualism an asset for Europe and a shared commitment COM(2008)566 final
9 Eurostat indicator migr_pop3ctb (accessed 20062017) Luxembourg (452) Cyprus (204) Austria
(182) Sweden (17) and Ireland (169) display the largest shares of lsquoforeign bornrsquo of their overall
population
10 httpeceuropaeueurostatstatistics-explainedindexphpMigration_and_migrant_population_statistics
(accessed 20062017)
11 EC (2016) Pisa 2015 EU performance and initial conclusions regarding education policies in Europe
December 2016
12 Eurostat indicator migr_asyappctza (accessed 20062017)
3
country and will have acquired a diverse repertoire of linguistic competences on their
way while some will have been born on route and hold a different language of origin to
their parents13
In the context of these developments we must ask how relevant is the lsquomother tongue
plus tworsquo recommendation for those young people whose mother tongue is different from
the language of schooling
A progressively interconnected world
People have long exchanged ideas goods and capital across borders but accelerated
technological change has transformed the speed and nature of globalisation Today
economies societies and cultures around the world interconnect more than ever through
trade communication immigration and transportation Supply chains for goods and
services for example span across the globe and around half of the worldrsquos gross
domestic product (GDP) relates to trade In the 1970s this was only the case for 20 of
the GDP14
Information and data flows between countries have also increased exponentially Cross-
border bandwidth is now 45 times larger than in 2005 and digital platforms transform the
way business works across borders15 The increased interconnectedness implies that
many environmental health economic migration and security challenges are now
transnational by nature16 The countries and cultures we are connected with today go far
beyond our immediate neighbour countries
Faced with globalisation and the rise of new economic and political powers we must ask
if the purpose of language learning is to lsquoincrease mutual understanding and provide
access to different countries and culturesrsquo as well as to lsquocontribute to economic progress
and social cohesionrsquo And indeed if this is the case then which languages should be
taught in schools to best equip our children to thrive now and in their adult lives
Advancing language technologies
Traditionally not being able to read speak and understand a language often posed a
barrier to accessing other countries and cultures A wide range of knowledge information
and data was only available in the national language(s) Advances in language
technologies including speech recognition machine translation content analytics and
text to speech analysis now allow more people to understand and interact in languages
where they hold lower levels of proficiency Language technology has exponentially
improved access to both structured (eg text) and unstructured data (eg human
speech)17
We must ask what is the value of learning several languages when English is widely
spoken and translation becomes increasingly automated
13 Le Pichon E (2016) New patterns of migrant and society New needs for language teaching input paper
for thematic panel on rethinking literacies and language learning Brussels 11072016
14 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
15 McKinsey Global Institute (2016) Digital Globalisation The new era of global flows March 2016
16 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
17 See eg httpseceuropaeudigital-single-marketenprogramme-and-projectslanguage-technologies-
project-information and httpswwwgala-globalorglanguage-industrylanguage-technology (accessed
20062017)
4
Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe The linguistic landscape in Europe has always been diverse and complex Several
Member States have more than one official language or large populations of speakers of
minority languages while a number of Member States have large migrant populations
who speak a home language different from the official language(s) In this context the
terms lsquomother tonguersquo and lsquoforeign languagesrsquo become relative concepts and mean
different things for different people
This makes it difficult to map the state of language learning and competences across the
EU using traditional methods and concepts At a general level we can gain an overview
of the number of pupils with a home language different from the language of schooling
using data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
2015 and data on foreign language learning using Eurostat data
Learners with different home languages
According to data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA) 2015 an average of around one in ten (9) of 15-year old learners speak a
different language at home than the language of schooling across EU Member States18
There are large differences between Member States with very low shares of less than two
in one hundred in Hungary (18) and Poland (09)
Table 1 ndash Share of 15-year old learners who speak another language at home () 2015
Total Non- migrants
Migrants Total Non- migrants
Migrants
MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54
LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57
CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71
AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51
ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31
IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38
BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12
SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03
DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22
LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06
UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na
FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16
BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na
SK 77 77 00 PL 09 09 na Source Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Annex B17
18 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
PISA records home language(s) different from the test language rather than language of schooling
5
In some countries this linguistic diversity is primarily due to first or second
generation migrant learners Countries with significant shares of migrants with
different home languages include Austria (151) and Sweden (118) Other countries
display large shares of native learners with different home languages This includes Malta
(844) Cyprus (14) Spain (127) and Italy (117) These countries are all
characterised by having two or more official languages or specific regions with distinct
minority languages Luxemburg is a special case with three official state languages and a
very high proportion of first and second generation migrant children
Across EU Member States the languages spoken at home if different from the language
of schooling is most often Spanish Turkish or Russian The strong prevalence of Spanish
can partly be explained by the fact that large shares of Spanish speaking learners are
taught in schools where the main language of schooling is a regional language
(Valencian Galician or Basque) Learners who speak Turkish at home are primarily found
in schools where the language of schooling is Danish Dutch German Finnish or French
while most learners who speak Russian at home can be found in schools where the
language of schooling is Czech Estonian Finnish German Latvia Lithuanian or Polish19
Schools face the challenge of great language heterogeneity in the classroom Across the
EU 97 of learners are taught in schools where more than 25 of learners speak a
home language different from the language of schooling Highest shares of learners in
linguistically diverse schools exist in Austria Belgium Cyprus Germany Luxembourg
Malta Spain and Sweden20 While diversity increases there is also some evidence that
the segregation of natives and migrants into specific schools has increased in some
Member States21
Foreign language learning in European schools
In contemporary European schools learners start learning a first foreign language22 at an
earlier age than 10 years ago Overall 838 of primary school children learned at least
one foreign language in 2014 (figure 1) compared to only 673 in 200523 In most
countries compulsory foreign language learning starts between the age of 6 and 8
All or close to all primary school children study at least one foreign language in Austria
Croatia Cyprus France Italy Luxembourg Malta Poland and Spain This implies that
foreign language learning is introduced in the primary school curriculum at the entry-
level grade At the other end of the spectrum are Belgium (Flemish and French
community) Slovenia and Portugal where less than half of all primary school children
study foreign languages In most cases this implies that foreign language learning is
introduced into the curriculum in the higher primary school grades and at lower
secondary level In the case of the Flemish community in Belgium for example a first
19 All data ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition
Eurydice Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
20 ibid p 27
21 Brunello G De Paola M (2017) School Segregation of Immigrants and its effects on Educational
Outcomes in Europe EENEE Analytical Report No 30
22 lsquoForeign languagesrsquo are a relative concept which are defined differently across Member States and can
include modern foreign languages second and third languages and classical languages in some Member States
While this report uses the definition applied by each respective responsible education authority existing data
only provides an incomplete picture of the extent of language learning across the EU There is little comparative
evidence on actual linguistic competency of learners across Member States
23 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 11
6
foreign language is compulsory from the age of 10 only so that only the small group of
(older) children study languages at the primary level
Figure 1 ndash Share of primary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 no data for IE and UK
The vast majority of learners continue with foreign language learning throughout
compulsory education 988 study at least one foreign language at lower secondary
level and 597 study two foreign languages or more Not all learners maintain these
levels of language learning at upper secondary level with 858 of learners studying at
least one language at that level There are vast differences between Member States in
the extent to which language learning takes place at upper secondary level While all or
close to all learners at upper secondary level study at least one foreign language in
France Luxembourg Malta Romania Slovakia and Sweden less than half of learners do
so in the United Kingdom (figure 2)
Differences also exist between vocational and general educational tracks While
908 of learners in general upper secondary education study at least one foreign
language only 79 of learners in vocational tracks do24
Figure 2 - Share of secondary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 incomplete data for IE and UK
24 Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 (accessed 20062017)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
EU LU MT
CY
AT IT HR ES FR PL
SE SK RO
BG EL EE LV LT CZ FI DE
NL
HU DK
BE-
FR SI PT
BE-
FL
0
20
40
60
80
100
EU LU MT SE RO SK FR AT
BE-
FL CY FI IT BG LV HR PL SI CZ
HU LT EE EL NL
ES
BE-
FR PT
DE
DK
UK IE
lower secondary upper secondary
7
As the share of language learners has expanded overall there is a strong dominance of
English as the first ndash and often only - foreign language Studying two foreign
languages is compulsory for all learners in many Member States but not in all The
Member States where only one foreign language is compulsory for all learners include
Croatia Germany Ireland Belgium (French community) Hungary Spain Sweden and
the United Kingdom25 However in some of these countries learners are entitled to learn
two foreign languages if they so wish
In most countries English is the most studied foreign language followed by French and
German In Ireland and the United Kingdom French is most widely taught In
Luxembourg the two official State languages German and French are more widely taught
than English as are the different community languages in Belgium26
These statistics indicate a positive overall trend in access to languages from an early age
although the level of ambition for linguistic competency across Europe nonetheless falls
short of the Barcelona objective of two foreign languages
Rethinking language teaching Addressing todayrsquos societal economic and technological challenges requires re-thinking
the traditional way of teaching and learning languages both for monolingual and
multilingual learners There are a variety of good reasons for school systems and
practices to adapt to the increased diversity of European classrooms and effectively work
with multilingual learners Key concepts such lsquoliteracyrsquo lsquomultilingualismrsquo and lsquomother
tonguersquo will have to be reconceptualised to meet the new realities in European schools
Making the case for change
Young peoplersquos migration and linguistic backgrounds continue to be strong determinants
of their educational success OECD PISA data shows that there are vast achievement
gaps between the reading mathematics and science competences of learners with a
home language different from the language of schooling and those who speak the
language of schooling at home In some countries this achievement gap is equivalent to
15-2 years of schooling27 Low competence in literacy is especially problematic as it is a
foundation skill and pre-requisite for progress in other subject areas28
From an educational equity and inclusion perspective it is therefore essential to
ensure that all learners especially those with less competence in the language of
schooling are supported to develop literacy skills and provided with equal opportunities
to thrive alongside their peers This includes children with a migrant background
bilingual and multilingual learners but also monolingual lsquonativersquo learners with low levels
of literacy skills Effective multilingual teaching and learning has the potential to close the
achievement gap of migrant students compared to lsquonativersquo learners while enhancing the
cultural and civic education of all learners
25 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 30
26 ibid p 71
27 Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Paris OECD Publishing Annex B17
28 Council of Europe Language Policy Unit (2015) The Language dimension in all Subjects ndash A Handbook for
Curriculum Development and Teacher Training Council of Europe 2015
8
In addition to educational disadvantage it is not uncommon that migrant and
multilingual learners are discriminated against by pupils teachers or the school more
widely for not speaking the language of schooling correctly or using their home language
(the lsquowrong languagersquo) in the school context These learners are often encouraged to
supress a large part of their linguistic repertoire Educational practices can convey that
learnerrsquos home languages are low value29 and migrant and multilingual learners may face
closer scrutiny than their lsquonativersquo counterparts even when they master the language of
schooling30 From a human rights perspective the discrimination of learners based on
their language violates article 2 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
which specifies non-discrimination grounds including a childrsquos language31 These issues
must be addressed starting by the recognition that different languages form part of the
identity of multilingual learners and by enabling them to develop and maintain their
linguistic repertoire
Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire ie their
home language(s) language of schooling and any other language(s) they might speak
may have benefits beyond communication alone Several clinical studies have shown
positive effects of bi- and multilingualism including on metalinguistic awareness
cognitive control of behaviour attentional control and social cognition32 These health
benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth but also for
people who became bilingual later in life33 Evidence has also shown that positive effects
are sustained over the life-course34 and have been found to play a role in delaying the
onset of dementia35 It is important to note however that research on the cognitive
benefits of bilingualism is not conclusive and results seem to be context dependent36
The above issues show that there is a wide range of benefits of language learning As
regards the competence in languages the issue should not be lsquohow many languagesrsquo
one should learn but which language competences best correspond to each learnerrsquos
needs circumstances and interests An expanding language repertoire may spread from
the original nucleus of the language(s) spoken at home and the immediate social
environment to the language of schooling and the more academic languages with the
required levels of competence not necessarily being the same in every context This
requires a re-valuation of partial competence in multiple languages (or lsquoplurilingualismrsquo)
as a potential asset forming part of the individual learnersrsquo social cultural and linguistic
capital The challenge in this respect is perhaps one of assessment and validation in the
29 Mehmedbegovic D (2016) What every educator needs to know about cognitive benefits of bilingualism
Moving towards lsquolanguage hierarchy freersquo policy and practice Discussion Paper for the Thematic Panel on
languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27 September 2016
30 Kambel E-R (2016) The cost of doing nothing Educating language-minoritized students Discussion Paper
for Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27
September 2016
31 httpwwwohchrorgenprofessionalinterestpagescrcaspx For a link to the full document refer to UN
General Assembly (1989)
32 See eg Kovacs AM Mehler J (2009) Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106 (16)6556-6560 Bialystock E (1999) Cognitive complexity and attentional
control in the bilingual mind Child Development 70(3) 636-644
33 Vega-Mendoza M West H Sorace A Bak TH (2015) The impact of late non-balanced bilingualism
on cognitive performance Cognition 137 40-46
34 Kave G et al (2008) Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old Psychology and Ageing 23(1)
70-78
35 Alladi S Bak T et al (2013) Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia independent of education and
immigration status American Journal of Neurology 81 (22) 1938-44
36 Bak T (2016) Cooking pasta in La Paz Bilingualism bias and the replication crisis in Rothman J
Unsworth S (eds) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 65 John Benjamins Publishing Company p 655-717
9
context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to
formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the
timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning
Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress
across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different
levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the
ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing
number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple
languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people
may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of
competence
Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different
languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and
learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that
teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one
language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to
support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37
Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to
language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for
their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School
systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this
implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into
account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining
functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons
relevant to their own context
Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction
between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother
tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating
to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo
recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of
the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and
encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own
linguistic repertories are essential for their development
37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing
taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50
38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion
paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
Rethinking language education and linguistic
diversity in schools
Thematic report from a programme of expert
workshops and peer learning activities (2016-17)
Prepared by Anja Meierkord and Laurie Day (Ecorys UK)
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Directorate-General for Education Youth Sport and Culture
2017 EN
LEGAL NOTICE
This document has been prepared for the European Commission however it reflects the views only of the
authors and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information
contained therein
More information on the European Union is available on the Internet (httpwwweuropaeu)
Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union 2017
PDF ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0 doi 102766584023 NC-02-18-066-EN-N
copy European Union 2017
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged
Image(s) copy Shutterstock 2017 copy Ronald Bonss wwwronaldbonsscom (all other pictures)
EUROPE DIRECT is a service to help you find answers to your questions about the European Union
Freephone number () 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or
hotels may charge you)
0
Table of Contents
Table of Contents 0 Introduction 1 Context 2
Increasing diversity in European classrooms 2 A progressively interconnected world 3 Advancing language technologies 3
Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe 4 Learners with different home languages 4 Foreign language learning in European schools 5
Rethinking language teaching 7 Making the case for change 7 Rethinking key-concepts of language learning 9
New ways of teaching languages in schools 10 Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner 10 Supporting language learning throughout the education system 11 Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings 11 Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies 12 Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment 13 Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments for linguistic diversity 13
Conclusions 14
1
Introduction In 2006 the European Parliament and the Council adopted the Recommendations on Key
Competences for Lifelong Learning1 The framework sets out eight competences which
citizens need for lsquopersonal fulfilment and development active citizenship social inclusion
and employmentrsquo Language competences play a prominent role in the framework with
two key competences being defined as lsquocommunication in the mother tonguersquo and
lsquocommunication in foreign languagesrsquo
A decade later the European Commission (EC) is reviewing the Key Competence
Framework in the context of the New Skills Agenda for Europe2 With literacy and
mastery of the language of schooling providing the foundation for any further learning
the recommendations of the key competence framework warrant updating to reflect
todayrsquos realities They must address challenges and opportunities for language learning in
a progressively interdependent world technological change increased mobility and
diversity of populations
In this context the EC organised four Thematic Workshops on the subject of lsquorethinking
literacies and language learningrsquo3 These workshops brought together academics
European and national experts in the areas of multilingualism key competences and the
integration of migrants and representatives of the policy networks ELINET SIRIUS and
KeyCoNet4
This report summarises the results of these workshops and provides insights from the
wider research literature on language learning in Europe and beyond It encourages
policy makers and other stakeholders to lsquothink differentlyrsquo when it comes to language
education in schools and provides inspiration for how language teaching and assessment
could be designed in the future
The report is structured as follows
Chapter one provides an introduction to the report
Chapter two sets out the context for language learning in Europe including the
increasing linguistic diversity of the European school population globalisation and
technological change
Chapter three summarises key data on linguistic diversity and language education
in European schools today
Chapter four discusses ways to rethink language learning and challenges
traditional concepts such as literacy multilingualism and mother tongue
Chapter five provides an overview of practical new ways in which languages can
be taught in schools
1 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on key competences for lifelong learning
18122016 (2006962EC)
2 EC (2016) A new skills agenda for Europe Working together to strengthen human capital employability and
competitiveness COM (2016) 381 final
3 The workshops were complemented with two Peer Learning Activities (PLAs) which took place in Stockholm
and Dresden and explored topics relating to migrant education in further depth More information available on
the European Commissions page on school education for migrants
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
4 The European Literacy Policy Network (ELINET) the Policy Network on Migrant Education (SIRIUS) and the
Key Competence Network on School Education (KeyCoNet)
2
Chapter six summarises and draws conclusions
Context The European Union (EU) has long promoted language learning and linguistic diversity
across Europe with the view to increase mutual understanding and provide access to
other countries and cultures5 It sees the ability to communicate in a range of languages
as key to economic progress and social cohesion6 Following the Presidency Conclusions
from the European Councils meeting in Barcelona 2002 the EU has supported the
principle that every citizen should have the opportunity to learn at least two foreign
languages from a very early age This guideline is sometimes referred to as the simplified
concept mother tongue plus two which is also reflected in the 2006 European key
competence framework with the separation between mother tongue and foreign
languages7 Later policy papers have stressed the need to ensure that learners do not
lose touch with their language of origin8
Fifteen years on it is necessary to question if these definitions and recommendations are
still appropriate in the context of societal changes such as new migration globalisation
and economic and technological change
Increasing diversity in European classrooms
On 1 January 2016 351 million people who were born outside the EU lived in an EU
Member State An additional 207 million EU citizens lived in a Member State different to
their country of birth9 This diversity is increasing it is estimated that in 2015 24
million citizens of non-member countries moved to the EU while 14 million EU citizens
moved to a Member State different to the country where they hold citizenship10 This is
higher than the number of people emigrating from the EU in the same year More than
one in ten 15-year old learners in European schools are now first or second-generation
migrants11 As the population structure in Europe is becoming more diverse an
increasing number of young people in European school systems speak a different
language at home than in the classroom
Individuals have different reasons for migrating including work study and family
reasons In recent years in-flows to European Member States have also included large
numbers of asylum seekers In 2015 and 2016 alone more than 25 million people
applied for asylum in European Member States of which close to 550000 were children
under the age of 1412 These recent arrivals have more diverse countries of origins and
linguistic backgrounds than migrants from previous waves of migration Refugee
children for example have often stayed in several countries before arriving in their host
5 httpseceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualism_en (accessed 20062017)
6 EC (2017) Education and Training Monitor 2016 Luxembourg Publication Office of the European Union p
29
7 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on key competences for lifelong learning
18122016 (2006962EC)
8 See eg EC (2008) Multilingualism an asset for Europe and a shared commitment COM(2008)566 final
9 Eurostat indicator migr_pop3ctb (accessed 20062017) Luxembourg (452) Cyprus (204) Austria
(182) Sweden (17) and Ireland (169) display the largest shares of lsquoforeign bornrsquo of their overall
population
10 httpeceuropaeueurostatstatistics-explainedindexphpMigration_and_migrant_population_statistics
(accessed 20062017)
11 EC (2016) Pisa 2015 EU performance and initial conclusions regarding education policies in Europe
December 2016
12 Eurostat indicator migr_asyappctza (accessed 20062017)
3
country and will have acquired a diverse repertoire of linguistic competences on their
way while some will have been born on route and hold a different language of origin to
their parents13
In the context of these developments we must ask how relevant is the lsquomother tongue
plus tworsquo recommendation for those young people whose mother tongue is different from
the language of schooling
A progressively interconnected world
People have long exchanged ideas goods and capital across borders but accelerated
technological change has transformed the speed and nature of globalisation Today
economies societies and cultures around the world interconnect more than ever through
trade communication immigration and transportation Supply chains for goods and
services for example span across the globe and around half of the worldrsquos gross
domestic product (GDP) relates to trade In the 1970s this was only the case for 20 of
the GDP14
Information and data flows between countries have also increased exponentially Cross-
border bandwidth is now 45 times larger than in 2005 and digital platforms transform the
way business works across borders15 The increased interconnectedness implies that
many environmental health economic migration and security challenges are now
transnational by nature16 The countries and cultures we are connected with today go far
beyond our immediate neighbour countries
Faced with globalisation and the rise of new economic and political powers we must ask
if the purpose of language learning is to lsquoincrease mutual understanding and provide
access to different countries and culturesrsquo as well as to lsquocontribute to economic progress
and social cohesionrsquo And indeed if this is the case then which languages should be
taught in schools to best equip our children to thrive now and in their adult lives
Advancing language technologies
Traditionally not being able to read speak and understand a language often posed a
barrier to accessing other countries and cultures A wide range of knowledge information
and data was only available in the national language(s) Advances in language
technologies including speech recognition machine translation content analytics and
text to speech analysis now allow more people to understand and interact in languages
where they hold lower levels of proficiency Language technology has exponentially
improved access to both structured (eg text) and unstructured data (eg human
speech)17
We must ask what is the value of learning several languages when English is widely
spoken and translation becomes increasingly automated
13 Le Pichon E (2016) New patterns of migrant and society New needs for language teaching input paper
for thematic panel on rethinking literacies and language learning Brussels 11072016
14 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
15 McKinsey Global Institute (2016) Digital Globalisation The new era of global flows March 2016
16 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
17 See eg httpseceuropaeudigital-single-marketenprogramme-and-projectslanguage-technologies-
project-information and httpswwwgala-globalorglanguage-industrylanguage-technology (accessed
20062017)
4
Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe The linguistic landscape in Europe has always been diverse and complex Several
Member States have more than one official language or large populations of speakers of
minority languages while a number of Member States have large migrant populations
who speak a home language different from the official language(s) In this context the
terms lsquomother tonguersquo and lsquoforeign languagesrsquo become relative concepts and mean
different things for different people
This makes it difficult to map the state of language learning and competences across the
EU using traditional methods and concepts At a general level we can gain an overview
of the number of pupils with a home language different from the language of schooling
using data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
2015 and data on foreign language learning using Eurostat data
Learners with different home languages
According to data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA) 2015 an average of around one in ten (9) of 15-year old learners speak a
different language at home than the language of schooling across EU Member States18
There are large differences between Member States with very low shares of less than two
in one hundred in Hungary (18) and Poland (09)
Table 1 ndash Share of 15-year old learners who speak another language at home () 2015
Total Non- migrants
Migrants Total Non- migrants
Migrants
MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54
LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57
CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71
AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51
ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31
IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38
BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12
SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03
DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22
LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06
UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na
FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16
BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na
SK 77 77 00 PL 09 09 na Source Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Annex B17
18 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
PISA records home language(s) different from the test language rather than language of schooling
5
In some countries this linguistic diversity is primarily due to first or second
generation migrant learners Countries with significant shares of migrants with
different home languages include Austria (151) and Sweden (118) Other countries
display large shares of native learners with different home languages This includes Malta
(844) Cyprus (14) Spain (127) and Italy (117) These countries are all
characterised by having two or more official languages or specific regions with distinct
minority languages Luxemburg is a special case with three official state languages and a
very high proportion of first and second generation migrant children
Across EU Member States the languages spoken at home if different from the language
of schooling is most often Spanish Turkish or Russian The strong prevalence of Spanish
can partly be explained by the fact that large shares of Spanish speaking learners are
taught in schools where the main language of schooling is a regional language
(Valencian Galician or Basque) Learners who speak Turkish at home are primarily found
in schools where the language of schooling is Danish Dutch German Finnish or French
while most learners who speak Russian at home can be found in schools where the
language of schooling is Czech Estonian Finnish German Latvia Lithuanian or Polish19
Schools face the challenge of great language heterogeneity in the classroom Across the
EU 97 of learners are taught in schools where more than 25 of learners speak a
home language different from the language of schooling Highest shares of learners in
linguistically diverse schools exist in Austria Belgium Cyprus Germany Luxembourg
Malta Spain and Sweden20 While diversity increases there is also some evidence that
the segregation of natives and migrants into specific schools has increased in some
Member States21
Foreign language learning in European schools
In contemporary European schools learners start learning a first foreign language22 at an
earlier age than 10 years ago Overall 838 of primary school children learned at least
one foreign language in 2014 (figure 1) compared to only 673 in 200523 In most
countries compulsory foreign language learning starts between the age of 6 and 8
All or close to all primary school children study at least one foreign language in Austria
Croatia Cyprus France Italy Luxembourg Malta Poland and Spain This implies that
foreign language learning is introduced in the primary school curriculum at the entry-
level grade At the other end of the spectrum are Belgium (Flemish and French
community) Slovenia and Portugal where less than half of all primary school children
study foreign languages In most cases this implies that foreign language learning is
introduced into the curriculum in the higher primary school grades and at lower
secondary level In the case of the Flemish community in Belgium for example a first
19 All data ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition
Eurydice Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
20 ibid p 27
21 Brunello G De Paola M (2017) School Segregation of Immigrants and its effects on Educational
Outcomes in Europe EENEE Analytical Report No 30
22 lsquoForeign languagesrsquo are a relative concept which are defined differently across Member States and can
include modern foreign languages second and third languages and classical languages in some Member States
While this report uses the definition applied by each respective responsible education authority existing data
only provides an incomplete picture of the extent of language learning across the EU There is little comparative
evidence on actual linguistic competency of learners across Member States
23 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 11
6
foreign language is compulsory from the age of 10 only so that only the small group of
(older) children study languages at the primary level
Figure 1 ndash Share of primary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 no data for IE and UK
The vast majority of learners continue with foreign language learning throughout
compulsory education 988 study at least one foreign language at lower secondary
level and 597 study two foreign languages or more Not all learners maintain these
levels of language learning at upper secondary level with 858 of learners studying at
least one language at that level There are vast differences between Member States in
the extent to which language learning takes place at upper secondary level While all or
close to all learners at upper secondary level study at least one foreign language in
France Luxembourg Malta Romania Slovakia and Sweden less than half of learners do
so in the United Kingdom (figure 2)
Differences also exist between vocational and general educational tracks While
908 of learners in general upper secondary education study at least one foreign
language only 79 of learners in vocational tracks do24
Figure 2 - Share of secondary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 incomplete data for IE and UK
24 Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 (accessed 20062017)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
EU LU MT
CY
AT IT HR ES FR PL
SE SK RO
BG EL EE LV LT CZ FI DE
NL
HU DK
BE-
FR SI PT
BE-
FL
0
20
40
60
80
100
EU LU MT SE RO SK FR AT
BE-
FL CY FI IT BG LV HR PL SI CZ
HU LT EE EL NL
ES
BE-
FR PT
DE
DK
UK IE
lower secondary upper secondary
7
As the share of language learners has expanded overall there is a strong dominance of
English as the first ndash and often only - foreign language Studying two foreign
languages is compulsory for all learners in many Member States but not in all The
Member States where only one foreign language is compulsory for all learners include
Croatia Germany Ireland Belgium (French community) Hungary Spain Sweden and
the United Kingdom25 However in some of these countries learners are entitled to learn
two foreign languages if they so wish
In most countries English is the most studied foreign language followed by French and
German In Ireland and the United Kingdom French is most widely taught In
Luxembourg the two official State languages German and French are more widely taught
than English as are the different community languages in Belgium26
These statistics indicate a positive overall trend in access to languages from an early age
although the level of ambition for linguistic competency across Europe nonetheless falls
short of the Barcelona objective of two foreign languages
Rethinking language teaching Addressing todayrsquos societal economic and technological challenges requires re-thinking
the traditional way of teaching and learning languages both for monolingual and
multilingual learners There are a variety of good reasons for school systems and
practices to adapt to the increased diversity of European classrooms and effectively work
with multilingual learners Key concepts such lsquoliteracyrsquo lsquomultilingualismrsquo and lsquomother
tonguersquo will have to be reconceptualised to meet the new realities in European schools
Making the case for change
Young peoplersquos migration and linguistic backgrounds continue to be strong determinants
of their educational success OECD PISA data shows that there are vast achievement
gaps between the reading mathematics and science competences of learners with a
home language different from the language of schooling and those who speak the
language of schooling at home In some countries this achievement gap is equivalent to
15-2 years of schooling27 Low competence in literacy is especially problematic as it is a
foundation skill and pre-requisite for progress in other subject areas28
From an educational equity and inclusion perspective it is therefore essential to
ensure that all learners especially those with less competence in the language of
schooling are supported to develop literacy skills and provided with equal opportunities
to thrive alongside their peers This includes children with a migrant background
bilingual and multilingual learners but also monolingual lsquonativersquo learners with low levels
of literacy skills Effective multilingual teaching and learning has the potential to close the
achievement gap of migrant students compared to lsquonativersquo learners while enhancing the
cultural and civic education of all learners
25 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 30
26 ibid p 71
27 Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Paris OECD Publishing Annex B17
28 Council of Europe Language Policy Unit (2015) The Language dimension in all Subjects ndash A Handbook for
Curriculum Development and Teacher Training Council of Europe 2015
8
In addition to educational disadvantage it is not uncommon that migrant and
multilingual learners are discriminated against by pupils teachers or the school more
widely for not speaking the language of schooling correctly or using their home language
(the lsquowrong languagersquo) in the school context These learners are often encouraged to
supress a large part of their linguistic repertoire Educational practices can convey that
learnerrsquos home languages are low value29 and migrant and multilingual learners may face
closer scrutiny than their lsquonativersquo counterparts even when they master the language of
schooling30 From a human rights perspective the discrimination of learners based on
their language violates article 2 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
which specifies non-discrimination grounds including a childrsquos language31 These issues
must be addressed starting by the recognition that different languages form part of the
identity of multilingual learners and by enabling them to develop and maintain their
linguistic repertoire
Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire ie their
home language(s) language of schooling and any other language(s) they might speak
may have benefits beyond communication alone Several clinical studies have shown
positive effects of bi- and multilingualism including on metalinguistic awareness
cognitive control of behaviour attentional control and social cognition32 These health
benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth but also for
people who became bilingual later in life33 Evidence has also shown that positive effects
are sustained over the life-course34 and have been found to play a role in delaying the
onset of dementia35 It is important to note however that research on the cognitive
benefits of bilingualism is not conclusive and results seem to be context dependent36
The above issues show that there is a wide range of benefits of language learning As
regards the competence in languages the issue should not be lsquohow many languagesrsquo
one should learn but which language competences best correspond to each learnerrsquos
needs circumstances and interests An expanding language repertoire may spread from
the original nucleus of the language(s) spoken at home and the immediate social
environment to the language of schooling and the more academic languages with the
required levels of competence not necessarily being the same in every context This
requires a re-valuation of partial competence in multiple languages (or lsquoplurilingualismrsquo)
as a potential asset forming part of the individual learnersrsquo social cultural and linguistic
capital The challenge in this respect is perhaps one of assessment and validation in the
29 Mehmedbegovic D (2016) What every educator needs to know about cognitive benefits of bilingualism
Moving towards lsquolanguage hierarchy freersquo policy and practice Discussion Paper for the Thematic Panel on
languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27 September 2016
30 Kambel E-R (2016) The cost of doing nothing Educating language-minoritized students Discussion Paper
for Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27
September 2016
31 httpwwwohchrorgenprofessionalinterestpagescrcaspx For a link to the full document refer to UN
General Assembly (1989)
32 See eg Kovacs AM Mehler J (2009) Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106 (16)6556-6560 Bialystock E (1999) Cognitive complexity and attentional
control in the bilingual mind Child Development 70(3) 636-644
33 Vega-Mendoza M West H Sorace A Bak TH (2015) The impact of late non-balanced bilingualism
on cognitive performance Cognition 137 40-46
34 Kave G et al (2008) Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old Psychology and Ageing 23(1)
70-78
35 Alladi S Bak T et al (2013) Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia independent of education and
immigration status American Journal of Neurology 81 (22) 1938-44
36 Bak T (2016) Cooking pasta in La Paz Bilingualism bias and the replication crisis in Rothman J
Unsworth S (eds) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 65 John Benjamins Publishing Company p 655-717
9
context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to
formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the
timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning
Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress
across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different
levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the
ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing
number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple
languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people
may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of
competence
Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different
languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and
learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that
teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one
language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to
support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37
Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to
language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for
their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School
systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this
implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into
account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining
functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons
relevant to their own context
Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction
between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother
tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating
to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo
recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of
the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and
encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own
linguistic repertories are essential for their development
37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing
taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50
38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion
paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
LEGAL NOTICE
This document has been prepared for the European Commission however it reflects the views only of the
authors and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information
contained therein
More information on the European Union is available on the Internet (httpwwweuropaeu)
Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union 2017
PDF ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0 doi 102766584023 NC-02-18-066-EN-N
copy European Union 2017
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged
Image(s) copy Shutterstock 2017 copy Ronald Bonss wwwronaldbonsscom (all other pictures)
EUROPE DIRECT is a service to help you find answers to your questions about the European Union
Freephone number () 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or
hotels may charge you)
0
Table of Contents
Table of Contents 0 Introduction 1 Context 2
Increasing diversity in European classrooms 2 A progressively interconnected world 3 Advancing language technologies 3
Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe 4 Learners with different home languages 4 Foreign language learning in European schools 5
Rethinking language teaching 7 Making the case for change 7 Rethinking key-concepts of language learning 9
New ways of teaching languages in schools 10 Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner 10 Supporting language learning throughout the education system 11 Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings 11 Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies 12 Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment 13 Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments for linguistic diversity 13
Conclusions 14
1
Introduction In 2006 the European Parliament and the Council adopted the Recommendations on Key
Competences for Lifelong Learning1 The framework sets out eight competences which
citizens need for lsquopersonal fulfilment and development active citizenship social inclusion
and employmentrsquo Language competences play a prominent role in the framework with
two key competences being defined as lsquocommunication in the mother tonguersquo and
lsquocommunication in foreign languagesrsquo
A decade later the European Commission (EC) is reviewing the Key Competence
Framework in the context of the New Skills Agenda for Europe2 With literacy and
mastery of the language of schooling providing the foundation for any further learning
the recommendations of the key competence framework warrant updating to reflect
todayrsquos realities They must address challenges and opportunities for language learning in
a progressively interdependent world technological change increased mobility and
diversity of populations
In this context the EC organised four Thematic Workshops on the subject of lsquorethinking
literacies and language learningrsquo3 These workshops brought together academics
European and national experts in the areas of multilingualism key competences and the
integration of migrants and representatives of the policy networks ELINET SIRIUS and
KeyCoNet4
This report summarises the results of these workshops and provides insights from the
wider research literature on language learning in Europe and beyond It encourages
policy makers and other stakeholders to lsquothink differentlyrsquo when it comes to language
education in schools and provides inspiration for how language teaching and assessment
could be designed in the future
The report is structured as follows
Chapter one provides an introduction to the report
Chapter two sets out the context for language learning in Europe including the
increasing linguistic diversity of the European school population globalisation and
technological change
Chapter three summarises key data on linguistic diversity and language education
in European schools today
Chapter four discusses ways to rethink language learning and challenges
traditional concepts such as literacy multilingualism and mother tongue
Chapter five provides an overview of practical new ways in which languages can
be taught in schools
1 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on key competences for lifelong learning
18122016 (2006962EC)
2 EC (2016) A new skills agenda for Europe Working together to strengthen human capital employability and
competitiveness COM (2016) 381 final
3 The workshops were complemented with two Peer Learning Activities (PLAs) which took place in Stockholm
and Dresden and explored topics relating to migrant education in further depth More information available on
the European Commissions page on school education for migrants
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
4 The European Literacy Policy Network (ELINET) the Policy Network on Migrant Education (SIRIUS) and the
Key Competence Network on School Education (KeyCoNet)
2
Chapter six summarises and draws conclusions
Context The European Union (EU) has long promoted language learning and linguistic diversity
across Europe with the view to increase mutual understanding and provide access to
other countries and cultures5 It sees the ability to communicate in a range of languages
as key to economic progress and social cohesion6 Following the Presidency Conclusions
from the European Councils meeting in Barcelona 2002 the EU has supported the
principle that every citizen should have the opportunity to learn at least two foreign
languages from a very early age This guideline is sometimes referred to as the simplified
concept mother tongue plus two which is also reflected in the 2006 European key
competence framework with the separation between mother tongue and foreign
languages7 Later policy papers have stressed the need to ensure that learners do not
lose touch with their language of origin8
Fifteen years on it is necessary to question if these definitions and recommendations are
still appropriate in the context of societal changes such as new migration globalisation
and economic and technological change
Increasing diversity in European classrooms
On 1 January 2016 351 million people who were born outside the EU lived in an EU
Member State An additional 207 million EU citizens lived in a Member State different to
their country of birth9 This diversity is increasing it is estimated that in 2015 24
million citizens of non-member countries moved to the EU while 14 million EU citizens
moved to a Member State different to the country where they hold citizenship10 This is
higher than the number of people emigrating from the EU in the same year More than
one in ten 15-year old learners in European schools are now first or second-generation
migrants11 As the population structure in Europe is becoming more diverse an
increasing number of young people in European school systems speak a different
language at home than in the classroom
Individuals have different reasons for migrating including work study and family
reasons In recent years in-flows to European Member States have also included large
numbers of asylum seekers In 2015 and 2016 alone more than 25 million people
applied for asylum in European Member States of which close to 550000 were children
under the age of 1412 These recent arrivals have more diverse countries of origins and
linguistic backgrounds than migrants from previous waves of migration Refugee
children for example have often stayed in several countries before arriving in their host
5 httpseceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualism_en (accessed 20062017)
6 EC (2017) Education and Training Monitor 2016 Luxembourg Publication Office of the European Union p
29
7 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on key competences for lifelong learning
18122016 (2006962EC)
8 See eg EC (2008) Multilingualism an asset for Europe and a shared commitment COM(2008)566 final
9 Eurostat indicator migr_pop3ctb (accessed 20062017) Luxembourg (452) Cyprus (204) Austria
(182) Sweden (17) and Ireland (169) display the largest shares of lsquoforeign bornrsquo of their overall
population
10 httpeceuropaeueurostatstatistics-explainedindexphpMigration_and_migrant_population_statistics
(accessed 20062017)
11 EC (2016) Pisa 2015 EU performance and initial conclusions regarding education policies in Europe
December 2016
12 Eurostat indicator migr_asyappctza (accessed 20062017)
3
country and will have acquired a diverse repertoire of linguistic competences on their
way while some will have been born on route and hold a different language of origin to
their parents13
In the context of these developments we must ask how relevant is the lsquomother tongue
plus tworsquo recommendation for those young people whose mother tongue is different from
the language of schooling
A progressively interconnected world
People have long exchanged ideas goods and capital across borders but accelerated
technological change has transformed the speed and nature of globalisation Today
economies societies and cultures around the world interconnect more than ever through
trade communication immigration and transportation Supply chains for goods and
services for example span across the globe and around half of the worldrsquos gross
domestic product (GDP) relates to trade In the 1970s this was only the case for 20 of
the GDP14
Information and data flows between countries have also increased exponentially Cross-
border bandwidth is now 45 times larger than in 2005 and digital platforms transform the
way business works across borders15 The increased interconnectedness implies that
many environmental health economic migration and security challenges are now
transnational by nature16 The countries and cultures we are connected with today go far
beyond our immediate neighbour countries
Faced with globalisation and the rise of new economic and political powers we must ask
if the purpose of language learning is to lsquoincrease mutual understanding and provide
access to different countries and culturesrsquo as well as to lsquocontribute to economic progress
and social cohesionrsquo And indeed if this is the case then which languages should be
taught in schools to best equip our children to thrive now and in their adult lives
Advancing language technologies
Traditionally not being able to read speak and understand a language often posed a
barrier to accessing other countries and cultures A wide range of knowledge information
and data was only available in the national language(s) Advances in language
technologies including speech recognition machine translation content analytics and
text to speech analysis now allow more people to understand and interact in languages
where they hold lower levels of proficiency Language technology has exponentially
improved access to both structured (eg text) and unstructured data (eg human
speech)17
We must ask what is the value of learning several languages when English is widely
spoken and translation becomes increasingly automated
13 Le Pichon E (2016) New patterns of migrant and society New needs for language teaching input paper
for thematic panel on rethinking literacies and language learning Brussels 11072016
14 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
15 McKinsey Global Institute (2016) Digital Globalisation The new era of global flows March 2016
16 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
17 See eg httpseceuropaeudigital-single-marketenprogramme-and-projectslanguage-technologies-
project-information and httpswwwgala-globalorglanguage-industrylanguage-technology (accessed
20062017)
4
Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe The linguistic landscape in Europe has always been diverse and complex Several
Member States have more than one official language or large populations of speakers of
minority languages while a number of Member States have large migrant populations
who speak a home language different from the official language(s) In this context the
terms lsquomother tonguersquo and lsquoforeign languagesrsquo become relative concepts and mean
different things for different people
This makes it difficult to map the state of language learning and competences across the
EU using traditional methods and concepts At a general level we can gain an overview
of the number of pupils with a home language different from the language of schooling
using data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
2015 and data on foreign language learning using Eurostat data
Learners with different home languages
According to data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA) 2015 an average of around one in ten (9) of 15-year old learners speak a
different language at home than the language of schooling across EU Member States18
There are large differences between Member States with very low shares of less than two
in one hundred in Hungary (18) and Poland (09)
Table 1 ndash Share of 15-year old learners who speak another language at home () 2015
Total Non- migrants
Migrants Total Non- migrants
Migrants
MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54
LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57
CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71
AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51
ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31
IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38
BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12
SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03
DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22
LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06
UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na
FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16
BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na
SK 77 77 00 PL 09 09 na Source Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Annex B17
18 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
PISA records home language(s) different from the test language rather than language of schooling
5
In some countries this linguistic diversity is primarily due to first or second
generation migrant learners Countries with significant shares of migrants with
different home languages include Austria (151) and Sweden (118) Other countries
display large shares of native learners with different home languages This includes Malta
(844) Cyprus (14) Spain (127) and Italy (117) These countries are all
characterised by having two or more official languages or specific regions with distinct
minority languages Luxemburg is a special case with three official state languages and a
very high proportion of first and second generation migrant children
Across EU Member States the languages spoken at home if different from the language
of schooling is most often Spanish Turkish or Russian The strong prevalence of Spanish
can partly be explained by the fact that large shares of Spanish speaking learners are
taught in schools where the main language of schooling is a regional language
(Valencian Galician or Basque) Learners who speak Turkish at home are primarily found
in schools where the language of schooling is Danish Dutch German Finnish or French
while most learners who speak Russian at home can be found in schools where the
language of schooling is Czech Estonian Finnish German Latvia Lithuanian or Polish19
Schools face the challenge of great language heterogeneity in the classroom Across the
EU 97 of learners are taught in schools where more than 25 of learners speak a
home language different from the language of schooling Highest shares of learners in
linguistically diverse schools exist in Austria Belgium Cyprus Germany Luxembourg
Malta Spain and Sweden20 While diversity increases there is also some evidence that
the segregation of natives and migrants into specific schools has increased in some
Member States21
Foreign language learning in European schools
In contemporary European schools learners start learning a first foreign language22 at an
earlier age than 10 years ago Overall 838 of primary school children learned at least
one foreign language in 2014 (figure 1) compared to only 673 in 200523 In most
countries compulsory foreign language learning starts between the age of 6 and 8
All or close to all primary school children study at least one foreign language in Austria
Croatia Cyprus France Italy Luxembourg Malta Poland and Spain This implies that
foreign language learning is introduced in the primary school curriculum at the entry-
level grade At the other end of the spectrum are Belgium (Flemish and French
community) Slovenia and Portugal where less than half of all primary school children
study foreign languages In most cases this implies that foreign language learning is
introduced into the curriculum in the higher primary school grades and at lower
secondary level In the case of the Flemish community in Belgium for example a first
19 All data ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition
Eurydice Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
20 ibid p 27
21 Brunello G De Paola M (2017) School Segregation of Immigrants and its effects on Educational
Outcomes in Europe EENEE Analytical Report No 30
22 lsquoForeign languagesrsquo are a relative concept which are defined differently across Member States and can
include modern foreign languages second and third languages and classical languages in some Member States
While this report uses the definition applied by each respective responsible education authority existing data
only provides an incomplete picture of the extent of language learning across the EU There is little comparative
evidence on actual linguistic competency of learners across Member States
23 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 11
6
foreign language is compulsory from the age of 10 only so that only the small group of
(older) children study languages at the primary level
Figure 1 ndash Share of primary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 no data for IE and UK
The vast majority of learners continue with foreign language learning throughout
compulsory education 988 study at least one foreign language at lower secondary
level and 597 study two foreign languages or more Not all learners maintain these
levels of language learning at upper secondary level with 858 of learners studying at
least one language at that level There are vast differences between Member States in
the extent to which language learning takes place at upper secondary level While all or
close to all learners at upper secondary level study at least one foreign language in
France Luxembourg Malta Romania Slovakia and Sweden less than half of learners do
so in the United Kingdom (figure 2)
Differences also exist between vocational and general educational tracks While
908 of learners in general upper secondary education study at least one foreign
language only 79 of learners in vocational tracks do24
Figure 2 - Share of secondary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 incomplete data for IE and UK
24 Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 (accessed 20062017)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
EU LU MT
CY
AT IT HR ES FR PL
SE SK RO
BG EL EE LV LT CZ FI DE
NL
HU DK
BE-
FR SI PT
BE-
FL
0
20
40
60
80
100
EU LU MT SE RO SK FR AT
BE-
FL CY FI IT BG LV HR PL SI CZ
HU LT EE EL NL
ES
BE-
FR PT
DE
DK
UK IE
lower secondary upper secondary
7
As the share of language learners has expanded overall there is a strong dominance of
English as the first ndash and often only - foreign language Studying two foreign
languages is compulsory for all learners in many Member States but not in all The
Member States where only one foreign language is compulsory for all learners include
Croatia Germany Ireland Belgium (French community) Hungary Spain Sweden and
the United Kingdom25 However in some of these countries learners are entitled to learn
two foreign languages if they so wish
In most countries English is the most studied foreign language followed by French and
German In Ireland and the United Kingdom French is most widely taught In
Luxembourg the two official State languages German and French are more widely taught
than English as are the different community languages in Belgium26
These statistics indicate a positive overall trend in access to languages from an early age
although the level of ambition for linguistic competency across Europe nonetheless falls
short of the Barcelona objective of two foreign languages
Rethinking language teaching Addressing todayrsquos societal economic and technological challenges requires re-thinking
the traditional way of teaching and learning languages both for monolingual and
multilingual learners There are a variety of good reasons for school systems and
practices to adapt to the increased diversity of European classrooms and effectively work
with multilingual learners Key concepts such lsquoliteracyrsquo lsquomultilingualismrsquo and lsquomother
tonguersquo will have to be reconceptualised to meet the new realities in European schools
Making the case for change
Young peoplersquos migration and linguistic backgrounds continue to be strong determinants
of their educational success OECD PISA data shows that there are vast achievement
gaps between the reading mathematics and science competences of learners with a
home language different from the language of schooling and those who speak the
language of schooling at home In some countries this achievement gap is equivalent to
15-2 years of schooling27 Low competence in literacy is especially problematic as it is a
foundation skill and pre-requisite for progress in other subject areas28
From an educational equity and inclusion perspective it is therefore essential to
ensure that all learners especially those with less competence in the language of
schooling are supported to develop literacy skills and provided with equal opportunities
to thrive alongside their peers This includes children with a migrant background
bilingual and multilingual learners but also monolingual lsquonativersquo learners with low levels
of literacy skills Effective multilingual teaching and learning has the potential to close the
achievement gap of migrant students compared to lsquonativersquo learners while enhancing the
cultural and civic education of all learners
25 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 30
26 ibid p 71
27 Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Paris OECD Publishing Annex B17
28 Council of Europe Language Policy Unit (2015) The Language dimension in all Subjects ndash A Handbook for
Curriculum Development and Teacher Training Council of Europe 2015
8
In addition to educational disadvantage it is not uncommon that migrant and
multilingual learners are discriminated against by pupils teachers or the school more
widely for not speaking the language of schooling correctly or using their home language
(the lsquowrong languagersquo) in the school context These learners are often encouraged to
supress a large part of their linguistic repertoire Educational practices can convey that
learnerrsquos home languages are low value29 and migrant and multilingual learners may face
closer scrutiny than their lsquonativersquo counterparts even when they master the language of
schooling30 From a human rights perspective the discrimination of learners based on
their language violates article 2 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
which specifies non-discrimination grounds including a childrsquos language31 These issues
must be addressed starting by the recognition that different languages form part of the
identity of multilingual learners and by enabling them to develop and maintain their
linguistic repertoire
Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire ie their
home language(s) language of schooling and any other language(s) they might speak
may have benefits beyond communication alone Several clinical studies have shown
positive effects of bi- and multilingualism including on metalinguistic awareness
cognitive control of behaviour attentional control and social cognition32 These health
benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth but also for
people who became bilingual later in life33 Evidence has also shown that positive effects
are sustained over the life-course34 and have been found to play a role in delaying the
onset of dementia35 It is important to note however that research on the cognitive
benefits of bilingualism is not conclusive and results seem to be context dependent36
The above issues show that there is a wide range of benefits of language learning As
regards the competence in languages the issue should not be lsquohow many languagesrsquo
one should learn but which language competences best correspond to each learnerrsquos
needs circumstances and interests An expanding language repertoire may spread from
the original nucleus of the language(s) spoken at home and the immediate social
environment to the language of schooling and the more academic languages with the
required levels of competence not necessarily being the same in every context This
requires a re-valuation of partial competence in multiple languages (or lsquoplurilingualismrsquo)
as a potential asset forming part of the individual learnersrsquo social cultural and linguistic
capital The challenge in this respect is perhaps one of assessment and validation in the
29 Mehmedbegovic D (2016) What every educator needs to know about cognitive benefits of bilingualism
Moving towards lsquolanguage hierarchy freersquo policy and practice Discussion Paper for the Thematic Panel on
languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27 September 2016
30 Kambel E-R (2016) The cost of doing nothing Educating language-minoritized students Discussion Paper
for Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27
September 2016
31 httpwwwohchrorgenprofessionalinterestpagescrcaspx For a link to the full document refer to UN
General Assembly (1989)
32 See eg Kovacs AM Mehler J (2009) Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106 (16)6556-6560 Bialystock E (1999) Cognitive complexity and attentional
control in the bilingual mind Child Development 70(3) 636-644
33 Vega-Mendoza M West H Sorace A Bak TH (2015) The impact of late non-balanced bilingualism
on cognitive performance Cognition 137 40-46
34 Kave G et al (2008) Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old Psychology and Ageing 23(1)
70-78
35 Alladi S Bak T et al (2013) Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia independent of education and
immigration status American Journal of Neurology 81 (22) 1938-44
36 Bak T (2016) Cooking pasta in La Paz Bilingualism bias and the replication crisis in Rothman J
Unsworth S (eds) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 65 John Benjamins Publishing Company p 655-717
9
context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to
formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the
timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning
Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress
across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different
levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the
ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing
number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple
languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people
may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of
competence
Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different
languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and
learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that
teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one
language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to
support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37
Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to
language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for
their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School
systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this
implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into
account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining
functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons
relevant to their own context
Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction
between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother
tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating
to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo
recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of
the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and
encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own
linguistic repertories are essential for their development
37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing
taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50
38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion
paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
0
Table of Contents
Table of Contents 0 Introduction 1 Context 2
Increasing diversity in European classrooms 2 A progressively interconnected world 3 Advancing language technologies 3
Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe 4 Learners with different home languages 4 Foreign language learning in European schools 5
Rethinking language teaching 7 Making the case for change 7 Rethinking key-concepts of language learning 9
New ways of teaching languages in schools 10 Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner 10 Supporting language learning throughout the education system 11 Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings 11 Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies 12 Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment 13 Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments for linguistic diversity 13
Conclusions 14
1
Introduction In 2006 the European Parliament and the Council adopted the Recommendations on Key
Competences for Lifelong Learning1 The framework sets out eight competences which
citizens need for lsquopersonal fulfilment and development active citizenship social inclusion
and employmentrsquo Language competences play a prominent role in the framework with
two key competences being defined as lsquocommunication in the mother tonguersquo and
lsquocommunication in foreign languagesrsquo
A decade later the European Commission (EC) is reviewing the Key Competence
Framework in the context of the New Skills Agenda for Europe2 With literacy and
mastery of the language of schooling providing the foundation for any further learning
the recommendations of the key competence framework warrant updating to reflect
todayrsquos realities They must address challenges and opportunities for language learning in
a progressively interdependent world technological change increased mobility and
diversity of populations
In this context the EC organised four Thematic Workshops on the subject of lsquorethinking
literacies and language learningrsquo3 These workshops brought together academics
European and national experts in the areas of multilingualism key competences and the
integration of migrants and representatives of the policy networks ELINET SIRIUS and
KeyCoNet4
This report summarises the results of these workshops and provides insights from the
wider research literature on language learning in Europe and beyond It encourages
policy makers and other stakeholders to lsquothink differentlyrsquo when it comes to language
education in schools and provides inspiration for how language teaching and assessment
could be designed in the future
The report is structured as follows
Chapter one provides an introduction to the report
Chapter two sets out the context for language learning in Europe including the
increasing linguistic diversity of the European school population globalisation and
technological change
Chapter three summarises key data on linguistic diversity and language education
in European schools today
Chapter four discusses ways to rethink language learning and challenges
traditional concepts such as literacy multilingualism and mother tongue
Chapter five provides an overview of practical new ways in which languages can
be taught in schools
1 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on key competences for lifelong learning
18122016 (2006962EC)
2 EC (2016) A new skills agenda for Europe Working together to strengthen human capital employability and
competitiveness COM (2016) 381 final
3 The workshops were complemented with two Peer Learning Activities (PLAs) which took place in Stockholm
and Dresden and explored topics relating to migrant education in further depth More information available on
the European Commissions page on school education for migrants
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
4 The European Literacy Policy Network (ELINET) the Policy Network on Migrant Education (SIRIUS) and the
Key Competence Network on School Education (KeyCoNet)
2
Chapter six summarises and draws conclusions
Context The European Union (EU) has long promoted language learning and linguistic diversity
across Europe with the view to increase mutual understanding and provide access to
other countries and cultures5 It sees the ability to communicate in a range of languages
as key to economic progress and social cohesion6 Following the Presidency Conclusions
from the European Councils meeting in Barcelona 2002 the EU has supported the
principle that every citizen should have the opportunity to learn at least two foreign
languages from a very early age This guideline is sometimes referred to as the simplified
concept mother tongue plus two which is also reflected in the 2006 European key
competence framework with the separation between mother tongue and foreign
languages7 Later policy papers have stressed the need to ensure that learners do not
lose touch with their language of origin8
Fifteen years on it is necessary to question if these definitions and recommendations are
still appropriate in the context of societal changes such as new migration globalisation
and economic and technological change
Increasing diversity in European classrooms
On 1 January 2016 351 million people who were born outside the EU lived in an EU
Member State An additional 207 million EU citizens lived in a Member State different to
their country of birth9 This diversity is increasing it is estimated that in 2015 24
million citizens of non-member countries moved to the EU while 14 million EU citizens
moved to a Member State different to the country where they hold citizenship10 This is
higher than the number of people emigrating from the EU in the same year More than
one in ten 15-year old learners in European schools are now first or second-generation
migrants11 As the population structure in Europe is becoming more diverse an
increasing number of young people in European school systems speak a different
language at home than in the classroom
Individuals have different reasons for migrating including work study and family
reasons In recent years in-flows to European Member States have also included large
numbers of asylum seekers In 2015 and 2016 alone more than 25 million people
applied for asylum in European Member States of which close to 550000 were children
under the age of 1412 These recent arrivals have more diverse countries of origins and
linguistic backgrounds than migrants from previous waves of migration Refugee
children for example have often stayed in several countries before arriving in their host
5 httpseceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualism_en (accessed 20062017)
6 EC (2017) Education and Training Monitor 2016 Luxembourg Publication Office of the European Union p
29
7 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on key competences for lifelong learning
18122016 (2006962EC)
8 See eg EC (2008) Multilingualism an asset for Europe and a shared commitment COM(2008)566 final
9 Eurostat indicator migr_pop3ctb (accessed 20062017) Luxembourg (452) Cyprus (204) Austria
(182) Sweden (17) and Ireland (169) display the largest shares of lsquoforeign bornrsquo of their overall
population
10 httpeceuropaeueurostatstatistics-explainedindexphpMigration_and_migrant_population_statistics
(accessed 20062017)
11 EC (2016) Pisa 2015 EU performance and initial conclusions regarding education policies in Europe
December 2016
12 Eurostat indicator migr_asyappctza (accessed 20062017)
3
country and will have acquired a diverse repertoire of linguistic competences on their
way while some will have been born on route and hold a different language of origin to
their parents13
In the context of these developments we must ask how relevant is the lsquomother tongue
plus tworsquo recommendation for those young people whose mother tongue is different from
the language of schooling
A progressively interconnected world
People have long exchanged ideas goods and capital across borders but accelerated
technological change has transformed the speed and nature of globalisation Today
economies societies and cultures around the world interconnect more than ever through
trade communication immigration and transportation Supply chains for goods and
services for example span across the globe and around half of the worldrsquos gross
domestic product (GDP) relates to trade In the 1970s this was only the case for 20 of
the GDP14
Information and data flows between countries have also increased exponentially Cross-
border bandwidth is now 45 times larger than in 2005 and digital platforms transform the
way business works across borders15 The increased interconnectedness implies that
many environmental health economic migration and security challenges are now
transnational by nature16 The countries and cultures we are connected with today go far
beyond our immediate neighbour countries
Faced with globalisation and the rise of new economic and political powers we must ask
if the purpose of language learning is to lsquoincrease mutual understanding and provide
access to different countries and culturesrsquo as well as to lsquocontribute to economic progress
and social cohesionrsquo And indeed if this is the case then which languages should be
taught in schools to best equip our children to thrive now and in their adult lives
Advancing language technologies
Traditionally not being able to read speak and understand a language often posed a
barrier to accessing other countries and cultures A wide range of knowledge information
and data was only available in the national language(s) Advances in language
technologies including speech recognition machine translation content analytics and
text to speech analysis now allow more people to understand and interact in languages
where they hold lower levels of proficiency Language technology has exponentially
improved access to both structured (eg text) and unstructured data (eg human
speech)17
We must ask what is the value of learning several languages when English is widely
spoken and translation becomes increasingly automated
13 Le Pichon E (2016) New patterns of migrant and society New needs for language teaching input paper
for thematic panel on rethinking literacies and language learning Brussels 11072016
14 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
15 McKinsey Global Institute (2016) Digital Globalisation The new era of global flows March 2016
16 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
17 See eg httpseceuropaeudigital-single-marketenprogramme-and-projectslanguage-technologies-
project-information and httpswwwgala-globalorglanguage-industrylanguage-technology (accessed
20062017)
4
Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe The linguistic landscape in Europe has always been diverse and complex Several
Member States have more than one official language or large populations of speakers of
minority languages while a number of Member States have large migrant populations
who speak a home language different from the official language(s) In this context the
terms lsquomother tonguersquo and lsquoforeign languagesrsquo become relative concepts and mean
different things for different people
This makes it difficult to map the state of language learning and competences across the
EU using traditional methods and concepts At a general level we can gain an overview
of the number of pupils with a home language different from the language of schooling
using data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
2015 and data on foreign language learning using Eurostat data
Learners with different home languages
According to data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA) 2015 an average of around one in ten (9) of 15-year old learners speak a
different language at home than the language of schooling across EU Member States18
There are large differences between Member States with very low shares of less than two
in one hundred in Hungary (18) and Poland (09)
Table 1 ndash Share of 15-year old learners who speak another language at home () 2015
Total Non- migrants
Migrants Total Non- migrants
Migrants
MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54
LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57
CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71
AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51
ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31
IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38
BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12
SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03
DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22
LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06
UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na
FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16
BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na
SK 77 77 00 PL 09 09 na Source Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Annex B17
18 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
PISA records home language(s) different from the test language rather than language of schooling
5
In some countries this linguistic diversity is primarily due to first or second
generation migrant learners Countries with significant shares of migrants with
different home languages include Austria (151) and Sweden (118) Other countries
display large shares of native learners with different home languages This includes Malta
(844) Cyprus (14) Spain (127) and Italy (117) These countries are all
characterised by having two or more official languages or specific regions with distinct
minority languages Luxemburg is a special case with three official state languages and a
very high proportion of first and second generation migrant children
Across EU Member States the languages spoken at home if different from the language
of schooling is most often Spanish Turkish or Russian The strong prevalence of Spanish
can partly be explained by the fact that large shares of Spanish speaking learners are
taught in schools where the main language of schooling is a regional language
(Valencian Galician or Basque) Learners who speak Turkish at home are primarily found
in schools where the language of schooling is Danish Dutch German Finnish or French
while most learners who speak Russian at home can be found in schools where the
language of schooling is Czech Estonian Finnish German Latvia Lithuanian or Polish19
Schools face the challenge of great language heterogeneity in the classroom Across the
EU 97 of learners are taught in schools where more than 25 of learners speak a
home language different from the language of schooling Highest shares of learners in
linguistically diverse schools exist in Austria Belgium Cyprus Germany Luxembourg
Malta Spain and Sweden20 While diversity increases there is also some evidence that
the segregation of natives and migrants into specific schools has increased in some
Member States21
Foreign language learning in European schools
In contemporary European schools learners start learning a first foreign language22 at an
earlier age than 10 years ago Overall 838 of primary school children learned at least
one foreign language in 2014 (figure 1) compared to only 673 in 200523 In most
countries compulsory foreign language learning starts between the age of 6 and 8
All or close to all primary school children study at least one foreign language in Austria
Croatia Cyprus France Italy Luxembourg Malta Poland and Spain This implies that
foreign language learning is introduced in the primary school curriculum at the entry-
level grade At the other end of the spectrum are Belgium (Flemish and French
community) Slovenia and Portugal where less than half of all primary school children
study foreign languages In most cases this implies that foreign language learning is
introduced into the curriculum in the higher primary school grades and at lower
secondary level In the case of the Flemish community in Belgium for example a first
19 All data ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition
Eurydice Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
20 ibid p 27
21 Brunello G De Paola M (2017) School Segregation of Immigrants and its effects on Educational
Outcomes in Europe EENEE Analytical Report No 30
22 lsquoForeign languagesrsquo are a relative concept which are defined differently across Member States and can
include modern foreign languages second and third languages and classical languages in some Member States
While this report uses the definition applied by each respective responsible education authority existing data
only provides an incomplete picture of the extent of language learning across the EU There is little comparative
evidence on actual linguistic competency of learners across Member States
23 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 11
6
foreign language is compulsory from the age of 10 only so that only the small group of
(older) children study languages at the primary level
Figure 1 ndash Share of primary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 no data for IE and UK
The vast majority of learners continue with foreign language learning throughout
compulsory education 988 study at least one foreign language at lower secondary
level and 597 study two foreign languages or more Not all learners maintain these
levels of language learning at upper secondary level with 858 of learners studying at
least one language at that level There are vast differences between Member States in
the extent to which language learning takes place at upper secondary level While all or
close to all learners at upper secondary level study at least one foreign language in
France Luxembourg Malta Romania Slovakia and Sweden less than half of learners do
so in the United Kingdom (figure 2)
Differences also exist between vocational and general educational tracks While
908 of learners in general upper secondary education study at least one foreign
language only 79 of learners in vocational tracks do24
Figure 2 - Share of secondary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 incomplete data for IE and UK
24 Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 (accessed 20062017)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
EU LU MT
CY
AT IT HR ES FR PL
SE SK RO
BG EL EE LV LT CZ FI DE
NL
HU DK
BE-
FR SI PT
BE-
FL
0
20
40
60
80
100
EU LU MT SE RO SK FR AT
BE-
FL CY FI IT BG LV HR PL SI CZ
HU LT EE EL NL
ES
BE-
FR PT
DE
DK
UK IE
lower secondary upper secondary
7
As the share of language learners has expanded overall there is a strong dominance of
English as the first ndash and often only - foreign language Studying two foreign
languages is compulsory for all learners in many Member States but not in all The
Member States where only one foreign language is compulsory for all learners include
Croatia Germany Ireland Belgium (French community) Hungary Spain Sweden and
the United Kingdom25 However in some of these countries learners are entitled to learn
two foreign languages if they so wish
In most countries English is the most studied foreign language followed by French and
German In Ireland and the United Kingdom French is most widely taught In
Luxembourg the two official State languages German and French are more widely taught
than English as are the different community languages in Belgium26
These statistics indicate a positive overall trend in access to languages from an early age
although the level of ambition for linguistic competency across Europe nonetheless falls
short of the Barcelona objective of two foreign languages
Rethinking language teaching Addressing todayrsquos societal economic and technological challenges requires re-thinking
the traditional way of teaching and learning languages both for monolingual and
multilingual learners There are a variety of good reasons for school systems and
practices to adapt to the increased diversity of European classrooms and effectively work
with multilingual learners Key concepts such lsquoliteracyrsquo lsquomultilingualismrsquo and lsquomother
tonguersquo will have to be reconceptualised to meet the new realities in European schools
Making the case for change
Young peoplersquos migration and linguistic backgrounds continue to be strong determinants
of their educational success OECD PISA data shows that there are vast achievement
gaps between the reading mathematics and science competences of learners with a
home language different from the language of schooling and those who speak the
language of schooling at home In some countries this achievement gap is equivalent to
15-2 years of schooling27 Low competence in literacy is especially problematic as it is a
foundation skill and pre-requisite for progress in other subject areas28
From an educational equity and inclusion perspective it is therefore essential to
ensure that all learners especially those with less competence in the language of
schooling are supported to develop literacy skills and provided with equal opportunities
to thrive alongside their peers This includes children with a migrant background
bilingual and multilingual learners but also monolingual lsquonativersquo learners with low levels
of literacy skills Effective multilingual teaching and learning has the potential to close the
achievement gap of migrant students compared to lsquonativersquo learners while enhancing the
cultural and civic education of all learners
25 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 30
26 ibid p 71
27 Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Paris OECD Publishing Annex B17
28 Council of Europe Language Policy Unit (2015) The Language dimension in all Subjects ndash A Handbook for
Curriculum Development and Teacher Training Council of Europe 2015
8
In addition to educational disadvantage it is not uncommon that migrant and
multilingual learners are discriminated against by pupils teachers or the school more
widely for not speaking the language of schooling correctly or using their home language
(the lsquowrong languagersquo) in the school context These learners are often encouraged to
supress a large part of their linguistic repertoire Educational practices can convey that
learnerrsquos home languages are low value29 and migrant and multilingual learners may face
closer scrutiny than their lsquonativersquo counterparts even when they master the language of
schooling30 From a human rights perspective the discrimination of learners based on
their language violates article 2 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
which specifies non-discrimination grounds including a childrsquos language31 These issues
must be addressed starting by the recognition that different languages form part of the
identity of multilingual learners and by enabling them to develop and maintain their
linguistic repertoire
Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire ie their
home language(s) language of schooling and any other language(s) they might speak
may have benefits beyond communication alone Several clinical studies have shown
positive effects of bi- and multilingualism including on metalinguistic awareness
cognitive control of behaviour attentional control and social cognition32 These health
benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth but also for
people who became bilingual later in life33 Evidence has also shown that positive effects
are sustained over the life-course34 and have been found to play a role in delaying the
onset of dementia35 It is important to note however that research on the cognitive
benefits of bilingualism is not conclusive and results seem to be context dependent36
The above issues show that there is a wide range of benefits of language learning As
regards the competence in languages the issue should not be lsquohow many languagesrsquo
one should learn but which language competences best correspond to each learnerrsquos
needs circumstances and interests An expanding language repertoire may spread from
the original nucleus of the language(s) spoken at home and the immediate social
environment to the language of schooling and the more academic languages with the
required levels of competence not necessarily being the same in every context This
requires a re-valuation of partial competence in multiple languages (or lsquoplurilingualismrsquo)
as a potential asset forming part of the individual learnersrsquo social cultural and linguistic
capital The challenge in this respect is perhaps one of assessment and validation in the
29 Mehmedbegovic D (2016) What every educator needs to know about cognitive benefits of bilingualism
Moving towards lsquolanguage hierarchy freersquo policy and practice Discussion Paper for the Thematic Panel on
languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27 September 2016
30 Kambel E-R (2016) The cost of doing nothing Educating language-minoritized students Discussion Paper
for Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27
September 2016
31 httpwwwohchrorgenprofessionalinterestpagescrcaspx For a link to the full document refer to UN
General Assembly (1989)
32 See eg Kovacs AM Mehler J (2009) Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106 (16)6556-6560 Bialystock E (1999) Cognitive complexity and attentional
control in the bilingual mind Child Development 70(3) 636-644
33 Vega-Mendoza M West H Sorace A Bak TH (2015) The impact of late non-balanced bilingualism
on cognitive performance Cognition 137 40-46
34 Kave G et al (2008) Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old Psychology and Ageing 23(1)
70-78
35 Alladi S Bak T et al (2013) Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia independent of education and
immigration status American Journal of Neurology 81 (22) 1938-44
36 Bak T (2016) Cooking pasta in La Paz Bilingualism bias and the replication crisis in Rothman J
Unsworth S (eds) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 65 John Benjamins Publishing Company p 655-717
9
context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to
formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the
timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning
Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress
across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different
levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the
ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing
number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple
languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people
may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of
competence
Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different
languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and
learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that
teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one
language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to
support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37
Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to
language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for
their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School
systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this
implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into
account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining
functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons
relevant to their own context
Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction
between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother
tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating
to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo
recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of
the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and
encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own
linguistic repertories are essential for their development
37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing
taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50
38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion
paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
1
Introduction In 2006 the European Parliament and the Council adopted the Recommendations on Key
Competences for Lifelong Learning1 The framework sets out eight competences which
citizens need for lsquopersonal fulfilment and development active citizenship social inclusion
and employmentrsquo Language competences play a prominent role in the framework with
two key competences being defined as lsquocommunication in the mother tonguersquo and
lsquocommunication in foreign languagesrsquo
A decade later the European Commission (EC) is reviewing the Key Competence
Framework in the context of the New Skills Agenda for Europe2 With literacy and
mastery of the language of schooling providing the foundation for any further learning
the recommendations of the key competence framework warrant updating to reflect
todayrsquos realities They must address challenges and opportunities for language learning in
a progressively interdependent world technological change increased mobility and
diversity of populations
In this context the EC organised four Thematic Workshops on the subject of lsquorethinking
literacies and language learningrsquo3 These workshops brought together academics
European and national experts in the areas of multilingualism key competences and the
integration of migrants and representatives of the policy networks ELINET SIRIUS and
KeyCoNet4
This report summarises the results of these workshops and provides insights from the
wider research literature on language learning in Europe and beyond It encourages
policy makers and other stakeholders to lsquothink differentlyrsquo when it comes to language
education in schools and provides inspiration for how language teaching and assessment
could be designed in the future
The report is structured as follows
Chapter one provides an introduction to the report
Chapter two sets out the context for language learning in Europe including the
increasing linguistic diversity of the European school population globalisation and
technological change
Chapter three summarises key data on linguistic diversity and language education
in European schools today
Chapter four discusses ways to rethink language learning and challenges
traditional concepts such as literacy multilingualism and mother tongue
Chapter five provides an overview of practical new ways in which languages can
be taught in schools
1 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on key competences for lifelong learning
18122016 (2006962EC)
2 EC (2016) A new skills agenda for Europe Working together to strengthen human capital employability and
competitiveness COM (2016) 381 final
3 The workshops were complemented with two Peer Learning Activities (PLAs) which took place in Stockholm
and Dresden and explored topics relating to migrant education in further depth More information available on
the European Commissions page on school education for migrants
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
4 The European Literacy Policy Network (ELINET) the Policy Network on Migrant Education (SIRIUS) and the
Key Competence Network on School Education (KeyCoNet)
2
Chapter six summarises and draws conclusions
Context The European Union (EU) has long promoted language learning and linguistic diversity
across Europe with the view to increase mutual understanding and provide access to
other countries and cultures5 It sees the ability to communicate in a range of languages
as key to economic progress and social cohesion6 Following the Presidency Conclusions
from the European Councils meeting in Barcelona 2002 the EU has supported the
principle that every citizen should have the opportunity to learn at least two foreign
languages from a very early age This guideline is sometimes referred to as the simplified
concept mother tongue plus two which is also reflected in the 2006 European key
competence framework with the separation between mother tongue and foreign
languages7 Later policy papers have stressed the need to ensure that learners do not
lose touch with their language of origin8
Fifteen years on it is necessary to question if these definitions and recommendations are
still appropriate in the context of societal changes such as new migration globalisation
and economic and technological change
Increasing diversity in European classrooms
On 1 January 2016 351 million people who were born outside the EU lived in an EU
Member State An additional 207 million EU citizens lived in a Member State different to
their country of birth9 This diversity is increasing it is estimated that in 2015 24
million citizens of non-member countries moved to the EU while 14 million EU citizens
moved to a Member State different to the country where they hold citizenship10 This is
higher than the number of people emigrating from the EU in the same year More than
one in ten 15-year old learners in European schools are now first or second-generation
migrants11 As the population structure in Europe is becoming more diverse an
increasing number of young people in European school systems speak a different
language at home than in the classroom
Individuals have different reasons for migrating including work study and family
reasons In recent years in-flows to European Member States have also included large
numbers of asylum seekers In 2015 and 2016 alone more than 25 million people
applied for asylum in European Member States of which close to 550000 were children
under the age of 1412 These recent arrivals have more diverse countries of origins and
linguistic backgrounds than migrants from previous waves of migration Refugee
children for example have often stayed in several countries before arriving in their host
5 httpseceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualism_en (accessed 20062017)
6 EC (2017) Education and Training Monitor 2016 Luxembourg Publication Office of the European Union p
29
7 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on key competences for lifelong learning
18122016 (2006962EC)
8 See eg EC (2008) Multilingualism an asset for Europe and a shared commitment COM(2008)566 final
9 Eurostat indicator migr_pop3ctb (accessed 20062017) Luxembourg (452) Cyprus (204) Austria
(182) Sweden (17) and Ireland (169) display the largest shares of lsquoforeign bornrsquo of their overall
population
10 httpeceuropaeueurostatstatistics-explainedindexphpMigration_and_migrant_population_statistics
(accessed 20062017)
11 EC (2016) Pisa 2015 EU performance and initial conclusions regarding education policies in Europe
December 2016
12 Eurostat indicator migr_asyappctza (accessed 20062017)
3
country and will have acquired a diverse repertoire of linguistic competences on their
way while some will have been born on route and hold a different language of origin to
their parents13
In the context of these developments we must ask how relevant is the lsquomother tongue
plus tworsquo recommendation for those young people whose mother tongue is different from
the language of schooling
A progressively interconnected world
People have long exchanged ideas goods and capital across borders but accelerated
technological change has transformed the speed and nature of globalisation Today
economies societies and cultures around the world interconnect more than ever through
trade communication immigration and transportation Supply chains for goods and
services for example span across the globe and around half of the worldrsquos gross
domestic product (GDP) relates to trade In the 1970s this was only the case for 20 of
the GDP14
Information and data flows between countries have also increased exponentially Cross-
border bandwidth is now 45 times larger than in 2005 and digital platforms transform the
way business works across borders15 The increased interconnectedness implies that
many environmental health economic migration and security challenges are now
transnational by nature16 The countries and cultures we are connected with today go far
beyond our immediate neighbour countries
Faced with globalisation and the rise of new economic and political powers we must ask
if the purpose of language learning is to lsquoincrease mutual understanding and provide
access to different countries and culturesrsquo as well as to lsquocontribute to economic progress
and social cohesionrsquo And indeed if this is the case then which languages should be
taught in schools to best equip our children to thrive now and in their adult lives
Advancing language technologies
Traditionally not being able to read speak and understand a language often posed a
barrier to accessing other countries and cultures A wide range of knowledge information
and data was only available in the national language(s) Advances in language
technologies including speech recognition machine translation content analytics and
text to speech analysis now allow more people to understand and interact in languages
where they hold lower levels of proficiency Language technology has exponentially
improved access to both structured (eg text) and unstructured data (eg human
speech)17
We must ask what is the value of learning several languages when English is widely
spoken and translation becomes increasingly automated
13 Le Pichon E (2016) New patterns of migrant and society New needs for language teaching input paper
for thematic panel on rethinking literacies and language learning Brussels 11072016
14 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
15 McKinsey Global Institute (2016) Digital Globalisation The new era of global flows March 2016
16 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
17 See eg httpseceuropaeudigital-single-marketenprogramme-and-projectslanguage-technologies-
project-information and httpswwwgala-globalorglanguage-industrylanguage-technology (accessed
20062017)
4
Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe The linguistic landscape in Europe has always been diverse and complex Several
Member States have more than one official language or large populations of speakers of
minority languages while a number of Member States have large migrant populations
who speak a home language different from the official language(s) In this context the
terms lsquomother tonguersquo and lsquoforeign languagesrsquo become relative concepts and mean
different things for different people
This makes it difficult to map the state of language learning and competences across the
EU using traditional methods and concepts At a general level we can gain an overview
of the number of pupils with a home language different from the language of schooling
using data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
2015 and data on foreign language learning using Eurostat data
Learners with different home languages
According to data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA) 2015 an average of around one in ten (9) of 15-year old learners speak a
different language at home than the language of schooling across EU Member States18
There are large differences between Member States with very low shares of less than two
in one hundred in Hungary (18) and Poland (09)
Table 1 ndash Share of 15-year old learners who speak another language at home () 2015
Total Non- migrants
Migrants Total Non- migrants
Migrants
MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54
LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57
CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71
AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51
ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31
IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38
BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12
SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03
DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22
LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06
UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na
FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16
BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na
SK 77 77 00 PL 09 09 na Source Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Annex B17
18 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
PISA records home language(s) different from the test language rather than language of schooling
5
In some countries this linguistic diversity is primarily due to first or second
generation migrant learners Countries with significant shares of migrants with
different home languages include Austria (151) and Sweden (118) Other countries
display large shares of native learners with different home languages This includes Malta
(844) Cyprus (14) Spain (127) and Italy (117) These countries are all
characterised by having two or more official languages or specific regions with distinct
minority languages Luxemburg is a special case with three official state languages and a
very high proportion of first and second generation migrant children
Across EU Member States the languages spoken at home if different from the language
of schooling is most often Spanish Turkish or Russian The strong prevalence of Spanish
can partly be explained by the fact that large shares of Spanish speaking learners are
taught in schools where the main language of schooling is a regional language
(Valencian Galician or Basque) Learners who speak Turkish at home are primarily found
in schools where the language of schooling is Danish Dutch German Finnish or French
while most learners who speak Russian at home can be found in schools where the
language of schooling is Czech Estonian Finnish German Latvia Lithuanian or Polish19
Schools face the challenge of great language heterogeneity in the classroom Across the
EU 97 of learners are taught in schools where more than 25 of learners speak a
home language different from the language of schooling Highest shares of learners in
linguistically diverse schools exist in Austria Belgium Cyprus Germany Luxembourg
Malta Spain and Sweden20 While diversity increases there is also some evidence that
the segregation of natives and migrants into specific schools has increased in some
Member States21
Foreign language learning in European schools
In contemporary European schools learners start learning a first foreign language22 at an
earlier age than 10 years ago Overall 838 of primary school children learned at least
one foreign language in 2014 (figure 1) compared to only 673 in 200523 In most
countries compulsory foreign language learning starts between the age of 6 and 8
All or close to all primary school children study at least one foreign language in Austria
Croatia Cyprus France Italy Luxembourg Malta Poland and Spain This implies that
foreign language learning is introduced in the primary school curriculum at the entry-
level grade At the other end of the spectrum are Belgium (Flemish and French
community) Slovenia and Portugal where less than half of all primary school children
study foreign languages In most cases this implies that foreign language learning is
introduced into the curriculum in the higher primary school grades and at lower
secondary level In the case of the Flemish community in Belgium for example a first
19 All data ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition
Eurydice Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
20 ibid p 27
21 Brunello G De Paola M (2017) School Segregation of Immigrants and its effects on Educational
Outcomes in Europe EENEE Analytical Report No 30
22 lsquoForeign languagesrsquo are a relative concept which are defined differently across Member States and can
include modern foreign languages second and third languages and classical languages in some Member States
While this report uses the definition applied by each respective responsible education authority existing data
only provides an incomplete picture of the extent of language learning across the EU There is little comparative
evidence on actual linguistic competency of learners across Member States
23 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 11
6
foreign language is compulsory from the age of 10 only so that only the small group of
(older) children study languages at the primary level
Figure 1 ndash Share of primary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 no data for IE and UK
The vast majority of learners continue with foreign language learning throughout
compulsory education 988 study at least one foreign language at lower secondary
level and 597 study two foreign languages or more Not all learners maintain these
levels of language learning at upper secondary level with 858 of learners studying at
least one language at that level There are vast differences between Member States in
the extent to which language learning takes place at upper secondary level While all or
close to all learners at upper secondary level study at least one foreign language in
France Luxembourg Malta Romania Slovakia and Sweden less than half of learners do
so in the United Kingdom (figure 2)
Differences also exist between vocational and general educational tracks While
908 of learners in general upper secondary education study at least one foreign
language only 79 of learners in vocational tracks do24
Figure 2 - Share of secondary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 incomplete data for IE and UK
24 Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 (accessed 20062017)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
EU LU MT
CY
AT IT HR ES FR PL
SE SK RO
BG EL EE LV LT CZ FI DE
NL
HU DK
BE-
FR SI PT
BE-
FL
0
20
40
60
80
100
EU LU MT SE RO SK FR AT
BE-
FL CY FI IT BG LV HR PL SI CZ
HU LT EE EL NL
ES
BE-
FR PT
DE
DK
UK IE
lower secondary upper secondary
7
As the share of language learners has expanded overall there is a strong dominance of
English as the first ndash and often only - foreign language Studying two foreign
languages is compulsory for all learners in many Member States but not in all The
Member States where only one foreign language is compulsory for all learners include
Croatia Germany Ireland Belgium (French community) Hungary Spain Sweden and
the United Kingdom25 However in some of these countries learners are entitled to learn
two foreign languages if they so wish
In most countries English is the most studied foreign language followed by French and
German In Ireland and the United Kingdom French is most widely taught In
Luxembourg the two official State languages German and French are more widely taught
than English as are the different community languages in Belgium26
These statistics indicate a positive overall trend in access to languages from an early age
although the level of ambition for linguistic competency across Europe nonetheless falls
short of the Barcelona objective of two foreign languages
Rethinking language teaching Addressing todayrsquos societal economic and technological challenges requires re-thinking
the traditional way of teaching and learning languages both for monolingual and
multilingual learners There are a variety of good reasons for school systems and
practices to adapt to the increased diversity of European classrooms and effectively work
with multilingual learners Key concepts such lsquoliteracyrsquo lsquomultilingualismrsquo and lsquomother
tonguersquo will have to be reconceptualised to meet the new realities in European schools
Making the case for change
Young peoplersquos migration and linguistic backgrounds continue to be strong determinants
of their educational success OECD PISA data shows that there are vast achievement
gaps between the reading mathematics and science competences of learners with a
home language different from the language of schooling and those who speak the
language of schooling at home In some countries this achievement gap is equivalent to
15-2 years of schooling27 Low competence in literacy is especially problematic as it is a
foundation skill and pre-requisite for progress in other subject areas28
From an educational equity and inclusion perspective it is therefore essential to
ensure that all learners especially those with less competence in the language of
schooling are supported to develop literacy skills and provided with equal opportunities
to thrive alongside their peers This includes children with a migrant background
bilingual and multilingual learners but also monolingual lsquonativersquo learners with low levels
of literacy skills Effective multilingual teaching and learning has the potential to close the
achievement gap of migrant students compared to lsquonativersquo learners while enhancing the
cultural and civic education of all learners
25 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 30
26 ibid p 71
27 Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Paris OECD Publishing Annex B17
28 Council of Europe Language Policy Unit (2015) The Language dimension in all Subjects ndash A Handbook for
Curriculum Development and Teacher Training Council of Europe 2015
8
In addition to educational disadvantage it is not uncommon that migrant and
multilingual learners are discriminated against by pupils teachers or the school more
widely for not speaking the language of schooling correctly or using their home language
(the lsquowrong languagersquo) in the school context These learners are often encouraged to
supress a large part of their linguistic repertoire Educational practices can convey that
learnerrsquos home languages are low value29 and migrant and multilingual learners may face
closer scrutiny than their lsquonativersquo counterparts even when they master the language of
schooling30 From a human rights perspective the discrimination of learners based on
their language violates article 2 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
which specifies non-discrimination grounds including a childrsquos language31 These issues
must be addressed starting by the recognition that different languages form part of the
identity of multilingual learners and by enabling them to develop and maintain their
linguistic repertoire
Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire ie their
home language(s) language of schooling and any other language(s) they might speak
may have benefits beyond communication alone Several clinical studies have shown
positive effects of bi- and multilingualism including on metalinguistic awareness
cognitive control of behaviour attentional control and social cognition32 These health
benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth but also for
people who became bilingual later in life33 Evidence has also shown that positive effects
are sustained over the life-course34 and have been found to play a role in delaying the
onset of dementia35 It is important to note however that research on the cognitive
benefits of bilingualism is not conclusive and results seem to be context dependent36
The above issues show that there is a wide range of benefits of language learning As
regards the competence in languages the issue should not be lsquohow many languagesrsquo
one should learn but which language competences best correspond to each learnerrsquos
needs circumstances and interests An expanding language repertoire may spread from
the original nucleus of the language(s) spoken at home and the immediate social
environment to the language of schooling and the more academic languages with the
required levels of competence not necessarily being the same in every context This
requires a re-valuation of partial competence in multiple languages (or lsquoplurilingualismrsquo)
as a potential asset forming part of the individual learnersrsquo social cultural and linguistic
capital The challenge in this respect is perhaps one of assessment and validation in the
29 Mehmedbegovic D (2016) What every educator needs to know about cognitive benefits of bilingualism
Moving towards lsquolanguage hierarchy freersquo policy and practice Discussion Paper for the Thematic Panel on
languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27 September 2016
30 Kambel E-R (2016) The cost of doing nothing Educating language-minoritized students Discussion Paper
for Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27
September 2016
31 httpwwwohchrorgenprofessionalinterestpagescrcaspx For a link to the full document refer to UN
General Assembly (1989)
32 See eg Kovacs AM Mehler J (2009) Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106 (16)6556-6560 Bialystock E (1999) Cognitive complexity and attentional
control in the bilingual mind Child Development 70(3) 636-644
33 Vega-Mendoza M West H Sorace A Bak TH (2015) The impact of late non-balanced bilingualism
on cognitive performance Cognition 137 40-46
34 Kave G et al (2008) Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old Psychology and Ageing 23(1)
70-78
35 Alladi S Bak T et al (2013) Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia independent of education and
immigration status American Journal of Neurology 81 (22) 1938-44
36 Bak T (2016) Cooking pasta in La Paz Bilingualism bias and the replication crisis in Rothman J
Unsworth S (eds) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 65 John Benjamins Publishing Company p 655-717
9
context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to
formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the
timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning
Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress
across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different
levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the
ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing
number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple
languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people
may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of
competence
Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different
languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and
learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that
teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one
language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to
support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37
Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to
language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for
their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School
systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this
implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into
account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining
functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons
relevant to their own context
Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction
between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother
tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating
to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo
recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of
the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and
encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own
linguistic repertories are essential for their development
37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing
taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50
38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion
paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
2
Chapter six summarises and draws conclusions
Context The European Union (EU) has long promoted language learning and linguistic diversity
across Europe with the view to increase mutual understanding and provide access to
other countries and cultures5 It sees the ability to communicate in a range of languages
as key to economic progress and social cohesion6 Following the Presidency Conclusions
from the European Councils meeting in Barcelona 2002 the EU has supported the
principle that every citizen should have the opportunity to learn at least two foreign
languages from a very early age This guideline is sometimes referred to as the simplified
concept mother tongue plus two which is also reflected in the 2006 European key
competence framework with the separation between mother tongue and foreign
languages7 Later policy papers have stressed the need to ensure that learners do not
lose touch with their language of origin8
Fifteen years on it is necessary to question if these definitions and recommendations are
still appropriate in the context of societal changes such as new migration globalisation
and economic and technological change
Increasing diversity in European classrooms
On 1 January 2016 351 million people who were born outside the EU lived in an EU
Member State An additional 207 million EU citizens lived in a Member State different to
their country of birth9 This diversity is increasing it is estimated that in 2015 24
million citizens of non-member countries moved to the EU while 14 million EU citizens
moved to a Member State different to the country where they hold citizenship10 This is
higher than the number of people emigrating from the EU in the same year More than
one in ten 15-year old learners in European schools are now first or second-generation
migrants11 As the population structure in Europe is becoming more diverse an
increasing number of young people in European school systems speak a different
language at home than in the classroom
Individuals have different reasons for migrating including work study and family
reasons In recent years in-flows to European Member States have also included large
numbers of asylum seekers In 2015 and 2016 alone more than 25 million people
applied for asylum in European Member States of which close to 550000 were children
under the age of 1412 These recent arrivals have more diverse countries of origins and
linguistic backgrounds than migrants from previous waves of migration Refugee
children for example have often stayed in several countries before arriving in their host
5 httpseceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualism_en (accessed 20062017)
6 EC (2017) Education and Training Monitor 2016 Luxembourg Publication Office of the European Union p
29
7 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on key competences for lifelong learning
18122016 (2006962EC)
8 See eg EC (2008) Multilingualism an asset for Europe and a shared commitment COM(2008)566 final
9 Eurostat indicator migr_pop3ctb (accessed 20062017) Luxembourg (452) Cyprus (204) Austria
(182) Sweden (17) and Ireland (169) display the largest shares of lsquoforeign bornrsquo of their overall
population
10 httpeceuropaeueurostatstatistics-explainedindexphpMigration_and_migrant_population_statistics
(accessed 20062017)
11 EC (2016) Pisa 2015 EU performance and initial conclusions regarding education policies in Europe
December 2016
12 Eurostat indicator migr_asyappctza (accessed 20062017)
3
country and will have acquired a diverse repertoire of linguistic competences on their
way while some will have been born on route and hold a different language of origin to
their parents13
In the context of these developments we must ask how relevant is the lsquomother tongue
plus tworsquo recommendation for those young people whose mother tongue is different from
the language of schooling
A progressively interconnected world
People have long exchanged ideas goods and capital across borders but accelerated
technological change has transformed the speed and nature of globalisation Today
economies societies and cultures around the world interconnect more than ever through
trade communication immigration and transportation Supply chains for goods and
services for example span across the globe and around half of the worldrsquos gross
domestic product (GDP) relates to trade In the 1970s this was only the case for 20 of
the GDP14
Information and data flows between countries have also increased exponentially Cross-
border bandwidth is now 45 times larger than in 2005 and digital platforms transform the
way business works across borders15 The increased interconnectedness implies that
many environmental health economic migration and security challenges are now
transnational by nature16 The countries and cultures we are connected with today go far
beyond our immediate neighbour countries
Faced with globalisation and the rise of new economic and political powers we must ask
if the purpose of language learning is to lsquoincrease mutual understanding and provide
access to different countries and culturesrsquo as well as to lsquocontribute to economic progress
and social cohesionrsquo And indeed if this is the case then which languages should be
taught in schools to best equip our children to thrive now and in their adult lives
Advancing language technologies
Traditionally not being able to read speak and understand a language often posed a
barrier to accessing other countries and cultures A wide range of knowledge information
and data was only available in the national language(s) Advances in language
technologies including speech recognition machine translation content analytics and
text to speech analysis now allow more people to understand and interact in languages
where they hold lower levels of proficiency Language technology has exponentially
improved access to both structured (eg text) and unstructured data (eg human
speech)17
We must ask what is the value of learning several languages when English is widely
spoken and translation becomes increasingly automated
13 Le Pichon E (2016) New patterns of migrant and society New needs for language teaching input paper
for thematic panel on rethinking literacies and language learning Brussels 11072016
14 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
15 McKinsey Global Institute (2016) Digital Globalisation The new era of global flows March 2016
16 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
17 See eg httpseceuropaeudigital-single-marketenprogramme-and-projectslanguage-technologies-
project-information and httpswwwgala-globalorglanguage-industrylanguage-technology (accessed
20062017)
4
Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe The linguistic landscape in Europe has always been diverse and complex Several
Member States have more than one official language or large populations of speakers of
minority languages while a number of Member States have large migrant populations
who speak a home language different from the official language(s) In this context the
terms lsquomother tonguersquo and lsquoforeign languagesrsquo become relative concepts and mean
different things for different people
This makes it difficult to map the state of language learning and competences across the
EU using traditional methods and concepts At a general level we can gain an overview
of the number of pupils with a home language different from the language of schooling
using data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
2015 and data on foreign language learning using Eurostat data
Learners with different home languages
According to data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA) 2015 an average of around one in ten (9) of 15-year old learners speak a
different language at home than the language of schooling across EU Member States18
There are large differences between Member States with very low shares of less than two
in one hundred in Hungary (18) and Poland (09)
Table 1 ndash Share of 15-year old learners who speak another language at home () 2015
Total Non- migrants
Migrants Total Non- migrants
Migrants
MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54
LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57
CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71
AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51
ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31
IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38
BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12
SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03
DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22
LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06
UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na
FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16
BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na
SK 77 77 00 PL 09 09 na Source Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Annex B17
18 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
PISA records home language(s) different from the test language rather than language of schooling
5
In some countries this linguistic diversity is primarily due to first or second
generation migrant learners Countries with significant shares of migrants with
different home languages include Austria (151) and Sweden (118) Other countries
display large shares of native learners with different home languages This includes Malta
(844) Cyprus (14) Spain (127) and Italy (117) These countries are all
characterised by having two or more official languages or specific regions with distinct
minority languages Luxemburg is a special case with three official state languages and a
very high proportion of first and second generation migrant children
Across EU Member States the languages spoken at home if different from the language
of schooling is most often Spanish Turkish or Russian The strong prevalence of Spanish
can partly be explained by the fact that large shares of Spanish speaking learners are
taught in schools where the main language of schooling is a regional language
(Valencian Galician or Basque) Learners who speak Turkish at home are primarily found
in schools where the language of schooling is Danish Dutch German Finnish or French
while most learners who speak Russian at home can be found in schools where the
language of schooling is Czech Estonian Finnish German Latvia Lithuanian or Polish19
Schools face the challenge of great language heterogeneity in the classroom Across the
EU 97 of learners are taught in schools where more than 25 of learners speak a
home language different from the language of schooling Highest shares of learners in
linguistically diverse schools exist in Austria Belgium Cyprus Germany Luxembourg
Malta Spain and Sweden20 While diversity increases there is also some evidence that
the segregation of natives and migrants into specific schools has increased in some
Member States21
Foreign language learning in European schools
In contemporary European schools learners start learning a first foreign language22 at an
earlier age than 10 years ago Overall 838 of primary school children learned at least
one foreign language in 2014 (figure 1) compared to only 673 in 200523 In most
countries compulsory foreign language learning starts between the age of 6 and 8
All or close to all primary school children study at least one foreign language in Austria
Croatia Cyprus France Italy Luxembourg Malta Poland and Spain This implies that
foreign language learning is introduced in the primary school curriculum at the entry-
level grade At the other end of the spectrum are Belgium (Flemish and French
community) Slovenia and Portugal where less than half of all primary school children
study foreign languages In most cases this implies that foreign language learning is
introduced into the curriculum in the higher primary school grades and at lower
secondary level In the case of the Flemish community in Belgium for example a first
19 All data ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition
Eurydice Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
20 ibid p 27
21 Brunello G De Paola M (2017) School Segregation of Immigrants and its effects on Educational
Outcomes in Europe EENEE Analytical Report No 30
22 lsquoForeign languagesrsquo are a relative concept which are defined differently across Member States and can
include modern foreign languages second and third languages and classical languages in some Member States
While this report uses the definition applied by each respective responsible education authority existing data
only provides an incomplete picture of the extent of language learning across the EU There is little comparative
evidence on actual linguistic competency of learners across Member States
23 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 11
6
foreign language is compulsory from the age of 10 only so that only the small group of
(older) children study languages at the primary level
Figure 1 ndash Share of primary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 no data for IE and UK
The vast majority of learners continue with foreign language learning throughout
compulsory education 988 study at least one foreign language at lower secondary
level and 597 study two foreign languages or more Not all learners maintain these
levels of language learning at upper secondary level with 858 of learners studying at
least one language at that level There are vast differences between Member States in
the extent to which language learning takes place at upper secondary level While all or
close to all learners at upper secondary level study at least one foreign language in
France Luxembourg Malta Romania Slovakia and Sweden less than half of learners do
so in the United Kingdom (figure 2)
Differences also exist between vocational and general educational tracks While
908 of learners in general upper secondary education study at least one foreign
language only 79 of learners in vocational tracks do24
Figure 2 - Share of secondary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 incomplete data for IE and UK
24 Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 (accessed 20062017)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
EU LU MT
CY
AT IT HR ES FR PL
SE SK RO
BG EL EE LV LT CZ FI DE
NL
HU DK
BE-
FR SI PT
BE-
FL
0
20
40
60
80
100
EU LU MT SE RO SK FR AT
BE-
FL CY FI IT BG LV HR PL SI CZ
HU LT EE EL NL
ES
BE-
FR PT
DE
DK
UK IE
lower secondary upper secondary
7
As the share of language learners has expanded overall there is a strong dominance of
English as the first ndash and often only - foreign language Studying two foreign
languages is compulsory for all learners in many Member States but not in all The
Member States where only one foreign language is compulsory for all learners include
Croatia Germany Ireland Belgium (French community) Hungary Spain Sweden and
the United Kingdom25 However in some of these countries learners are entitled to learn
two foreign languages if they so wish
In most countries English is the most studied foreign language followed by French and
German In Ireland and the United Kingdom French is most widely taught In
Luxembourg the two official State languages German and French are more widely taught
than English as are the different community languages in Belgium26
These statistics indicate a positive overall trend in access to languages from an early age
although the level of ambition for linguistic competency across Europe nonetheless falls
short of the Barcelona objective of two foreign languages
Rethinking language teaching Addressing todayrsquos societal economic and technological challenges requires re-thinking
the traditional way of teaching and learning languages both for monolingual and
multilingual learners There are a variety of good reasons for school systems and
practices to adapt to the increased diversity of European classrooms and effectively work
with multilingual learners Key concepts such lsquoliteracyrsquo lsquomultilingualismrsquo and lsquomother
tonguersquo will have to be reconceptualised to meet the new realities in European schools
Making the case for change
Young peoplersquos migration and linguistic backgrounds continue to be strong determinants
of their educational success OECD PISA data shows that there are vast achievement
gaps between the reading mathematics and science competences of learners with a
home language different from the language of schooling and those who speak the
language of schooling at home In some countries this achievement gap is equivalent to
15-2 years of schooling27 Low competence in literacy is especially problematic as it is a
foundation skill and pre-requisite for progress in other subject areas28
From an educational equity and inclusion perspective it is therefore essential to
ensure that all learners especially those with less competence in the language of
schooling are supported to develop literacy skills and provided with equal opportunities
to thrive alongside their peers This includes children with a migrant background
bilingual and multilingual learners but also monolingual lsquonativersquo learners with low levels
of literacy skills Effective multilingual teaching and learning has the potential to close the
achievement gap of migrant students compared to lsquonativersquo learners while enhancing the
cultural and civic education of all learners
25 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 30
26 ibid p 71
27 Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Paris OECD Publishing Annex B17
28 Council of Europe Language Policy Unit (2015) The Language dimension in all Subjects ndash A Handbook for
Curriculum Development and Teacher Training Council of Europe 2015
8
In addition to educational disadvantage it is not uncommon that migrant and
multilingual learners are discriminated against by pupils teachers or the school more
widely for not speaking the language of schooling correctly or using their home language
(the lsquowrong languagersquo) in the school context These learners are often encouraged to
supress a large part of their linguistic repertoire Educational practices can convey that
learnerrsquos home languages are low value29 and migrant and multilingual learners may face
closer scrutiny than their lsquonativersquo counterparts even when they master the language of
schooling30 From a human rights perspective the discrimination of learners based on
their language violates article 2 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
which specifies non-discrimination grounds including a childrsquos language31 These issues
must be addressed starting by the recognition that different languages form part of the
identity of multilingual learners and by enabling them to develop and maintain their
linguistic repertoire
Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire ie their
home language(s) language of schooling and any other language(s) they might speak
may have benefits beyond communication alone Several clinical studies have shown
positive effects of bi- and multilingualism including on metalinguistic awareness
cognitive control of behaviour attentional control and social cognition32 These health
benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth but also for
people who became bilingual later in life33 Evidence has also shown that positive effects
are sustained over the life-course34 and have been found to play a role in delaying the
onset of dementia35 It is important to note however that research on the cognitive
benefits of bilingualism is not conclusive and results seem to be context dependent36
The above issues show that there is a wide range of benefits of language learning As
regards the competence in languages the issue should not be lsquohow many languagesrsquo
one should learn but which language competences best correspond to each learnerrsquos
needs circumstances and interests An expanding language repertoire may spread from
the original nucleus of the language(s) spoken at home and the immediate social
environment to the language of schooling and the more academic languages with the
required levels of competence not necessarily being the same in every context This
requires a re-valuation of partial competence in multiple languages (or lsquoplurilingualismrsquo)
as a potential asset forming part of the individual learnersrsquo social cultural and linguistic
capital The challenge in this respect is perhaps one of assessment and validation in the
29 Mehmedbegovic D (2016) What every educator needs to know about cognitive benefits of bilingualism
Moving towards lsquolanguage hierarchy freersquo policy and practice Discussion Paper for the Thematic Panel on
languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27 September 2016
30 Kambel E-R (2016) The cost of doing nothing Educating language-minoritized students Discussion Paper
for Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27
September 2016
31 httpwwwohchrorgenprofessionalinterestpagescrcaspx For a link to the full document refer to UN
General Assembly (1989)
32 See eg Kovacs AM Mehler J (2009) Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106 (16)6556-6560 Bialystock E (1999) Cognitive complexity and attentional
control in the bilingual mind Child Development 70(3) 636-644
33 Vega-Mendoza M West H Sorace A Bak TH (2015) The impact of late non-balanced bilingualism
on cognitive performance Cognition 137 40-46
34 Kave G et al (2008) Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old Psychology and Ageing 23(1)
70-78
35 Alladi S Bak T et al (2013) Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia independent of education and
immigration status American Journal of Neurology 81 (22) 1938-44
36 Bak T (2016) Cooking pasta in La Paz Bilingualism bias and the replication crisis in Rothman J
Unsworth S (eds) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 65 John Benjamins Publishing Company p 655-717
9
context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to
formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the
timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning
Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress
across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different
levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the
ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing
number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple
languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people
may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of
competence
Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different
languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and
learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that
teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one
language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to
support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37
Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to
language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for
their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School
systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this
implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into
account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining
functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons
relevant to their own context
Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction
between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother
tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating
to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo
recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of
the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and
encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own
linguistic repertories are essential for their development
37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing
taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50
38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion
paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
3
country and will have acquired a diverse repertoire of linguistic competences on their
way while some will have been born on route and hold a different language of origin to
their parents13
In the context of these developments we must ask how relevant is the lsquomother tongue
plus tworsquo recommendation for those young people whose mother tongue is different from
the language of schooling
A progressively interconnected world
People have long exchanged ideas goods and capital across borders but accelerated
technological change has transformed the speed and nature of globalisation Today
economies societies and cultures around the world interconnect more than ever through
trade communication immigration and transportation Supply chains for goods and
services for example span across the globe and around half of the worldrsquos gross
domestic product (GDP) relates to trade In the 1970s this was only the case for 20 of
the GDP14
Information and data flows between countries have also increased exponentially Cross-
border bandwidth is now 45 times larger than in 2005 and digital platforms transform the
way business works across borders15 The increased interconnectedness implies that
many environmental health economic migration and security challenges are now
transnational by nature16 The countries and cultures we are connected with today go far
beyond our immediate neighbour countries
Faced with globalisation and the rise of new economic and political powers we must ask
if the purpose of language learning is to lsquoincrease mutual understanding and provide
access to different countries and culturesrsquo as well as to lsquocontribute to economic progress
and social cohesionrsquo And indeed if this is the case then which languages should be
taught in schools to best equip our children to thrive now and in their adult lives
Advancing language technologies
Traditionally not being able to read speak and understand a language often posed a
barrier to accessing other countries and cultures A wide range of knowledge information
and data was only available in the national language(s) Advances in language
technologies including speech recognition machine translation content analytics and
text to speech analysis now allow more people to understand and interact in languages
where they hold lower levels of proficiency Language technology has exponentially
improved access to both structured (eg text) and unstructured data (eg human
speech)17
We must ask what is the value of learning several languages when English is widely
spoken and translation becomes increasingly automated
13 Le Pichon E (2016) New patterns of migrant and society New needs for language teaching input paper
for thematic panel on rethinking literacies and language learning Brussels 11072016
14 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
15 McKinsey Global Institute (2016) Digital Globalisation The new era of global flows March 2016
16 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017
17 See eg httpseceuropaeudigital-single-marketenprogramme-and-projectslanguage-technologies-
project-information and httpswwwgala-globalorglanguage-industrylanguage-technology (accessed
20062017)
4
Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe The linguistic landscape in Europe has always been diverse and complex Several
Member States have more than one official language or large populations of speakers of
minority languages while a number of Member States have large migrant populations
who speak a home language different from the official language(s) In this context the
terms lsquomother tonguersquo and lsquoforeign languagesrsquo become relative concepts and mean
different things for different people
This makes it difficult to map the state of language learning and competences across the
EU using traditional methods and concepts At a general level we can gain an overview
of the number of pupils with a home language different from the language of schooling
using data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
2015 and data on foreign language learning using Eurostat data
Learners with different home languages
According to data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA) 2015 an average of around one in ten (9) of 15-year old learners speak a
different language at home than the language of schooling across EU Member States18
There are large differences between Member States with very low shares of less than two
in one hundred in Hungary (18) and Poland (09)
Table 1 ndash Share of 15-year old learners who speak another language at home () 2015
Total Non- migrants
Migrants Total Non- migrants
Migrants
MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54
LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57
CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71
AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51
ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31
IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38
BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12
SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03
DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22
LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06
UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na
FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16
BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na
SK 77 77 00 PL 09 09 na Source Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Annex B17
18 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
PISA records home language(s) different from the test language rather than language of schooling
5
In some countries this linguistic diversity is primarily due to first or second
generation migrant learners Countries with significant shares of migrants with
different home languages include Austria (151) and Sweden (118) Other countries
display large shares of native learners with different home languages This includes Malta
(844) Cyprus (14) Spain (127) and Italy (117) These countries are all
characterised by having two or more official languages or specific regions with distinct
minority languages Luxemburg is a special case with three official state languages and a
very high proportion of first and second generation migrant children
Across EU Member States the languages spoken at home if different from the language
of schooling is most often Spanish Turkish or Russian The strong prevalence of Spanish
can partly be explained by the fact that large shares of Spanish speaking learners are
taught in schools where the main language of schooling is a regional language
(Valencian Galician or Basque) Learners who speak Turkish at home are primarily found
in schools where the language of schooling is Danish Dutch German Finnish or French
while most learners who speak Russian at home can be found in schools where the
language of schooling is Czech Estonian Finnish German Latvia Lithuanian or Polish19
Schools face the challenge of great language heterogeneity in the classroom Across the
EU 97 of learners are taught in schools where more than 25 of learners speak a
home language different from the language of schooling Highest shares of learners in
linguistically diverse schools exist in Austria Belgium Cyprus Germany Luxembourg
Malta Spain and Sweden20 While diversity increases there is also some evidence that
the segregation of natives and migrants into specific schools has increased in some
Member States21
Foreign language learning in European schools
In contemporary European schools learners start learning a first foreign language22 at an
earlier age than 10 years ago Overall 838 of primary school children learned at least
one foreign language in 2014 (figure 1) compared to only 673 in 200523 In most
countries compulsory foreign language learning starts between the age of 6 and 8
All or close to all primary school children study at least one foreign language in Austria
Croatia Cyprus France Italy Luxembourg Malta Poland and Spain This implies that
foreign language learning is introduced in the primary school curriculum at the entry-
level grade At the other end of the spectrum are Belgium (Flemish and French
community) Slovenia and Portugal where less than half of all primary school children
study foreign languages In most cases this implies that foreign language learning is
introduced into the curriculum in the higher primary school grades and at lower
secondary level In the case of the Flemish community in Belgium for example a first
19 All data ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition
Eurydice Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
20 ibid p 27
21 Brunello G De Paola M (2017) School Segregation of Immigrants and its effects on Educational
Outcomes in Europe EENEE Analytical Report No 30
22 lsquoForeign languagesrsquo are a relative concept which are defined differently across Member States and can
include modern foreign languages second and third languages and classical languages in some Member States
While this report uses the definition applied by each respective responsible education authority existing data
only provides an incomplete picture of the extent of language learning across the EU There is little comparative
evidence on actual linguistic competency of learners across Member States
23 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 11
6
foreign language is compulsory from the age of 10 only so that only the small group of
(older) children study languages at the primary level
Figure 1 ndash Share of primary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 no data for IE and UK
The vast majority of learners continue with foreign language learning throughout
compulsory education 988 study at least one foreign language at lower secondary
level and 597 study two foreign languages or more Not all learners maintain these
levels of language learning at upper secondary level with 858 of learners studying at
least one language at that level There are vast differences between Member States in
the extent to which language learning takes place at upper secondary level While all or
close to all learners at upper secondary level study at least one foreign language in
France Luxembourg Malta Romania Slovakia and Sweden less than half of learners do
so in the United Kingdom (figure 2)
Differences also exist between vocational and general educational tracks While
908 of learners in general upper secondary education study at least one foreign
language only 79 of learners in vocational tracks do24
Figure 2 - Share of secondary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 incomplete data for IE and UK
24 Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 (accessed 20062017)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
EU LU MT
CY
AT IT HR ES FR PL
SE SK RO
BG EL EE LV LT CZ FI DE
NL
HU DK
BE-
FR SI PT
BE-
FL
0
20
40
60
80
100
EU LU MT SE RO SK FR AT
BE-
FL CY FI IT BG LV HR PL SI CZ
HU LT EE EL NL
ES
BE-
FR PT
DE
DK
UK IE
lower secondary upper secondary
7
As the share of language learners has expanded overall there is a strong dominance of
English as the first ndash and often only - foreign language Studying two foreign
languages is compulsory for all learners in many Member States but not in all The
Member States where only one foreign language is compulsory for all learners include
Croatia Germany Ireland Belgium (French community) Hungary Spain Sweden and
the United Kingdom25 However in some of these countries learners are entitled to learn
two foreign languages if they so wish
In most countries English is the most studied foreign language followed by French and
German In Ireland and the United Kingdom French is most widely taught In
Luxembourg the two official State languages German and French are more widely taught
than English as are the different community languages in Belgium26
These statistics indicate a positive overall trend in access to languages from an early age
although the level of ambition for linguistic competency across Europe nonetheless falls
short of the Barcelona objective of two foreign languages
Rethinking language teaching Addressing todayrsquos societal economic and technological challenges requires re-thinking
the traditional way of teaching and learning languages both for monolingual and
multilingual learners There are a variety of good reasons for school systems and
practices to adapt to the increased diversity of European classrooms and effectively work
with multilingual learners Key concepts such lsquoliteracyrsquo lsquomultilingualismrsquo and lsquomother
tonguersquo will have to be reconceptualised to meet the new realities in European schools
Making the case for change
Young peoplersquos migration and linguistic backgrounds continue to be strong determinants
of their educational success OECD PISA data shows that there are vast achievement
gaps between the reading mathematics and science competences of learners with a
home language different from the language of schooling and those who speak the
language of schooling at home In some countries this achievement gap is equivalent to
15-2 years of schooling27 Low competence in literacy is especially problematic as it is a
foundation skill and pre-requisite for progress in other subject areas28
From an educational equity and inclusion perspective it is therefore essential to
ensure that all learners especially those with less competence in the language of
schooling are supported to develop literacy skills and provided with equal opportunities
to thrive alongside their peers This includes children with a migrant background
bilingual and multilingual learners but also monolingual lsquonativersquo learners with low levels
of literacy skills Effective multilingual teaching and learning has the potential to close the
achievement gap of migrant students compared to lsquonativersquo learners while enhancing the
cultural and civic education of all learners
25 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 30
26 ibid p 71
27 Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Paris OECD Publishing Annex B17
28 Council of Europe Language Policy Unit (2015) The Language dimension in all Subjects ndash A Handbook for
Curriculum Development and Teacher Training Council of Europe 2015
8
In addition to educational disadvantage it is not uncommon that migrant and
multilingual learners are discriminated against by pupils teachers or the school more
widely for not speaking the language of schooling correctly or using their home language
(the lsquowrong languagersquo) in the school context These learners are often encouraged to
supress a large part of their linguistic repertoire Educational practices can convey that
learnerrsquos home languages are low value29 and migrant and multilingual learners may face
closer scrutiny than their lsquonativersquo counterparts even when they master the language of
schooling30 From a human rights perspective the discrimination of learners based on
their language violates article 2 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
which specifies non-discrimination grounds including a childrsquos language31 These issues
must be addressed starting by the recognition that different languages form part of the
identity of multilingual learners and by enabling them to develop and maintain their
linguistic repertoire
Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire ie their
home language(s) language of schooling and any other language(s) they might speak
may have benefits beyond communication alone Several clinical studies have shown
positive effects of bi- and multilingualism including on metalinguistic awareness
cognitive control of behaviour attentional control and social cognition32 These health
benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth but also for
people who became bilingual later in life33 Evidence has also shown that positive effects
are sustained over the life-course34 and have been found to play a role in delaying the
onset of dementia35 It is important to note however that research on the cognitive
benefits of bilingualism is not conclusive and results seem to be context dependent36
The above issues show that there is a wide range of benefits of language learning As
regards the competence in languages the issue should not be lsquohow many languagesrsquo
one should learn but which language competences best correspond to each learnerrsquos
needs circumstances and interests An expanding language repertoire may spread from
the original nucleus of the language(s) spoken at home and the immediate social
environment to the language of schooling and the more academic languages with the
required levels of competence not necessarily being the same in every context This
requires a re-valuation of partial competence in multiple languages (or lsquoplurilingualismrsquo)
as a potential asset forming part of the individual learnersrsquo social cultural and linguistic
capital The challenge in this respect is perhaps one of assessment and validation in the
29 Mehmedbegovic D (2016) What every educator needs to know about cognitive benefits of bilingualism
Moving towards lsquolanguage hierarchy freersquo policy and practice Discussion Paper for the Thematic Panel on
languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27 September 2016
30 Kambel E-R (2016) The cost of doing nothing Educating language-minoritized students Discussion Paper
for Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27
September 2016
31 httpwwwohchrorgenprofessionalinterestpagescrcaspx For a link to the full document refer to UN
General Assembly (1989)
32 See eg Kovacs AM Mehler J (2009) Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106 (16)6556-6560 Bialystock E (1999) Cognitive complexity and attentional
control in the bilingual mind Child Development 70(3) 636-644
33 Vega-Mendoza M West H Sorace A Bak TH (2015) The impact of late non-balanced bilingualism
on cognitive performance Cognition 137 40-46
34 Kave G et al (2008) Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old Psychology and Ageing 23(1)
70-78
35 Alladi S Bak T et al (2013) Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia independent of education and
immigration status American Journal of Neurology 81 (22) 1938-44
36 Bak T (2016) Cooking pasta in La Paz Bilingualism bias and the replication crisis in Rothman J
Unsworth S (eds) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 65 John Benjamins Publishing Company p 655-717
9
context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to
formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the
timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning
Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress
across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different
levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the
ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing
number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple
languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people
may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of
competence
Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different
languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and
learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that
teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one
language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to
support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37
Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to
language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for
their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School
systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this
implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into
account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining
functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons
relevant to their own context
Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction
between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother
tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating
to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo
recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of
the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and
encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own
linguistic repertories are essential for their development
37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing
taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50
38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion
paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
4
Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe The linguistic landscape in Europe has always been diverse and complex Several
Member States have more than one official language or large populations of speakers of
minority languages while a number of Member States have large migrant populations
who speak a home language different from the official language(s) In this context the
terms lsquomother tonguersquo and lsquoforeign languagesrsquo become relative concepts and mean
different things for different people
This makes it difficult to map the state of language learning and competences across the
EU using traditional methods and concepts At a general level we can gain an overview
of the number of pupils with a home language different from the language of schooling
using data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
2015 and data on foreign language learning using Eurostat data
Learners with different home languages
According to data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA) 2015 an average of around one in ten (9) of 15-year old learners speak a
different language at home than the language of schooling across EU Member States18
There are large differences between Member States with very low shares of less than two
in one hundred in Hungary (18) and Poland (09)
Table 1 ndash Share of 15-year old learners who speak another language at home () 2015
Total Non- migrants
Migrants Total Non- migrants
Migrants
MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54
LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57
CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71
AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51
ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31
IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38
BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12
SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03
DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22
LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06
UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na
FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16
BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na
SK 77 77 00 PL 09 09 na Source Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Annex B17
18 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
PISA records home language(s) different from the test language rather than language of schooling
5
In some countries this linguistic diversity is primarily due to first or second
generation migrant learners Countries with significant shares of migrants with
different home languages include Austria (151) and Sweden (118) Other countries
display large shares of native learners with different home languages This includes Malta
(844) Cyprus (14) Spain (127) and Italy (117) These countries are all
characterised by having two or more official languages or specific regions with distinct
minority languages Luxemburg is a special case with three official state languages and a
very high proportion of first and second generation migrant children
Across EU Member States the languages spoken at home if different from the language
of schooling is most often Spanish Turkish or Russian The strong prevalence of Spanish
can partly be explained by the fact that large shares of Spanish speaking learners are
taught in schools where the main language of schooling is a regional language
(Valencian Galician or Basque) Learners who speak Turkish at home are primarily found
in schools where the language of schooling is Danish Dutch German Finnish or French
while most learners who speak Russian at home can be found in schools where the
language of schooling is Czech Estonian Finnish German Latvia Lithuanian or Polish19
Schools face the challenge of great language heterogeneity in the classroom Across the
EU 97 of learners are taught in schools where more than 25 of learners speak a
home language different from the language of schooling Highest shares of learners in
linguistically diverse schools exist in Austria Belgium Cyprus Germany Luxembourg
Malta Spain and Sweden20 While diversity increases there is also some evidence that
the segregation of natives and migrants into specific schools has increased in some
Member States21
Foreign language learning in European schools
In contemporary European schools learners start learning a first foreign language22 at an
earlier age than 10 years ago Overall 838 of primary school children learned at least
one foreign language in 2014 (figure 1) compared to only 673 in 200523 In most
countries compulsory foreign language learning starts between the age of 6 and 8
All or close to all primary school children study at least one foreign language in Austria
Croatia Cyprus France Italy Luxembourg Malta Poland and Spain This implies that
foreign language learning is introduced in the primary school curriculum at the entry-
level grade At the other end of the spectrum are Belgium (Flemish and French
community) Slovenia and Portugal where less than half of all primary school children
study foreign languages In most cases this implies that foreign language learning is
introduced into the curriculum in the higher primary school grades and at lower
secondary level In the case of the Flemish community in Belgium for example a first
19 All data ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition
Eurydice Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
20 ibid p 27
21 Brunello G De Paola M (2017) School Segregation of Immigrants and its effects on Educational
Outcomes in Europe EENEE Analytical Report No 30
22 lsquoForeign languagesrsquo are a relative concept which are defined differently across Member States and can
include modern foreign languages second and third languages and classical languages in some Member States
While this report uses the definition applied by each respective responsible education authority existing data
only provides an incomplete picture of the extent of language learning across the EU There is little comparative
evidence on actual linguistic competency of learners across Member States
23 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 11
6
foreign language is compulsory from the age of 10 only so that only the small group of
(older) children study languages at the primary level
Figure 1 ndash Share of primary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 no data for IE and UK
The vast majority of learners continue with foreign language learning throughout
compulsory education 988 study at least one foreign language at lower secondary
level and 597 study two foreign languages or more Not all learners maintain these
levels of language learning at upper secondary level with 858 of learners studying at
least one language at that level There are vast differences between Member States in
the extent to which language learning takes place at upper secondary level While all or
close to all learners at upper secondary level study at least one foreign language in
France Luxembourg Malta Romania Slovakia and Sweden less than half of learners do
so in the United Kingdom (figure 2)
Differences also exist between vocational and general educational tracks While
908 of learners in general upper secondary education study at least one foreign
language only 79 of learners in vocational tracks do24
Figure 2 - Share of secondary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 incomplete data for IE and UK
24 Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 (accessed 20062017)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
EU LU MT
CY
AT IT HR ES FR PL
SE SK RO
BG EL EE LV LT CZ FI DE
NL
HU DK
BE-
FR SI PT
BE-
FL
0
20
40
60
80
100
EU LU MT SE RO SK FR AT
BE-
FL CY FI IT BG LV HR PL SI CZ
HU LT EE EL NL
ES
BE-
FR PT
DE
DK
UK IE
lower secondary upper secondary
7
As the share of language learners has expanded overall there is a strong dominance of
English as the first ndash and often only - foreign language Studying two foreign
languages is compulsory for all learners in many Member States but not in all The
Member States where only one foreign language is compulsory for all learners include
Croatia Germany Ireland Belgium (French community) Hungary Spain Sweden and
the United Kingdom25 However in some of these countries learners are entitled to learn
two foreign languages if they so wish
In most countries English is the most studied foreign language followed by French and
German In Ireland and the United Kingdom French is most widely taught In
Luxembourg the two official State languages German and French are more widely taught
than English as are the different community languages in Belgium26
These statistics indicate a positive overall trend in access to languages from an early age
although the level of ambition for linguistic competency across Europe nonetheless falls
short of the Barcelona objective of two foreign languages
Rethinking language teaching Addressing todayrsquos societal economic and technological challenges requires re-thinking
the traditional way of teaching and learning languages both for monolingual and
multilingual learners There are a variety of good reasons for school systems and
practices to adapt to the increased diversity of European classrooms and effectively work
with multilingual learners Key concepts such lsquoliteracyrsquo lsquomultilingualismrsquo and lsquomother
tonguersquo will have to be reconceptualised to meet the new realities in European schools
Making the case for change
Young peoplersquos migration and linguistic backgrounds continue to be strong determinants
of their educational success OECD PISA data shows that there are vast achievement
gaps between the reading mathematics and science competences of learners with a
home language different from the language of schooling and those who speak the
language of schooling at home In some countries this achievement gap is equivalent to
15-2 years of schooling27 Low competence in literacy is especially problematic as it is a
foundation skill and pre-requisite for progress in other subject areas28
From an educational equity and inclusion perspective it is therefore essential to
ensure that all learners especially those with less competence in the language of
schooling are supported to develop literacy skills and provided with equal opportunities
to thrive alongside their peers This includes children with a migrant background
bilingual and multilingual learners but also monolingual lsquonativersquo learners with low levels
of literacy skills Effective multilingual teaching and learning has the potential to close the
achievement gap of migrant students compared to lsquonativersquo learners while enhancing the
cultural and civic education of all learners
25 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 30
26 ibid p 71
27 Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Paris OECD Publishing Annex B17
28 Council of Europe Language Policy Unit (2015) The Language dimension in all Subjects ndash A Handbook for
Curriculum Development and Teacher Training Council of Europe 2015
8
In addition to educational disadvantage it is not uncommon that migrant and
multilingual learners are discriminated against by pupils teachers or the school more
widely for not speaking the language of schooling correctly or using their home language
(the lsquowrong languagersquo) in the school context These learners are often encouraged to
supress a large part of their linguistic repertoire Educational practices can convey that
learnerrsquos home languages are low value29 and migrant and multilingual learners may face
closer scrutiny than their lsquonativersquo counterparts even when they master the language of
schooling30 From a human rights perspective the discrimination of learners based on
their language violates article 2 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
which specifies non-discrimination grounds including a childrsquos language31 These issues
must be addressed starting by the recognition that different languages form part of the
identity of multilingual learners and by enabling them to develop and maintain their
linguistic repertoire
Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire ie their
home language(s) language of schooling and any other language(s) they might speak
may have benefits beyond communication alone Several clinical studies have shown
positive effects of bi- and multilingualism including on metalinguistic awareness
cognitive control of behaviour attentional control and social cognition32 These health
benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth but also for
people who became bilingual later in life33 Evidence has also shown that positive effects
are sustained over the life-course34 and have been found to play a role in delaying the
onset of dementia35 It is important to note however that research on the cognitive
benefits of bilingualism is not conclusive and results seem to be context dependent36
The above issues show that there is a wide range of benefits of language learning As
regards the competence in languages the issue should not be lsquohow many languagesrsquo
one should learn but which language competences best correspond to each learnerrsquos
needs circumstances and interests An expanding language repertoire may spread from
the original nucleus of the language(s) spoken at home and the immediate social
environment to the language of schooling and the more academic languages with the
required levels of competence not necessarily being the same in every context This
requires a re-valuation of partial competence in multiple languages (or lsquoplurilingualismrsquo)
as a potential asset forming part of the individual learnersrsquo social cultural and linguistic
capital The challenge in this respect is perhaps one of assessment and validation in the
29 Mehmedbegovic D (2016) What every educator needs to know about cognitive benefits of bilingualism
Moving towards lsquolanguage hierarchy freersquo policy and practice Discussion Paper for the Thematic Panel on
languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27 September 2016
30 Kambel E-R (2016) The cost of doing nothing Educating language-minoritized students Discussion Paper
for Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27
September 2016
31 httpwwwohchrorgenprofessionalinterestpagescrcaspx For a link to the full document refer to UN
General Assembly (1989)
32 See eg Kovacs AM Mehler J (2009) Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106 (16)6556-6560 Bialystock E (1999) Cognitive complexity and attentional
control in the bilingual mind Child Development 70(3) 636-644
33 Vega-Mendoza M West H Sorace A Bak TH (2015) The impact of late non-balanced bilingualism
on cognitive performance Cognition 137 40-46
34 Kave G et al (2008) Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old Psychology and Ageing 23(1)
70-78
35 Alladi S Bak T et al (2013) Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia independent of education and
immigration status American Journal of Neurology 81 (22) 1938-44
36 Bak T (2016) Cooking pasta in La Paz Bilingualism bias and the replication crisis in Rothman J
Unsworth S (eds) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 65 John Benjamins Publishing Company p 655-717
9
context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to
formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the
timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning
Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress
across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different
levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the
ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing
number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple
languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people
may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of
competence
Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different
languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and
learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that
teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one
language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to
support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37
Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to
language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for
their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School
systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this
implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into
account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining
functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons
relevant to their own context
Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction
between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother
tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating
to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo
recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of
the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and
encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own
linguistic repertories are essential for their development
37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing
taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50
38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion
paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
5
In some countries this linguistic diversity is primarily due to first or second
generation migrant learners Countries with significant shares of migrants with
different home languages include Austria (151) and Sweden (118) Other countries
display large shares of native learners with different home languages This includes Malta
(844) Cyprus (14) Spain (127) and Italy (117) These countries are all
characterised by having two or more official languages or specific regions with distinct
minority languages Luxemburg is a special case with three official state languages and a
very high proportion of first and second generation migrant children
Across EU Member States the languages spoken at home if different from the language
of schooling is most often Spanish Turkish or Russian The strong prevalence of Spanish
can partly be explained by the fact that large shares of Spanish speaking learners are
taught in schools where the main language of schooling is a regional language
(Valencian Galician or Basque) Learners who speak Turkish at home are primarily found
in schools where the language of schooling is Danish Dutch German Finnish or French
while most learners who speak Russian at home can be found in schools where the
language of schooling is Czech Estonian Finnish German Latvia Lithuanian or Polish19
Schools face the challenge of great language heterogeneity in the classroom Across the
EU 97 of learners are taught in schools where more than 25 of learners speak a
home language different from the language of schooling Highest shares of learners in
linguistically diverse schools exist in Austria Belgium Cyprus Germany Luxembourg
Malta Spain and Sweden20 While diversity increases there is also some evidence that
the segregation of natives and migrants into specific schools has increased in some
Member States21
Foreign language learning in European schools
In contemporary European schools learners start learning a first foreign language22 at an
earlier age than 10 years ago Overall 838 of primary school children learned at least
one foreign language in 2014 (figure 1) compared to only 673 in 200523 In most
countries compulsory foreign language learning starts between the age of 6 and 8
All or close to all primary school children study at least one foreign language in Austria
Croatia Cyprus France Italy Luxembourg Malta Poland and Spain This implies that
foreign language learning is introduced in the primary school curriculum at the entry-
level grade At the other end of the spectrum are Belgium (Flemish and French
community) Slovenia and Portugal where less than half of all primary school children
study foreign languages In most cases this implies that foreign language learning is
introduced into the curriculum in the higher primary school grades and at lower
secondary level In the case of the Flemish community in Belgium for example a first
19 All data ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition
Eurydice Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22
20 ibid p 27
21 Brunello G De Paola M (2017) School Segregation of Immigrants and its effects on Educational
Outcomes in Europe EENEE Analytical Report No 30
22 lsquoForeign languagesrsquo are a relative concept which are defined differently across Member States and can
include modern foreign languages second and third languages and classical languages in some Member States
While this report uses the definition applied by each respective responsible education authority existing data
only provides an incomplete picture of the extent of language learning across the EU There is little comparative
evidence on actual linguistic competency of learners across Member States
23 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 11
6
foreign language is compulsory from the age of 10 only so that only the small group of
(older) children study languages at the primary level
Figure 1 ndash Share of primary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 no data for IE and UK
The vast majority of learners continue with foreign language learning throughout
compulsory education 988 study at least one foreign language at lower secondary
level and 597 study two foreign languages or more Not all learners maintain these
levels of language learning at upper secondary level with 858 of learners studying at
least one language at that level There are vast differences between Member States in
the extent to which language learning takes place at upper secondary level While all or
close to all learners at upper secondary level study at least one foreign language in
France Luxembourg Malta Romania Slovakia and Sweden less than half of learners do
so in the United Kingdom (figure 2)
Differences also exist between vocational and general educational tracks While
908 of learners in general upper secondary education study at least one foreign
language only 79 of learners in vocational tracks do24
Figure 2 - Share of secondary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 incomplete data for IE and UK
24 Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 (accessed 20062017)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
EU LU MT
CY
AT IT HR ES FR PL
SE SK RO
BG EL EE LV LT CZ FI DE
NL
HU DK
BE-
FR SI PT
BE-
FL
0
20
40
60
80
100
EU LU MT SE RO SK FR AT
BE-
FL CY FI IT BG LV HR PL SI CZ
HU LT EE EL NL
ES
BE-
FR PT
DE
DK
UK IE
lower secondary upper secondary
7
As the share of language learners has expanded overall there is a strong dominance of
English as the first ndash and often only - foreign language Studying two foreign
languages is compulsory for all learners in many Member States but not in all The
Member States where only one foreign language is compulsory for all learners include
Croatia Germany Ireland Belgium (French community) Hungary Spain Sweden and
the United Kingdom25 However in some of these countries learners are entitled to learn
two foreign languages if they so wish
In most countries English is the most studied foreign language followed by French and
German In Ireland and the United Kingdom French is most widely taught In
Luxembourg the two official State languages German and French are more widely taught
than English as are the different community languages in Belgium26
These statistics indicate a positive overall trend in access to languages from an early age
although the level of ambition for linguistic competency across Europe nonetheless falls
short of the Barcelona objective of two foreign languages
Rethinking language teaching Addressing todayrsquos societal economic and technological challenges requires re-thinking
the traditional way of teaching and learning languages both for monolingual and
multilingual learners There are a variety of good reasons for school systems and
practices to adapt to the increased diversity of European classrooms and effectively work
with multilingual learners Key concepts such lsquoliteracyrsquo lsquomultilingualismrsquo and lsquomother
tonguersquo will have to be reconceptualised to meet the new realities in European schools
Making the case for change
Young peoplersquos migration and linguistic backgrounds continue to be strong determinants
of their educational success OECD PISA data shows that there are vast achievement
gaps between the reading mathematics and science competences of learners with a
home language different from the language of schooling and those who speak the
language of schooling at home In some countries this achievement gap is equivalent to
15-2 years of schooling27 Low competence in literacy is especially problematic as it is a
foundation skill and pre-requisite for progress in other subject areas28
From an educational equity and inclusion perspective it is therefore essential to
ensure that all learners especially those with less competence in the language of
schooling are supported to develop literacy skills and provided with equal opportunities
to thrive alongside their peers This includes children with a migrant background
bilingual and multilingual learners but also monolingual lsquonativersquo learners with low levels
of literacy skills Effective multilingual teaching and learning has the potential to close the
achievement gap of migrant students compared to lsquonativersquo learners while enhancing the
cultural and civic education of all learners
25 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 30
26 ibid p 71
27 Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Paris OECD Publishing Annex B17
28 Council of Europe Language Policy Unit (2015) The Language dimension in all Subjects ndash A Handbook for
Curriculum Development and Teacher Training Council of Europe 2015
8
In addition to educational disadvantage it is not uncommon that migrant and
multilingual learners are discriminated against by pupils teachers or the school more
widely for not speaking the language of schooling correctly or using their home language
(the lsquowrong languagersquo) in the school context These learners are often encouraged to
supress a large part of their linguistic repertoire Educational practices can convey that
learnerrsquos home languages are low value29 and migrant and multilingual learners may face
closer scrutiny than their lsquonativersquo counterparts even when they master the language of
schooling30 From a human rights perspective the discrimination of learners based on
their language violates article 2 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
which specifies non-discrimination grounds including a childrsquos language31 These issues
must be addressed starting by the recognition that different languages form part of the
identity of multilingual learners and by enabling them to develop and maintain their
linguistic repertoire
Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire ie their
home language(s) language of schooling and any other language(s) they might speak
may have benefits beyond communication alone Several clinical studies have shown
positive effects of bi- and multilingualism including on metalinguistic awareness
cognitive control of behaviour attentional control and social cognition32 These health
benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth but also for
people who became bilingual later in life33 Evidence has also shown that positive effects
are sustained over the life-course34 and have been found to play a role in delaying the
onset of dementia35 It is important to note however that research on the cognitive
benefits of bilingualism is not conclusive and results seem to be context dependent36
The above issues show that there is a wide range of benefits of language learning As
regards the competence in languages the issue should not be lsquohow many languagesrsquo
one should learn but which language competences best correspond to each learnerrsquos
needs circumstances and interests An expanding language repertoire may spread from
the original nucleus of the language(s) spoken at home and the immediate social
environment to the language of schooling and the more academic languages with the
required levels of competence not necessarily being the same in every context This
requires a re-valuation of partial competence in multiple languages (or lsquoplurilingualismrsquo)
as a potential asset forming part of the individual learnersrsquo social cultural and linguistic
capital The challenge in this respect is perhaps one of assessment and validation in the
29 Mehmedbegovic D (2016) What every educator needs to know about cognitive benefits of bilingualism
Moving towards lsquolanguage hierarchy freersquo policy and practice Discussion Paper for the Thematic Panel on
languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27 September 2016
30 Kambel E-R (2016) The cost of doing nothing Educating language-minoritized students Discussion Paper
for Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27
September 2016
31 httpwwwohchrorgenprofessionalinterestpagescrcaspx For a link to the full document refer to UN
General Assembly (1989)
32 See eg Kovacs AM Mehler J (2009) Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106 (16)6556-6560 Bialystock E (1999) Cognitive complexity and attentional
control in the bilingual mind Child Development 70(3) 636-644
33 Vega-Mendoza M West H Sorace A Bak TH (2015) The impact of late non-balanced bilingualism
on cognitive performance Cognition 137 40-46
34 Kave G et al (2008) Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old Psychology and Ageing 23(1)
70-78
35 Alladi S Bak T et al (2013) Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia independent of education and
immigration status American Journal of Neurology 81 (22) 1938-44
36 Bak T (2016) Cooking pasta in La Paz Bilingualism bias and the replication crisis in Rothman J
Unsworth S (eds) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 65 John Benjamins Publishing Company p 655-717
9
context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to
formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the
timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning
Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress
across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different
levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the
ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing
number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple
languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people
may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of
competence
Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different
languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and
learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that
teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one
language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to
support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37
Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to
language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for
their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School
systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this
implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into
account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining
functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons
relevant to their own context
Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction
between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother
tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating
to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo
recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of
the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and
encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own
linguistic repertories are essential for their development
37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing
taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50
38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion
paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
6
foreign language is compulsory from the age of 10 only so that only the small group of
(older) children study languages at the primary level
Figure 1 ndash Share of primary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 no data for IE and UK
The vast majority of learners continue with foreign language learning throughout
compulsory education 988 study at least one foreign language at lower secondary
level and 597 study two foreign languages or more Not all learners maintain these
levels of language learning at upper secondary level with 858 of learners studying at
least one language at that level There are vast differences between Member States in
the extent to which language learning takes place at upper secondary level While all or
close to all learners at upper secondary level study at least one foreign language in
France Luxembourg Malta Romania Slovakia and Sweden less than half of learners do
so in the United Kingdom (figure 2)
Differences also exist between vocational and general educational tracks While
908 of learners in general upper secondary education study at least one foreign
language only 79 of learners in vocational tracks do24
Figure 2 - Share of secondary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014
Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 incomplete data for IE and UK
24 Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 (accessed 20062017)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
EU LU MT
CY
AT IT HR ES FR PL
SE SK RO
BG EL EE LV LT CZ FI DE
NL
HU DK
BE-
FR SI PT
BE-
FL
0
20
40
60
80
100
EU LU MT SE RO SK FR AT
BE-
FL CY FI IT BG LV HR PL SI CZ
HU LT EE EL NL
ES
BE-
FR PT
DE
DK
UK IE
lower secondary upper secondary
7
As the share of language learners has expanded overall there is a strong dominance of
English as the first ndash and often only - foreign language Studying two foreign
languages is compulsory for all learners in many Member States but not in all The
Member States where only one foreign language is compulsory for all learners include
Croatia Germany Ireland Belgium (French community) Hungary Spain Sweden and
the United Kingdom25 However in some of these countries learners are entitled to learn
two foreign languages if they so wish
In most countries English is the most studied foreign language followed by French and
German In Ireland and the United Kingdom French is most widely taught In
Luxembourg the two official State languages German and French are more widely taught
than English as are the different community languages in Belgium26
These statistics indicate a positive overall trend in access to languages from an early age
although the level of ambition for linguistic competency across Europe nonetheless falls
short of the Barcelona objective of two foreign languages
Rethinking language teaching Addressing todayrsquos societal economic and technological challenges requires re-thinking
the traditional way of teaching and learning languages both for monolingual and
multilingual learners There are a variety of good reasons for school systems and
practices to adapt to the increased diversity of European classrooms and effectively work
with multilingual learners Key concepts such lsquoliteracyrsquo lsquomultilingualismrsquo and lsquomother
tonguersquo will have to be reconceptualised to meet the new realities in European schools
Making the case for change
Young peoplersquos migration and linguistic backgrounds continue to be strong determinants
of their educational success OECD PISA data shows that there are vast achievement
gaps between the reading mathematics and science competences of learners with a
home language different from the language of schooling and those who speak the
language of schooling at home In some countries this achievement gap is equivalent to
15-2 years of schooling27 Low competence in literacy is especially problematic as it is a
foundation skill and pre-requisite for progress in other subject areas28
From an educational equity and inclusion perspective it is therefore essential to
ensure that all learners especially those with less competence in the language of
schooling are supported to develop literacy skills and provided with equal opportunities
to thrive alongside their peers This includes children with a migrant background
bilingual and multilingual learners but also monolingual lsquonativersquo learners with low levels
of literacy skills Effective multilingual teaching and learning has the potential to close the
achievement gap of migrant students compared to lsquonativersquo learners while enhancing the
cultural and civic education of all learners
25 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 30
26 ibid p 71
27 Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Paris OECD Publishing Annex B17
28 Council of Europe Language Policy Unit (2015) The Language dimension in all Subjects ndash A Handbook for
Curriculum Development and Teacher Training Council of Europe 2015
8
In addition to educational disadvantage it is not uncommon that migrant and
multilingual learners are discriminated against by pupils teachers or the school more
widely for not speaking the language of schooling correctly or using their home language
(the lsquowrong languagersquo) in the school context These learners are often encouraged to
supress a large part of their linguistic repertoire Educational practices can convey that
learnerrsquos home languages are low value29 and migrant and multilingual learners may face
closer scrutiny than their lsquonativersquo counterparts even when they master the language of
schooling30 From a human rights perspective the discrimination of learners based on
their language violates article 2 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
which specifies non-discrimination grounds including a childrsquos language31 These issues
must be addressed starting by the recognition that different languages form part of the
identity of multilingual learners and by enabling them to develop and maintain their
linguistic repertoire
Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire ie their
home language(s) language of schooling and any other language(s) they might speak
may have benefits beyond communication alone Several clinical studies have shown
positive effects of bi- and multilingualism including on metalinguistic awareness
cognitive control of behaviour attentional control and social cognition32 These health
benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth but also for
people who became bilingual later in life33 Evidence has also shown that positive effects
are sustained over the life-course34 and have been found to play a role in delaying the
onset of dementia35 It is important to note however that research on the cognitive
benefits of bilingualism is not conclusive and results seem to be context dependent36
The above issues show that there is a wide range of benefits of language learning As
regards the competence in languages the issue should not be lsquohow many languagesrsquo
one should learn but which language competences best correspond to each learnerrsquos
needs circumstances and interests An expanding language repertoire may spread from
the original nucleus of the language(s) spoken at home and the immediate social
environment to the language of schooling and the more academic languages with the
required levels of competence not necessarily being the same in every context This
requires a re-valuation of partial competence in multiple languages (or lsquoplurilingualismrsquo)
as a potential asset forming part of the individual learnersrsquo social cultural and linguistic
capital The challenge in this respect is perhaps one of assessment and validation in the
29 Mehmedbegovic D (2016) What every educator needs to know about cognitive benefits of bilingualism
Moving towards lsquolanguage hierarchy freersquo policy and practice Discussion Paper for the Thematic Panel on
languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27 September 2016
30 Kambel E-R (2016) The cost of doing nothing Educating language-minoritized students Discussion Paper
for Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27
September 2016
31 httpwwwohchrorgenprofessionalinterestpagescrcaspx For a link to the full document refer to UN
General Assembly (1989)
32 See eg Kovacs AM Mehler J (2009) Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106 (16)6556-6560 Bialystock E (1999) Cognitive complexity and attentional
control in the bilingual mind Child Development 70(3) 636-644
33 Vega-Mendoza M West H Sorace A Bak TH (2015) The impact of late non-balanced bilingualism
on cognitive performance Cognition 137 40-46
34 Kave G et al (2008) Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old Psychology and Ageing 23(1)
70-78
35 Alladi S Bak T et al (2013) Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia independent of education and
immigration status American Journal of Neurology 81 (22) 1938-44
36 Bak T (2016) Cooking pasta in La Paz Bilingualism bias and the replication crisis in Rothman J
Unsworth S (eds) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 65 John Benjamins Publishing Company p 655-717
9
context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to
formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the
timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning
Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress
across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different
levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the
ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing
number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple
languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people
may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of
competence
Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different
languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and
learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that
teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one
language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to
support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37
Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to
language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for
their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School
systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this
implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into
account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining
functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons
relevant to their own context
Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction
between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother
tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating
to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo
recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of
the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and
encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own
linguistic repertories are essential for their development
37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing
taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50
38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion
paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
7
As the share of language learners has expanded overall there is a strong dominance of
English as the first ndash and often only - foreign language Studying two foreign
languages is compulsory for all learners in many Member States but not in all The
Member States where only one foreign language is compulsory for all learners include
Croatia Germany Ireland Belgium (French community) Hungary Spain Sweden and
the United Kingdom25 However in some of these countries learners are entitled to learn
two foreign languages if they so wish
In most countries English is the most studied foreign language followed by French and
German In Ireland and the United Kingdom French is most widely taught In
Luxembourg the two official State languages German and French are more widely taught
than English as are the different community languages in Belgium26
These statistics indicate a positive overall trend in access to languages from an early age
although the level of ambition for linguistic competency across Europe nonetheless falls
short of the Barcelona objective of two foreign languages
Rethinking language teaching Addressing todayrsquos societal economic and technological challenges requires re-thinking
the traditional way of teaching and learning languages both for monolingual and
multilingual learners There are a variety of good reasons for school systems and
practices to adapt to the increased diversity of European classrooms and effectively work
with multilingual learners Key concepts such lsquoliteracyrsquo lsquomultilingualismrsquo and lsquomother
tonguersquo will have to be reconceptualised to meet the new realities in European schools
Making the case for change
Young peoplersquos migration and linguistic backgrounds continue to be strong determinants
of their educational success OECD PISA data shows that there are vast achievement
gaps between the reading mathematics and science competences of learners with a
home language different from the language of schooling and those who speak the
language of schooling at home In some countries this achievement gap is equivalent to
15-2 years of schooling27 Low competence in literacy is especially problematic as it is a
foundation skill and pre-requisite for progress in other subject areas28
From an educational equity and inclusion perspective it is therefore essential to
ensure that all learners especially those with less competence in the language of
schooling are supported to develop literacy skills and provided with equal opportunities
to thrive alongside their peers This includes children with a migrant background
bilingual and multilingual learners but also monolingual lsquonativersquo learners with low levels
of literacy skills Effective multilingual teaching and learning has the potential to close the
achievement gap of migrant students compared to lsquonativersquo learners while enhancing the
cultural and civic education of all learners
25 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice
Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 30
26 ibid p 71
27 Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in
Education Paris OECD Publishing Annex B17
28 Council of Europe Language Policy Unit (2015) The Language dimension in all Subjects ndash A Handbook for
Curriculum Development and Teacher Training Council of Europe 2015
8
In addition to educational disadvantage it is not uncommon that migrant and
multilingual learners are discriminated against by pupils teachers or the school more
widely for not speaking the language of schooling correctly or using their home language
(the lsquowrong languagersquo) in the school context These learners are often encouraged to
supress a large part of their linguistic repertoire Educational practices can convey that
learnerrsquos home languages are low value29 and migrant and multilingual learners may face
closer scrutiny than their lsquonativersquo counterparts even when they master the language of
schooling30 From a human rights perspective the discrimination of learners based on
their language violates article 2 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
which specifies non-discrimination grounds including a childrsquos language31 These issues
must be addressed starting by the recognition that different languages form part of the
identity of multilingual learners and by enabling them to develop and maintain their
linguistic repertoire
Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire ie their
home language(s) language of schooling and any other language(s) they might speak
may have benefits beyond communication alone Several clinical studies have shown
positive effects of bi- and multilingualism including on metalinguistic awareness
cognitive control of behaviour attentional control and social cognition32 These health
benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth but also for
people who became bilingual later in life33 Evidence has also shown that positive effects
are sustained over the life-course34 and have been found to play a role in delaying the
onset of dementia35 It is important to note however that research on the cognitive
benefits of bilingualism is not conclusive and results seem to be context dependent36
The above issues show that there is a wide range of benefits of language learning As
regards the competence in languages the issue should not be lsquohow many languagesrsquo
one should learn but which language competences best correspond to each learnerrsquos
needs circumstances and interests An expanding language repertoire may spread from
the original nucleus of the language(s) spoken at home and the immediate social
environment to the language of schooling and the more academic languages with the
required levels of competence not necessarily being the same in every context This
requires a re-valuation of partial competence in multiple languages (or lsquoplurilingualismrsquo)
as a potential asset forming part of the individual learnersrsquo social cultural and linguistic
capital The challenge in this respect is perhaps one of assessment and validation in the
29 Mehmedbegovic D (2016) What every educator needs to know about cognitive benefits of bilingualism
Moving towards lsquolanguage hierarchy freersquo policy and practice Discussion Paper for the Thematic Panel on
languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27 September 2016
30 Kambel E-R (2016) The cost of doing nothing Educating language-minoritized students Discussion Paper
for Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27
September 2016
31 httpwwwohchrorgenprofessionalinterestpagescrcaspx For a link to the full document refer to UN
General Assembly (1989)
32 See eg Kovacs AM Mehler J (2009) Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106 (16)6556-6560 Bialystock E (1999) Cognitive complexity and attentional
control in the bilingual mind Child Development 70(3) 636-644
33 Vega-Mendoza M West H Sorace A Bak TH (2015) The impact of late non-balanced bilingualism
on cognitive performance Cognition 137 40-46
34 Kave G et al (2008) Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old Psychology and Ageing 23(1)
70-78
35 Alladi S Bak T et al (2013) Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia independent of education and
immigration status American Journal of Neurology 81 (22) 1938-44
36 Bak T (2016) Cooking pasta in La Paz Bilingualism bias and the replication crisis in Rothman J
Unsworth S (eds) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 65 John Benjamins Publishing Company p 655-717
9
context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to
formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the
timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning
Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress
across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different
levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the
ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing
number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple
languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people
may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of
competence
Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different
languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and
learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that
teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one
language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to
support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37
Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to
language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for
their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School
systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this
implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into
account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining
functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons
relevant to their own context
Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction
between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother
tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating
to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo
recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of
the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and
encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own
linguistic repertories are essential for their development
37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing
taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50
38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion
paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
8
In addition to educational disadvantage it is not uncommon that migrant and
multilingual learners are discriminated against by pupils teachers or the school more
widely for not speaking the language of schooling correctly or using their home language
(the lsquowrong languagersquo) in the school context These learners are often encouraged to
supress a large part of their linguistic repertoire Educational practices can convey that
learnerrsquos home languages are low value29 and migrant and multilingual learners may face
closer scrutiny than their lsquonativersquo counterparts even when they master the language of
schooling30 From a human rights perspective the discrimination of learners based on
their language violates article 2 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
which specifies non-discrimination grounds including a childrsquos language31 These issues
must be addressed starting by the recognition that different languages form part of the
identity of multilingual learners and by enabling them to develop and maintain their
linguistic repertoire
Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire ie their
home language(s) language of schooling and any other language(s) they might speak
may have benefits beyond communication alone Several clinical studies have shown
positive effects of bi- and multilingualism including on metalinguistic awareness
cognitive control of behaviour attentional control and social cognition32 These health
benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth but also for
people who became bilingual later in life33 Evidence has also shown that positive effects
are sustained over the life-course34 and have been found to play a role in delaying the
onset of dementia35 It is important to note however that research on the cognitive
benefits of bilingualism is not conclusive and results seem to be context dependent36
The above issues show that there is a wide range of benefits of language learning As
regards the competence in languages the issue should not be lsquohow many languagesrsquo
one should learn but which language competences best correspond to each learnerrsquos
needs circumstances and interests An expanding language repertoire may spread from
the original nucleus of the language(s) spoken at home and the immediate social
environment to the language of schooling and the more academic languages with the
required levels of competence not necessarily being the same in every context This
requires a re-valuation of partial competence in multiple languages (or lsquoplurilingualismrsquo)
as a potential asset forming part of the individual learnersrsquo social cultural and linguistic
capital The challenge in this respect is perhaps one of assessment and validation in the
29 Mehmedbegovic D (2016) What every educator needs to know about cognitive benefits of bilingualism
Moving towards lsquolanguage hierarchy freersquo policy and practice Discussion Paper for the Thematic Panel on
languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27 September 2016
30 Kambel E-R (2016) The cost of doing nothing Educating language-minoritized students Discussion Paper
for Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27
September 2016
31 httpwwwohchrorgenprofessionalinterestpagescrcaspx For a link to the full document refer to UN
General Assembly (1989)
32 See eg Kovacs AM Mehler J (2009) Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106 (16)6556-6560 Bialystock E (1999) Cognitive complexity and attentional
control in the bilingual mind Child Development 70(3) 636-644
33 Vega-Mendoza M West H Sorace A Bak TH (2015) The impact of late non-balanced bilingualism
on cognitive performance Cognition 137 40-46
34 Kave G et al (2008) Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old Psychology and Ageing 23(1)
70-78
35 Alladi S Bak T et al (2013) Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia independent of education and
immigration status American Journal of Neurology 81 (22) 1938-44
36 Bak T (2016) Cooking pasta in La Paz Bilingualism bias and the replication crisis in Rothman J
Unsworth S (eds) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 65 John Benjamins Publishing Company p 655-717
9
context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to
formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the
timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning
Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress
across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different
levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the
ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing
number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple
languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people
may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of
competence
Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different
languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and
learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that
teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one
language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to
support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37
Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to
language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for
their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School
systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this
implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into
account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining
functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons
relevant to their own context
Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction
between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother
tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating
to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo
recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of
the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and
encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own
linguistic repertories are essential for their development
37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing
taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50
38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion
paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
9
context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to
formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the
timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning
Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress
across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different
levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the
ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing
number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple
languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people
may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of
competence
Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different
languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and
learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that
teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one
language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to
support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37
Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to
language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for
their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School
systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this
implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into
account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining
functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons
relevant to their own context
Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction
between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother
tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating
to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo
recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of
the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and
encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own
linguistic repertories are essential for their development
37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing
taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50
38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion
paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
10
New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and
linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from
research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for
effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following
Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
A growing body of research
evidence shows that putting the
needs circumstances and interests
of the individual learner at the
heart of (language) learning
improves learning and supports the
achievement of learning
outcomes39 Student-centred
approaches consult learners not
only what they want to study but
also explore why this is relevant
and how it can best be studied40
Learners may benefit from
education systems which provide
them with the opportunity to
expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the
immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of
international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of
international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular
literatures41
On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or
lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the
content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language
learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into
everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning
materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43
Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond
their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the
voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their
39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern
Education Volume I Issue I 677-680
40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based
learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer
11-23
41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key
competence framework 04-05042017
42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist
12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A
Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131
London Modern English Publications and The British Council
43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99
Language learner
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
11
educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other
characteristics on these
Supporting language learning throughout the education system
The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual
awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample
research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language
development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing
diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional
development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who
donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level
can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of
childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion
of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff
lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989
which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in
their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity
addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with
minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC
teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one
who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful
way45
Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in
multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways
to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting
methodological competences
pedagogical content knowledge and
experience47 Linguistic awareness
linguistic responsive teaching
combining language with content
teaching and supporting learners in
multilingual settings is important
learning content of teacher
education Using latest research
evidence to inform the design of
teacher training is important to
ensure that teaching is effective
Teacher educators have a key role
to play in equipping teachers with
44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of
the European Union p 33
45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with
Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997
46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg
Publication Office of the European Union
47 ibid
Teacher and multilingual learners
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
12
the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research
evidence
The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a
specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence
from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48
Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching
practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative
language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for
communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT
technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning
Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching
(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits
for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall
teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-
language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The
subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL
science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject
matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject
practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying
this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include
i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners
ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)
scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52
Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners
from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity
Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the
school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a
project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school
implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-
cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal
using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to
increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to
connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were
legitimised in the classroom54
48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)
49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan
50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted
language learning EC report 25042014
51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework
52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of
the European Union
53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A
perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in
urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
13
Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
Testing and assessment exerts a
strong influence over the value
assigned to language teaching and
learning This is problematic where
such assessments are monolingual
and in the language of schooling
New ways of assessment should be
considered including assessments
that take place in different modes of
observation and appraisal
Assessment of multilingual learners
may consider allowing learners to
use their full linguistic repertoire in
assessments (in contrast to only the
language of schooling) Schools may
also consider to assess subject
specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for
lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the
Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim
to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo
progress56
The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual
writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed
assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side
analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It
additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use
across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language
transfers are seen as strengths57
Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive
environments
Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their
learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners
as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school
becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching
practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create
physical and symbolic spaces for different languages
55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based
Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment
Language and Education 31 231-248
Multilingual learners
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
14
First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include
the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for
example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58
Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and
multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from
reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while
parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of
language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting
multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for
example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by
providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole
municipalities59
Conclusions
The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still
resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe
today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least
two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language
competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal
entitlement rather than a preserve of the few
Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education
with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of
language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time
however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when
compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for
example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for
40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask
the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level
language competences60
Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from
learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably
low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational
policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign
language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will
provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests
and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning
58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education
University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the
PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of
schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD
(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment
httpsrmcoeint1680459f97
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
15
The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends
an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching
and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-
assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for
conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile
world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic
diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences
Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an
ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural
complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual
competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete
guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines
must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within
national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional
development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists
to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and
translanguaging
This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples
of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and
learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop
frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national
educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for
learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching
In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work
supporting this report include the following
1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the
main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the
bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further
learning
2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means
of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued
learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase
3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-
raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the
linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider
natural and enriching
4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming
language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for
schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher
professional development
5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for
turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within
classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
16
CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their
implementation
6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment
which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide
teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These
linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner
progress
Further information
An overview of the European Commissions School policy
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en
Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en
More abouthellip
Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition
httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en
The Key Competence Framework
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en
Multilingual classrooms
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en
School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children
httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en
For further information on the programme events supported by the European
Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please
direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture
Kristina Cunningham
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu
Ana-Maria Stan
Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism
Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS
Free publications
bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)
from the delegations in non-EU countries
(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)
or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()
() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may
charge you)
Priced publications
bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-
NC-0
2-1
8-0
66-E
N-N
doi 102766584023
ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0
- Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Context
-
- Increasing diversity in European classrooms
- A progressively interconnected world
- Advancing language technologies
-
- Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe
-
- Learners with different home languages
- Foreign language learning in European schools
-
- Rethinking language teaching
-
- Making the case for change
- Rethinking key-concepts of language learning
-
- New ways of teaching languages in schools
-
- Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner
- Supporting language learning throughout the education system
- Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings
- Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies
- Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment
- Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ
- Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments
-
- Conclusions
-