When talking of the castings that make up the modern

racing engine, the cylinder head and the cylinder

block are those that are the most complex and

which have the most important functions. The

cylinder block normally carries the cylinders and forms at least the

upper portion of the crankcase. In the motorcycle world in particular

it is not uncommon to have a detachable crankcase and in some

instances the cylinders are individually mounted between the head

and the crankcase. Here we will assume that the block carries the

cylinders and forms the upper portion of each crankshaft main bearing

housing as it does in most racecar engines.

We have asked for the opinions and thoughts of many of the major

manufacturers involved in racing, to give you a glimpse of the state

of the art in the manufacture of these components. One fact that will

emerge is that to talk of ‘castings’ can be misleading, as many suppliers

now offer ‘billet’ items machined from high quality wrought materials.

BACKGROUNDOn a four-stroke racing engine that is liquid-cooled, particularly

those of the overhead cam type, the cylinder head is commonly the

most complex of the non-rotating components. In addition to having

to contain the incoming charge, combustion products and the large

forces involved in the combustion process, it has to accommodate

the combustion chamber, inlet and exhaust ports, a large part of the

valvetrain, part of the cooling circuit, and lots of lubrication channels.

In addition to these, in Formula One there is the requirement to have

additional passages and galleries concerned with the pneumatic valve

return system (PVRS, also known as ‘air springs’). This has not always

been the case though, and in the very early days when engines were

much simpler (especially side-valve engines), the head had little

function other than to contain the combustion forces and was called

a ‘cylinder cover’. It is also now quite common for a race engine to

be a semi-stressed or fully stressed member of the car or motorcycle

chassis, and the cylinder head is therefore an important structural

component in its own right.

The cylinder block, in addition to normally providing the bearing

housings for the crankshaft often, but not necessarily, carries liners in

which the pistons work. In recent years, as bespoke racing engines

have become more compact, there has been a tendency for linerless

cylinder blocks, with a bore coating applied directly to the block

32

Wayne Ward discusses the state of the art in the technology of components forming key aspects of a race engine’s architecture

Structural symphony

W16 block and sump, with heads ready for fitting (courtesy AVL Schrick)

FOCUS : HEADS AND BLOCKS

engines for low volume premium products. Even in this financially

straitened era, there is a seemingly healthy market for extremely high-

value road cars for well-heeled individuals.

In the majority of cases, and certainly among those foundries

whose opinions we canvassed, sand casting is the preferred method

of manufacture. This method makes economic sense for small to

medium volumes, and it is within this category that the majority of

racing work is placed. The tooling costs, whilst not insignificant,

are very much lower than would be involved in investment casting.

However, the foundries that we spoke to revealed, unsurprisingly, that

there is constant pressure on them to produce thinner walled castings

and this is one area where sand castings are at a disadvantage to

investment castings. The other area where sand cast components suffer

in comparison with investment castings is in terms of surface finish,

although there are methods by which this can be improved either as

part of the casting process itself, or by post-treatment.

In sand casting, patterns and moulds are made into which sand

is moulded and solidified, and it is these sand pieces which define

the shape of the casting. More often than not these days, the patterns

are CNC machined and the skill and art of pattern-makers is sadly

on the wane. Gone are the days when we could supply a drawing

with external views and a series of representative sections. Pattern-

makers working on cylinder heads, blocks and the like were, and still

are in a small number of cases, very skilled men and once this skill

has been lost, it will be gone forever. It is nowadays common and

accepted practice to supply three-dimensional CAD data direct to the

foundry to allow it to plan the manufacture of the patternwork and

the castings. In some cases, providing that the machined surfaces are

clearly defined, foundries are prepared to accept a model of the finish-

machined component. In many cases it is accepted that the designer

doesn’t know exactly how the complex patternwork tooling will be

33

rather than to a liner that is inserted into it. While European and

Far Eastern motor manufacturers have moved toward the overhead

camshaft engine, American manufacturers have tended to remain

faithful to the overhead valve engine with the camshaft contained

within the cylinder block. In this case there is a trade-off with

overhead valve engines having a more complex cylinder block and a

less complex cylinder head. The overhead valve engine can, for the

same basic architecture and engine size, offer packaging advantages

owing to the compact nature of the cylinder head.

In common with the cylinder head, the block has to provide part of

the lubrication and cooling circuits for the engine. Again the cylinder

block has an important structural role in terms of being an integral part

of the chassis, and while the cylinder head may not actually have any

chassis or gearbox mounting points, it is very common for the cylinder

block to do so.

ARCHITECTURETraditionally, the crankshaft has been retained by main bearing caps

fastened to the cylinder block with an oil-pan or sump acting as an oil

reservoir and cover fitted afterwards. Many modern racing applications

have dispensed with the main bearing caps, and integrate these within

a cast sump or lower crankcase which is line-bored as an assembly

with the cylinder block. Deep-skirt cylinder blocks extend below the

crankshaft axis and still retain the traditional main bearing caps. In

these cases the retention of oil within the engine is looked after by

what is essentially a flat plate. A mid-way point between these two

concepts is to have the flat ‘sump base plate’ and the main bearing

caps integrated into a single ‘ladder frame’.

Similarly with overhead cam cylinder heads, there has been a trend

to dispense with cam bearing caps and integrate this function within

the cam cover. In many cases, overhead cam cylinder heads have

traditionally been designed as

two castings, with the upper part,

referred to as the cam carrier being

a separate component. A recent

trend in race engine design has

been to incorporate the two into

a single, more complex casting.

This has the advantage of a less

complex tolerance stack up, and

possibly increased engine stiffness

as a result of having less bolted

joints within the engine.

MANUFACTUREThe majority of cylinder blocks

and cylinder heads are cast

components. There are a large

number of foundries that deal with

race engine components and some

that deal almost exclusively with

racing customers, perhaps only

dealing with series production

Partly assembled sand cores and mouldings for

V6 cylinder block (courtesy of GPD Developments)

t

34

FOCUS : HEADS AND BLOCKS

split and in which direction it will be assembled. Therefore the casting

supplier often has some work to do in applying the correct ‘draught’ to

the casting models.

One of the new technologies being found in the field of casting

technologies is that of printed sand patterns. This is essentially a rapid-

prototyping technology applied to the manufacture of castings. There

is therefore the opportunity to easily change the design of the castings

between production runs, or in theory, for each individual casting.

While from the perspective of the designer this can sound like an ideal

world, there is the danger that anything other than a subtle change

might cause problems. In speaking to casting suppliers, it is clear that

casting is anything but an exact science. While there may be some

general rules which can be followed, when a new casting is initially

manufactured, there is a phase called ‘casting development’ where

problems are ironed-out in the same way that we overcome initial

problems when we first run an

engine. This might involve changes

to the patterns, the system of feeds

for the molten alloy, or the addition

of chills to increase the mechanical

properties in certain areas. These

chills cause faster cooling rates in

certain areas of the casting.

The casting development

process also seeks to ensure the

accuracy and integrity of the

casting. Accuracy is checked by

normal dimensional inspection

techniques, plus a 100% marking

out of all machined features

before delivery of any castings

to the customer. In terms of

ensuring integrity, there are a

number of measures that can be

taken. Commonly castings are

sectioned and visually checked,

with additional work done using a

microscope to check that porosity

is minimal in stressed sections.

Castings are also sometimes subjected to x-rays (in the same way that

broken people are) to check for large scale defects.

Modern technology has advanced this quality control further.

For some time it has been possible to have castings examined using

the same CT scanning techniques that are used medically. Once

again this is an x-ray technique, but it gives much more information,

and is more easily understood than simple pictures. It is possible to

construct a three-dimensional model of the casting, and to compare

this to the customer’s initial casting model. The technique can also be

used to detect defects in the casting at levels which were previously

unachievable, and subsequent casting development can be undertaken

to eradicate these. One well-known supplier of racing castings,

currently supplying castings to Formula One as well as other major

race series worldwide has a CT scanning facility at its works and now

commonly uses this as a 100% quality check for all castings of a

particular type.

Casting has traditionally been of the gravity type, whereby molten

metal is introduced at the top of the mould and is fed by gravity to

the rest of the moulding. Some years ago (thirty-one to be precise)

Cosworth developed a casting process that eliminated a lot of the

problems with conventional gravity sand castings in aluminium.

Besides a great pedigree in engine design, this company has been a

great innovator in manufacturing. The process, now commonly known

as the ‘Coscast’ process, is now quite common in racing owing to

its lower defect level and greater ability to produce thinner walled

castings. It is particularly noted for the decrease in hydrogen porosity.

The Coscast process uses gas pressure to force molten metal through

the bottom of the mould. The metal is drawn from the bottom of a

vessel containing the molten alloy, and this is the reason why there are

Machined from solid Chevrolet V8 cylinder block (courtesy Dart Machinery)

Cast Aluminium Ford V8 Block (courtesy Dart Machinery)

t

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RET_ADTEMP.indd 1 29/10/09 20:17:09

36

lower levels of alumina inclusions.

In terms of ensuring casting integrity a process known as hot

isostatic pressing (HIP) is used to help close small voids in the casting

and to increase density. More than one of those canvassed used

almost the same words in describing the usefulness of the process

– it will make a good casting a little better, but it will not turn a

poor casting into a good one. Before deciding to specify HIP to

your existing casting specification, you should be aware that it will

dimensionally change the part and, on a block or head, that change

will be significant. There is a greater shrinkage allowance made at the

patternmaking stage for castings that are HIP treated, so this needs to

be specified at the design stage. Fatigue properties are thought to be

improved by using the HIP process.

We should note that aluminium investment castings have been used

successfully for racing applications for cylinder blocks, and possibly

heads, using the ‘Sophia’ casting process. This process offers, relative

to sand-casting, thinner walls and better mechanical properties owing

to rapid solidification of the material.

For ‘billet’ blocks, there are no such worries over integrity

(assuming billet quality is good), and the mechanical strength of

these parts is excellent. Owing to the fact that there are very few

metallurgical problems with good quality wrought material, fatigue

strength is also excellent. Little wonder that they are popular in drag

racing and increasingly in other race series too. Some people even

specify billet cylinder blocks for highly up-rated road cars. There are

clearly compromises which have to be made in using a machined

from solid cylinder block. We need to accept that we cannot have the

complicated internal features that are easily incorporated in castings,

and that tool access will necessarily limit where we can remove

unwanted metal from. However, in all other areas, wall thickness is

limited only by the skills of the machinist and the accuracy of the

machine tools used in manufacture.

There have been some attempts and design studies done into the

manufacture of overhead-cam cylinder heads machined from wrought

material. There have been a number of successful single cylinder

applications, particularly for test applications. It is felt to be possible

to produce a reasonably complex cylinder head for multi-cylinder

applications from solid, even incorporating water cooling, although

some compromises would have to be made in the complexity of the

design of coolant passages and so forth. The obvious advantages of

this type of manufacture are repeatability and material properties, but

this would come at the expense of increased machining time and cost.

One company we spoke to for this article has already developed billet

heads for overhead valve applications for extreme stress use. These

have also taken advantage of bespoke material, such is the nature of

the application.

On the subject of machining, we should acknowledge the increase

in accuracy that CNC machine tools have brought to the machining

of heads and blocks, whether machined from solid or produced

from castings. In conjunction with the explosion of affordable

CNC machine tools and the number of skilled operators, tooling

development means that machining quality is now excellent and

surface finish is better than ever. Accuracy is taking another step

forward with greater application of probing on the machine tool,

where the dimensional accuracy of the machining is checked during

the manufacture of the part rather than afterwards.

CNC machining has brought a great advantage to the engine

developer who manually develops ports by the process of hand-

fettling. It is now possible to have his or her ideal port inspected,

and from this data a 3D representation produced which can then be

repeated in each port of countless cylinder heads. There are a number

of companies who specialise in just this kind of work on both sides

of the Atlantic. Closely allied to manufacturing is design and the new

CAD/CAM software was mentioned as leading to improvements in

product design, manufacture and also manufacturing efficiency.

While there is less material removal involved in the machining

An aluminium V8 block, chromate treated before machining (courtesy Dart Machinery)

37

of castings, and normally less machining time involved, there is

an additional stage owing to the inherent variability of the casting

process. Each individual casting has to be ‘balanced’, which is a

process whereby the machine operator has to mark out each casting

individually to ensure that the machine features are as central as

possible within the material to ensure sufficient wall thickness after

machining. In assembling the sand pieces that make up the mould,

there is invariably some variation in the positioning of the pieces. This

leads to some variation from piece to piece, and the best compromise

needs to be made in each case in deciding where to machine the

datum features.

MATERIALSIn general, for block and head we will be talking of two main groups

of materials: aluminium and cast iron. Cast iron is the more traditional

of the two materials and is still used today for both race and road

applications. However, aluminium has supplanted cast iron to a large

extent as the push for lower overall engine weight continues. There

have been some attempts to use other materials with varying degrees

of success.

Magnesium has been tried on occasion for cylinder blocks, with

some experimental Formula One V10 blocks being cast some time

ago but these were not a successful venture. While I am not aware of

any engine manufacturer having used a magnesium cylinder head in

recent times, there may be advantages beyond lower mass to using

this material, although there would undoubtedly be problems to

overcome before it could be successfully used. This advance will not

come from Formula One, which was previously the natural home

of such innovation (especially given its large development budgets)

because today’s materials regulations specifically proscribe the use of

magnesium.

The fantastically adventurous Polimotor sports-prototype race

engine from the mid eighties used a polymer matrix composite

cylinder block with reasonable success. It is a shame that this

project did not go further, as it undoubtedly could have done if such

development had been funded.

In terms of cast aluminium, the traditional grade, used for many

years was LM25/L99 UK specification and A356, the equivalent US

specification. This has, for blocks and heads at least, been replaced

in large part by L169/ A357. The latter alloy offers better mechanical

properties than A356 and also better fatigue properties. There is always

a compromise, and A357 has lower elongation than A356, which can

mean that some machining operations can be slightly more difficult.

C355 was also mentioned by some of our sources as an alloy with

merit, benefiting from better properties than the ‘default’ A356.

Mention was also made of the benefits of using ‘virgin’ or primary

material. There is a cost benefit to using material with a percentage of

secondary or scrap material, but herein also lies risk. The secondary

material, even though it is of the same or very similar chemical

composition may contain unwanted contaminants, which would

compromise the integrity and strength of the casting produced.

Moreover, casting sand does not always remain where it should, i.e.

at the foundry. It is still common, albeit less so of late, to find some

small pieces of sand retained within the internal cavities of the casting.

These can cause problems in use if they become detached when the

engine is run, blocking lubricant passages, damaging bearings and

other components and so forth. However, it is quite possible for sand

to remain attached throughout the life of the engine and to cause

us no problems at all. If these engine parts are then re-melted, the

sand is then released into the melt alloy and can find its way into the

casting, particularly in the case of gravity castings. A particle or lump

of sand will act as a stress concentration, markedly diminishing the

fatigue properties of the casting. The use of virgin casting material,

unadulterated by scrap casting material and any sand trapped within

precludes this problem.

For very high performance applications people are starting to look

beyond the A3xx series alloys and to the A2xx series. These are more

exotic alloys and more expensive than the A3xx alloys. According to

our sources, they are also more difficult alloys to obtain high integrity

parts from. However, in doing so, the prize is significantly higher

mechanical properties both at room temperature and at elevated

temperatures. As an example of this type of alloy, compared to A356-

T7, A201-T7 has approximately

70% higher yield strength at room

temperature (ref 1).

Cast iron has been losing

market share for very many years,

but recent developments have

brought it back into favour for

some applications, even for series

production applications. Many

recent high-specification road

cars have cast-iron blocks again.

The reason for this is the advent

of vermicular or compacted

graphite iron (often simply called

CGI). Vermicular means ‘worm-

like’ and is used to describe the

material structure. Compacted

FOCUS : HEADS AND BLOCKS

W16 cylinder block assembled

with sump, undergoing CMM

inspection (courtesy AVL Schrick)

t

38

FOCUS : HEADS AND BLOCKS

graphite iron contains small additions of magnesium, which is

drawn to and then effectively envelopes the graphite within the cast

iron, allowing it to form the worm-like shape (the vermicular term,

which is much more descriptive once you realise its origin, refers to

the graphite within the iron).

One of the companies we spoke to explained that the graphite

‘worms’ form an interlocking structure, and it is this which gives

compacted graphite iron its strength. There are race series where cast

iron is mandated for use in engine blocks, and here CGI has become

the material of choice, owing to its significantly increased strength

compared to traditional ‘grey’ cast iron. One supplier of heads that

supplies a wide range of race series specifies CGI for ‘extreme stress’

applications and conventional ‘grey’ cast iron for more normal use,

and stated that the mechanical properties of CGI compared with his

usual ‘grey’ iron are increased “dramatically”.

At the moment, some people are simply substituting CGI for grey

iron, effectively giving a greater factor of safety against failure. As

time progresses, people will really begin to take full advantage of

CGI’s material properties, and this is being done in some of the more

advanced racing applications. NASCAR Cup engines are thought to use

CGI exclusively for cylinder blocks,

and these will, without doubt,

have been developed to take best

advantage of the properties of the

material. There is some anecdotal

evidence supporting the suggestion

that CGI crankcases have been

used in Grand Prix motorcycle road

racing, although possibly not in the

last few years.

One foundry expert stated that

it is important how the magnesium

is incorporated within the cast

iron and in particular care has

to be taken to develop a method

of doing so which ensures an

homogenous distribution of the

magnesium. If the melt is not

uniform, there will be parts of it

that do not produce the enhanced

vermicular structure, and some

components will have a ‘grey’

iron structure, which will have

approximately half the strength of

the desired CGI material. Clearly

for highly stressed parts which have

been designed to take advantage of

the material properties of CGI, this

would be disastrous.

INSERTSParticularly in the case of cylinder

heads, there are inserts, which are

fitted as the parent metal is unsuitable in some cases for the function

that it must fulfil. For cylinder heads, these inserts are generally the

valve seats and guides. For racing the seats are traditionally bronze

materials, and those canvassed for this article use a wide range of

materials. For the highest specifications, beryllium-copper alloys seem

most popular. Copper-beryllium would be a more accurate description

of these materials, as they only contain small proportions of the

expensive addition of beryllium. It is common for the inlet and exhaust

seats to be made of different alloys, with a higher conductivity alloy

often used for exhaust seat applications.

Series production road cars have, in many cases, dispensed with

the fitting of seat inserts and instead employ a sprayed metal seat,

which is deposited onto the casting. This has been employed in some

racing applications, particularly, it would seem, by those racing

organisations funded directly by major motor manufacturers. The

amount of investment required is large, and while this can be justified

in the case of large-volume series production runs, the economic case

for this technology in racing is hard to make. It does allow the valves

to be run a little closer together and where people are trying to fit the

very largest valves into a limited space, it can offer an advantage.

Machined Honda inline 4 head (courtesy Dart Machinery)

t

Part-machined inline 4 cylinder head (courtesy of GPD Developments)

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RET-Monitor and the Race Technology Reports, is expanding. We are on the look out for freelance/part-time and possibly full time technical writers to join our team.

Working from home or out of our Somerset, England offi ces the ideal candidates will have an understanding of engineering and the ability to communicate by the written word,

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To register your interest please send a CV and if possible a sample PDF of written work to ian@highpowermedia.com or call us for an informal conversation on +44 (0) 1934 713811

RET_ADTEMP.indd 1 30/10/09 16:41:11

40

In terms of valve guides, similar materials are often used, namely

bronze alloys. There have been various attempts to use other materials

for this application and, as ever, there have been varying degrees of

success. Attempts at using coated aluminium rely on the valve guide

bore not having to be machined afterwards, or need a relatively

thick coating to be used which allows some material removal. This

is difficult where thin valve stems are utilised, as is generally the

case in racing. Polymer guides have been tried with some success. A

promising avenue of development appears to be aluminium guides

manufactured from a different material to the head casting. Special

purpose alloys exist which can be successfully used uncoated for

racing valve guide applications.

The decision on whether to machine the valve guide ‘flush’ with

the inside surface of the port is felt to depend on the unsupported

length of the valve. There seem to be a pretty even proportion of

people who feel that the small penalty in flow coefficient is worth

paying for the increased reliability, and those who feel that maximum

flow coefficient is king and that guide should be machined flush with

the inside of the port.

COATINGSIn terms of coatings, the main application is the cylinder bore coating.

For aluminium blocks a coating is normally, but not necessarily

required, to produce a satisfactory surface within which the piston can

slide. The main group of bore coatings are reasonably hard metallic

coatings with harder particles or ceramic present within the coating.

Nikasil and NiCom are examples of these metal-ceramic composite

coatings, which are widely used for racing and other applications.

After coating the bore is finish honed to size in the same way that cast

iron bores would normally be.

There have been attempts to apply modern hard coatings to cylinder

bores in an attempt to reduce friction, although their application is not

widespread. Coating experts quizzed by us on this application felt it

not to be a worthwhile experiment – but never say ‘never’!

SUMMARYIndependent of design features, the production of cylinder heads and

blocks continues to advance as new manufacturing and materials

technologies come along. More capable materials and improvements

in processing and machining accuracy mean that the cylinder blocks

and heads produced today can be made lighter and handle more stress

than those made only a few years ago.

FOCUS : HEADS AND BLOCKS

SOME EXAMPLES OF HEADS AND BLOCKS MANUFACTURERS

FRANCEFonderie Messier +33 (05) 59 82 59 70 www.fonderie-messier.fr/

GERMANYBecker Cad Cam Cast GmbH +49 6465 91430 www.beckerccc.com KSM Castings +49 5121 505160 www.ksmcastings.com

UKCosworth +44 1954 253600 www.cosworth.com GPD Developments +44 2476 351227 www.gpd-developments.co.uk Grainger & Worrall +44 1746 768250 www.gwcast.co.uk

USAAir Flow Research +1 661 257 8124 www.airflowresearch.com AJPE (Alan Johnson Performance Engineering) +1 805 922 1202 www.alanjohnsonperformance.com All Pro Cylinder Heads +1 740 967 7761 www.allproheads.com Anhared Powertrain Components +1 860 243 3075 www.anhared.com Brad Anderson Enterprise+1 909 923 1028 www.bradanderson.com Brodix +1 479 394 1075 www.brodix.com CFE Racing Products Inc+1 586 7736310 www.cferacing.comDart Machinery +1 248 362 1188 www.dartheads.com Donovan Engineering +1 310 320 3772 www.donovanengineering.com Edelbrock +1 310 781 2222 www.edelbrock.com Keith Black Race Engines +1 562 869 1518 www.keithblackraceengines.com LSM Systems Engineering +1 248 674 4967 www.lmseng.com MBE, LLC +1 704 662 7901 www.mbellc.com RHS (Racing Head Service) +1 877 776 4323 www.racingheadservice.com Trick Flow Specialities +1 330 630 1555 www.trickflow.com World Products +1 631 981 1918 www.worldcastings.com REFERENCES

1. Kaufman, J.G. and Rooy, E.L. Aluminum Alloy Castings: Properties, Processes and Applications, ASM International ISBN: 08717080352. Davis, J.R. (editor) ASM Handbook Volume 8 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys, ASM International, ISBN: 087170496X3. http://www.matweb.com4. Smithells, C.J. Smithells Metals Reference Book, Butterworth Heinemanns, ISBN: 0750-67509-8

n

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RET BINDERSPLEASE ENTER THE NUMBER OF RET BINDERS YOU REQUIRE:

• UK £8 EACH• EUROPE £9.60 (~12 ) EACH• USA/CANADA £10 (~$16) EACH• RoW £10.40 EACH