Reserch Models

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Clarke, R. J. (2005) Research Methodologies: 1

HDR Seminar SeriesFaculty of Commerce

Spring Session 2005

Research Models andMethodologies


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Agenda

Definition of ResearchResearch Paradigms (a.k.a research philosophyor research model) specifying concepts -phenomena of interest as defined in model, andstatements - propositions involving conceptsTheories, Methods and Application DomainsClasses of Research Methodologies that have

emerged as a consequence of conducting similarkinds of researchResearch Design Formats for Qualitative andQuantitativeMulti-method research


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What is Research?


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5/65Clarke, R. J. (2005) Research Methodologies: 5

What is Research?Research Deliverableswhy produce outlines, reports,presentations, and/or dissertations- weneed to have these deliverables for tworeasons:

to assist us to think through this processbecause it is extremely difficult to do withoutscaffolding or structuring ones thoughts

because if your thoughts cannot becommunicated then you do not trulyunderstand them



What is Research?Primary Research and SourcesPrimary research -study of a subject throughfirst hand observation and investigation:

analysing a workplace, conducting a survey or aninterviewcarrying out a laboratory experiment, buildingapparatusanalysing a literary or historical text, a film orperformance

Primary sources of information includestatistical data, historical data, works orart



What is Research?Secondary Research and SourcesSecondary Research - involves theexamination of studies of otherresearchersSecondary Sources include books,articles about political issues, medicalissues, scientific debates or literary works

Most research and most research writinginvolves the use of both forms of researchand both forms of research sources



Research Models



Research Modelsbroadly speaking there are two majortypes of research models or researchparadigms (after Creswell 2003):

quantitative - also known as traditional,

positivist, experimental, or empiricist asadvanced by authorities such as Comte, Mill,Durkheim, Newton, Lockequalitative - constructivist, naturalistic,interpretive, postpositivist or postmodernperspective as advanced by Dithey, Kant,Wittgenstein (latter), Foucault, Miles andHuberman


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Clarke, R. J. (2005) Research Methodologies: 12 After: Creswell, J. W. (2003)


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Research Models

used to describe the overall frameworkused to look at reality , based on aphilosophical stance

eg. empiricism, positivism, postmodernism,post-structuralismmodels identify basic concepts and describe

what reality is like, and the conditions bywhich we can study itideas identified in models are called concepts


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Research ModelsCaveatssometimes the word model is usedincorrectly in IS - it is used in a much moreconstrained sense to indicate a set of(hopefully) related conceptssimilar use occurs with framework - haveto distinguish between the disciplinaryusage of the term and the term as it existsin the philosophy of sciencealso known as research philosophy ,research paradigm ,


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Research ModelsDefinitiona concept is a general expressions ofparticular phenomenon

eg. information, cats, dogs, motivation,usabilitya concept is the relationship between the wordor symbol and an idea and its conception-signs

everybody, everywhere makes use of conceptsmany concepts are shared especially if we aremembers of the same culture- eg. baby, hate,

justice


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Research ModelsMeanings and Communication

concepts are used to impose some sort ofcoherent meaning on the worldit is through them that we can make sense of

reality, and perceive order and coherenceused to communicate our experience of theenvironment around us

our perception of our surroundings istherefore highly dependent on the scale of ourknowledge and our familiarity with a widerange of concepts


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Research ModelsPhysical Science versus Social Scienceaccording to the model being usedresearchers in natural science will try to definemeanings with great precision - this may bepossible to do in researchsocial scientists however often recognise thatthe concepts within their models may be basedon opinions, values, traditions, cultures andrules that cannot be precisely pinned downDo you think that information systems is ascience? If so why? If not why? How aboutComputing Science?


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Research ModelsConcepts and Statements (1)the use of concepts on their own is limitedin researchwe expect that research should provide:

a system of classificationoffer explanations,make predictions, and

acquire a sense of understandingconcepts are only useful in providing asystem of classification (typology) the

remaining expectations are met byresearch statements


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Research ModelsConcepts and Statements (2)the remaining aims must be expressed in theform of statements that contain concepts -therefore the meaning and value of conceptscannot be assessed apart from their use instatementsinterestingly:

while concepts can be generally measured for thedegree of agreement about its use and its meaningamongst users of the concept, statements aregenerally more complicated

certain types of statements reoccur within adiscipline these may be associated with discourses


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Research ModelsTheories, Methods, Domains & Methodologiesresearch models (paradigms) are applied tounderstanding particular application domains(also known as a problem domain) by meansof deploying methods which have behind

them particular theories (next section )research models (paradigms) are deployedusing one of a number of recognised

research methodologies - the choice is largelya matter of discipline- what counts as a usefulmethodology within a particular area(following section )


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Theories, Methods, Domains


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Theories, Methods, Domains (1)Theory Defined

a theory is a set of interrelated constructs(concepts), definitions and propositions(statements) that presents a systematicview of phenomena by specifyingrelations among variablesarranged with the purpose of explainingand predicting phenomenaa theory is a convenience necessity fororganising facts and constructs into ameaningful and manageable form but itcan be tested for quality


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methods (a.k.a. techniques) are used toreveal the existence of, identify the value,significance or extent of, or representsemantic relationships between one ormore concepts identified in a model fromwhich statements can be madesometimes a distinction is made betweenmethods and technique - one definitionhas technique as the way or manner inwhich a method is applied or deployed

Theories, Methods, Domains (2)Methods and Techniques


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Theories, Methods, Domains (3)Relationship between Methods and Theories

in order to know the range of availablemethods that can be selected- you mustknow about the theory being applied

an important issue involves realising that behindevery method there is always a theorytheories also need to be checked for appropriacy

and relevance with respect to a given applicationdomain


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Theories, Methods, Domains (4)Relationship to Application Domains

theory

method(s)

applicationdomian

methodologicalappropriacy andrelevance

theoreticalappropriacy andrelevance

methods are based on theories


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Theories, Methods, Domains (6)Putting Theories at Risk

in severe cases the application of methods toa particular domain can put the theory at riskcan be manifest in several ways and mayinvolve:

major projects to revamp theories to account forthe special conditions, or the use of additional theories to account for thesespecial conditions

real researchers look for these occasions- itoften means you can get a substantial part ofyour original argument (and your PhD!)


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Theories, Methods, Domains (7)

theory

method(s)

applicationdomian

methodologicalappropriacy andrelevance

theoreticalappropriacy andrelevance

cases which cannotbe analysed usingexisting methods

cases whichproblematise the theory


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Theories, Methods, Domains (6)Single versus Multi-method Research

in general the best advice would be to select a singleparadigm (qualitative or quantitative) for yourresearch work (after Creswell 2003)based on pragmatic choices : time, skills, and overall

size of the projectthe reason for this is that qualitative and quantitativeresearch are based on differences in:

nature of reality- ontologyrelationship to that being researched- epistemologyrole of values- axiologyuse of language/words- rhetorical

overall processof research- methodological


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Theories, Methods, Domains (8)

theory A

method(s) A

commonapplicationdomian

theory B

method(s) B


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Theories, Methods, Domains (9)Theoretical Pluralism

as a strategy, using multiple theories mayappear to be simpler than improving thebasis of a theory and it can be useful:

therefore this strategy is more commonly used,

but it is fraught with danger theoretical pluralism - we can easily misleadourselves into thinking that several theoreis arecompatible because we can apply them

an acceptable alternative to using multipletheories is to use multiple methods (seelater section)


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Theories, Methods, Domains (10)Risks in using Multiple Theories

theoretical pluralism(treat theory A as is if equivalent to theory B)

method(s)(as if method(s) A are theoretically

compatible with method(s) B)

commonapplication

domianconflationthe process of

treating A as if B

ellisionthe result of

conflation


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Research MethodologiesWalliman (2001)


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Research MethodologyFrom the General to the Specific

defines:what constitutes a research activity,utilises or is applicable to a model , andtherefore specifies concepts and relatedstatementswhat methods to apply, how to measureprogress, and what constitutes successalso specifies how to communicate aboutan area of research activity (structure,deliverables)


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Research MethodologiesTypes of Research

different kinds of research questions requiredifferent kinds of approaches variousmethodologies have emerged to deal with themwe will consider only those that have immediate

relevance to CS/IS interestingly you could applyany of these approaches to IS:mostly because of the fact that IS is an applieddiscipline and therefore lends itself to a range of

different interpretationsalso because IS is multidisciplinary and so i tstheoretical and methodological basis is in manydifferent disciplines and therefore makes many kinds of

research project possible


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Research MethodologiesHistorical Research

1. Historical2. Comparative3. Descriptive4. Correlation5. Experimental6. Evaluation7. Action8. Ethnogenic9. Feminist10. Cultural

the systematic andobjective location,evaluation and synthesis ofevidence in order toestablish facts and drawconclusions about pasteventsinvolves:

Where the events take place?Which people are involves?When the events occurred?What kind of human activitywas involved?


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Research MethodologiesComparative Research


Often used together with historical

research to compare peoplesexperience of different societies, eitherbetween t imes in the past or in parallelsituations in the present

conducted at a macro level (revolutions)or at a micro level (individualexperiences)Experimental research- where theresearcher controls causal factors- isnot really possible in social research,but history and comparisons can supplyresearchers with a natural experiment inwhich non-essential characteristics of aphenomena can be eliminated bylooking at multiple instance of it


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Research MethodologiesDescriptive Research


Instead of examining records or

artifacts, descriptive research relies onobservation as a means of collectingdataattempts to examine situations in order

to establish what is the normal- whatcan be predicted to happen again underthe same circumstancesObservations are written down orrecorded in some way in order to besubsequently analysedDepends on human observations andresponses- distortions in data canoccur in biased questions in interviews,questionnaires, selective observation ofevents


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Research MethodologiesCorrelation Research


analytical survey or correlation

research is quantitativeCorrelation is a word which describesthe statistical measure of association orthe relationships between two

phenomenaTwo types of studiesRelational studies: an exploratory formof study which investigates the possiblerelationships between phenomena toestablish if a correlation exists and if soto what extentPrediction studies: carried out inresearch areas where correlations are

already known- attempts to predictpossible behaviour or events


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Research MethodologiesExperimental Research


researchers try to isolate and control everyrelevant condition which determines the

events investigated, so as to observe theeffects when the conditions are manipulatedDifferent types of experimental design:

Pre-experimental : unreliable assumptions aremade despite the lack of control over variablesTrue experimental : rigorous check of theidentical nature of groups before testing theinfluence of a variable on a sample of themunder controlled circumstancesQuasi-experimental : not all conditions of trueexperimental design can be fulfilled but theshortcomings are identif iedCorrelation and ex post facto : correlation looksfor cause and effect relationships between twosets of data; ex post facto reverseexperimentation - interprets the cause ofphenomenon by observing it s effects


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Research MethodologiesEvaluation Research


Descriptive type of research designed to deal withcomplex social issues (the latest so called fourth

generation evaluation research has the followingproperties):outcomes do not represent how things are or howthey work, rather they represent meaningfulconstructions which groups create to make sense ofsituations they find themselves in

It is recognised that these const ruct ions are shapedby the values of the constructorsinextricably linked to particular phys ical,psychological, social and cultural contexts withinwhich they are formed and in which they are usedevaluation of these constructions is highlydependent on the involvement and viewpoint of theevaluatorsevaluation should be action oriented , define a coursewhich can be practically followed- usually requiresnegotiationparticipants are equal partners in every aspect of thedesign, implementation , interpretation andresulting action


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Research MethodologiesEvaluation Research (Systems Analysis)


One type of evaluation research is (wouldyou believe):

Systems analysis : holistic type of researchwhich reverses the three stage order ofthinking which is typical of scientificenquiry (that is, breaking the problem intoresearchable parts, then separately

evaluating the parts and then aggregatingthe evaluations into an explanation of thewhole). In contrast, systems analysis isinvolved with:

Identifying the encompassing whole (the

system) of which the phenomenon orproblem is a partEvaluating the behaviour or properties of theencompassing wholeExplaining the behaviour or properties of thephenomena or problem in terms of its rolesor functions within the encompassing whole


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Research MethodologiesEvaluation Research (Responsive)

1. Historical

2. Comparative3. Descriptive4. Correlation5. Experimental6. Evaluation7. Action8. Ethnogenic9. Feminist10. Cultural

Another kind of evaluation research iscalled:

Responsive Evaluation : in which a seriesof investigative steps is undertaken inorder to evaluate how responsive aprogram is (an advertising campaign, newdegree course etc) to all those taking part

in it:Data collection : identifying issues from thepeople directly involves in the programme;identifying further issues from the programdocuments; observing how the programmeis actually workingEvaluation : the design of an evaluationbased on the data collected and reportingfindingsSuggested changes : informing theparticipants of the findings in ways

specifically designed for each type ofaudience


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Research Methodologies Action Research

1. Historical

2. Comparative3. Descriptive4. Correlation

5. Experimental6. Evaluation7. Action8. Ethnogenic9. Feminist10. Cultural

similar to experimental research although carriedout in the real world rather than in the context of aclosed experimental system it involves small scaleinterventions in the functioning of the real world anda close examination of the effects of such aninterventionEssentially an on the spot procedure- designed todeal with a specific problem evident in a particular

situation where no attempt is made to separate aparticular feature of the problem from i ts context inorder to study it in isolationconstant monitoring and evaluation are carried outand conclusions from the findings are appliedimmediately and further monitoredas a practical form of research, aimed at a specificproblem and situation and with litt le or no controlover independent variables, it cannot fulfil thescientific requirement for generalisabilitytherefore despite its exploratory nature- and

therefore relatable to experimental research- it isactually the antithesis experimental research


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Research MethodologiesEthnogenic Research

1. Historical


5. Experimental6. Evaluation7. Action

8. Ethnogenic9. Feminist10. Cultural

Researchers are interested in how subjects of theresearch theorise about their own behaviour rather

than imposing a theory from outside Aims are:

to represent a view of the world as it is st ructured by theparticipants under observation by elicitingphenomenological data ( that is it concentrates on thedetailed descript ion of conscious experience- the scienceof phenomena as opposed to the science of being)it t akes place in undis turbed natural settings of thesubjectsit attempts to represent the totality of the social, culturaland economic situation, regarding the context to beequally important as the actionDifficult form of research - culture is often hidden andrarely explicit , need to consider the language andbehaviour of subjects and surrounding condi tions inwhich they workRisks : cultural background of t he research can affect the

outcome; naturalistic settings mean that it i s imposs ibleto repeat the situation to verify the research


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Research MethodologiesFeminist/Identity Politics Research

1. Historical




No single sets of methodologies- rather arelated set of practices which start from a

position on research which says that genderand issues of identity politics must beconsidered as an enormously inf luencialcategory in social theorythat those researchers who ignore its influence

have invalid knowledge as non-feministparadigms usually ignore the partiality of theresearchers ideas about the social worldUndertaken with a political commitment to theidentification and transformation of gender

relations and identityVery important form of research because whilethis form of research is not uniquely political itexposes the fact that all methods of socialresearch are political to the extent that they are

gendered and rely on specific kinds ofrepresentation of identity


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Research MethodologiesCultural Research

1. Historical




Many of the prevailing theoretical debates (eg.Postmodernism, post-structuralism) are concerned

with language and cul tural interpretation- these issuesare central to sociological studiesCultural texts expanded to include manymanifestations of cultural exchange:

Opera, TV, cocktail parties, fashion

The main criteria for cultural texts is that one should beable to read some meanings into the phenomena

Need has therefore arisen for methodologies thatallow analysis of cultural texts to be compared,replicated, disproved and generalised:

Structural properties of language (Chomsky SacksSchelgoff)Language as action in i ts contextual environment(Wittgenstein Austin and Searle)Sociolinguis tics and the ethnography of speaking(Hymes, Bernstein, Labov etc)

Semiotic theories of Language (Halliday, Hjelmslev)

h h d l


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Research MethodologiesCultural Research

1. Historical




Three approaches to the consistentinterpretation of cultural texts are:

Content Analysis : rather positivistic attempt toidentify subjective meaning in the culturaldomain. Example is counting the number oftimes a particular word occurs in a text as anindication of its importance.

Semiotics : takes an opposite approach byattempting to gain a deep understanding ofmeanings by the interpretation of singleelements of texts and tracing the meaningsof things back through the systems and codes

through which they have meaning and makemeaning (Slater 1995, 240)Discourse Analysis : studies the ways thatpeople communicate with each other throughlanguage within a social setting- several

schools

h h d l i


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Research MethodologiesSome Very Sensible Questions

How do I know which researchmethodology to choose ?

Ask your supervisors or others who

have worked directly in the applicationdomain that you are interested instudying, and/or

Look at significant papers in your fieldand attempt to determine whatmethodology they are using

R h M h d l i


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Research Methodologies Some Very Sensible Questions

Can I mix research methodologies ?In principle your should not need to. Within eachmethodology there are many schools it is morelikely that you may only need to get more familiar

with the range of methods techniques and conceptswithin your existing methodology. There areconsiderable risks (recall the theoretical pluralismsection)However, having said that if you can demonstratethat you need to do multi-methodology researchand establish the condition for doing it then that will

likely form a substantial part of the originality foryour dissertation (I did this in my own PhD)

R h M h d l i


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Research Methodologies Some Very Sensible Questions

How do I know whether my question isworth researching ?

You wont necessarily- but others are likely to.Be aware that your problem will change andevolve- in my opinion let it! The problem willchange (get more complex as your reading andresearch increases). Early on if it doesnt getmore complex then it may be that the problemis not really appropriate.If your problem appear to be getting morecomplex then thats often a good sign- your

work is substantial.


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Research Design FormatsCreswell (1994)


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Research Design Formatsin general there are predictable sets of questions,

issues and information that you need to addressin order to successfully undertake a researchquestionthese predictable elements differ depending on

whether a qualitative or quantitative study isbeing undertakenthese so called research design formats bridgethe gap between your proposal and your evolvingdissertationnote : you will probably need to do both types ofdesign format if you are doing multi-paradigmresearch- just one more reason why multi-methodstudies take more time!

R h D ig F t


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Research Design FormatsQuantitative Format (relatively Standardised)

IntroductionContext (Statement of the Problem)Purposes of the StudyResearch Questions or Objectives or HypothesesTheoretical PerspectiveDefinition of TermsDelimitations and Limitations of the Study

Review of the LiteratureMethods

Research Design

Sample, Population, or SubjectsInstrumentation and MaterialsVariables in the StudyData Analysis

Appendices: Instruments

Research Design Formats


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Research Design FormatsQualitative Format 1 (after Creswell 2003)

IntroductionStatement of the ProblemPurposes of the StudyThe Grand Tour Question and SubquestionsDefinition of TermsDelimitations and Limitations of the StudySignificance of the Study

Procedure Assumptions and Rationale for a Qualitative DesignThe Type of Design Used

The Role of the Researcher Data Collection ProceduresData Reduction/Analysis ProceduresMethods for VerificationOutcome of the Study and its Relation to Theory and Literature

Appendices

Research Design Formats


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gQualitative Format 2

(Marshall & Rossman 1989 in Cresswell 2003)

Introduction and General Questions or TopicStatement of the ProblemSignificance of the ResearchSite and Sample SelectionsResearchers Role in Management, including Entry,Reciprocity and EthicsResearch StrategiesData Collection TechniquesManaging and Recording DataData Analysis StrategiesManagement Plan, Timeline, Feasibility

Appendices


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Multi-method ResearchCreswell (1994)

Multi method research


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Multi-method researchDefinition of Triangulation

there are certainly occasions wherecombining methods and methodologiescan be useful- generally referred to astriangulation

combination of methodologies deployed tostudy the same phenomenabased on the assumption that any biasinherent in particular data sources,

investigators and method would be neutralisedwhen used in conjunction with other datasources, investigators and methods (this isquite an assumption!)



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Multi-method researchCombined Method Study

one in which the researcher uses multiplemethods of data collection and analysiswithin methods approaches- different types of

quantitative data collection strategies, eg.survey + experimentbetween methods approaches - drawing onqualitative and quantitative data collectionprocedures, eg. survey + in-depth interviewother possibili ties:

observations + structured quanti tative observationsethnography + experimental researchsurvey research + qualitative procedures



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Multi-method researchReasons for Combining Methods

if you are going to use multiple methodsresearch then you must declare why you aregoing to these efforts:

triangulate - seek convergence of results

complementary - overlapping/different facets of aphenomena may emerge (eg. Peeling an onion)developmentally - first method is used

sequentially to help inform the second methodinitiation - contradictions and fresh perspectivesmay emergeexpansion - where mixed methods add scope andbreadth to a study

Multi-method research


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Multi-method researchModels for Combining Multi-methods

simultaneous triangulationresearcher answers qualitative and quantitativequestions at the same timeresults of the qualitative questions are reported

separately and would not necessarily relate to orconfirm the results of the quantitative study

sequential triangulation

researcher conducts two phases of the projectwith the results of the first phase essential forplanning the next phasethe questions in Phase 1 are completed beforethe questions of Phase 2 are raised

Multi-method research


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Multi-method researchModels for Combining Multi-methods

Simultaneous TriangulationQUAL ; quanQUAN ; qual

Sequential TriangulationQUAL -> quan

QUAN -> qual


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Possible Future SeminarsPossible Future Seminars for Faculty ofCommerce Higher Degree Students caninclude:

Research Outline: Structure and FunctionWriting a DissertationIdentifying and Selecting Research IdeasDeveloping Research Posters

any others you have in mind contact please do not hesitate tocontact David Aylward (Commerce Faculty Research Manager)or Rodney Clarke (Postgraduate Research Coordinator,

Information Systems)


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References; Further ReadingsWalliman, N. S. R. (2001) Your Research Project : A Step-by-Step Guide for the First-Time Researcher by London: Sage Publications LtdMiles, M. B. and A. M. Huberman (1994) Quali tative Data

Analysis 2nd Edition Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage PublishersCreswell, J. W. (2003) Research design : qualitative,

quantitative, and mixed methods approaches ThousandOaks, CA: Sage PublicationsTashakkori, A. (1998) Mixed methodology : combiningqualitative and quantitative approaches Thousand Oaks,CA: Sage PublicationsTashakkori, A. and T. Charles (2003) Handbook of mixedmethods in social & behavioral research Thousand Oaks,CA: Sage Publications

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