MARK ASHTON

A F F I L I A T I O N

Research Program, 2010Experimental & Theoretical

A F F I L I A T I O N

B O G A Z I C I U N I V E R I S T Y

C O G N I T I V E S C I E N C E P R O G R A M

ASHTON SMITH, PH.D

A F F I L I A T I O N 2 0 0 9 - 2 0 1 0 :

Research Program, 2010-2012Experimental & Theoretical

A F F I L I A T I O N 2 0 0 9 - 2 0 1 0 :

U N I V E R I S T Y ,

C O G N I T I V E S C I E N C E P R O G R A M

TRAINING METHODS TO INCREASE INTELLIGENCE

1. A fluid intelligence intervention

TRAINING METHODS TO INCREASE INTELLIGENCE

1. A fluid intelligence intervention

Psychometric testing

� Spearman’s g/s-factor theory (1904).� Developed a “two factor theory” (general intelligence factor

specific factors-s” to account for correlations between measures of ‘primary mental abilities’.

� Most of the variance in intelligence attributed to g.

� Cattell Gf-Gc theory (1963).� Cattell Gf-Gc theory (1963).� Fluid (Gf) and Crystallized (Gc

extracted from second-order factor analysis of firstPMA) abilities.

� Psychometric(factor analytic) evidence supplemented by: developmental, heritability, neurocognitivecriterion evidence research.

Psychometric testing

factor theory (1904).Developed a “two factor theory” (general intelligence factor-g +

” to account for correlations between measures

Most of the variance in intelligence attributed to g.

theory (1963).theory (1963).Gc) intelligence factors were

order factor analysis of first-order (e.g.,

Psychometric(factor analytic) evidence supplemented by: neurocognitive, and outcome-

Fluid intelligence (G

� Fluid intelligence (Gf): The use of deliberate and controlled mental operations to solvecannot be performed automatically. � drawing inferences through inductive & deductive reasoning

� concept formation and classification,

� generating and testing hypothesis� generating and testing hypothesis

� identifying relations

� problem solving

� Gf has been linked to cognitive complexity whichdefined as a greater use of a wide and diverse array of elementary cognitive processes during performance.

� Tests� Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices

� KAIT test battery

Fluid intelligence (Gf) definition

The use of deliberate and controlled mental operations to solve novel problems that cannot be performed automatically.

drawing inferences through inductive & deductive reasoning

concept formation and classification,

generating and testing hypothesisgenerating and testing hypothesis

has been linked to cognitive complexity which can be defined as a greater use of a wide and diverse array

elementary cognitive processes during performance.

Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices

Crystallized intelligence (G

� Gc is the knowledge of the culture that is incorporated by individuals through a process of acculturation.

� A person’s breadth and depth of acquired knowledge of the language, information and concepts of a specific culture, and/or the application of this knowledge. � Store of verbal or language-based declarative and procedural� Store of verbal or language-based declarative and procedural

� Investment of Gf during formal and informal educational and generalexperiences.

� Tests include: Language development, Lexical knowledge, Listening ability, General (verbal) information, Information about culture, Communication ability, Oral production and fluency, Grammatical sensitivity, Foreign language proficiency, Foreign language aptitude.

Crystallized intelligence (Gc) definition

is the knowledge of the culture that is incorporated by through a process of acculturation.

A person’s breadth and depth of acquired knowledge of language, information and concepts of a specific culture,

the application of this knowledge. based declarative and procedural knowledge.based declarative and procedural knowledge.

during formal and informal educational and general life

: Language development, Lexical knowledge, ability, General (verbal) information, Information

culture, Communication ability, Oral production fluency, Grammatical sensitivity, Foreign

proficiency, Foreign language aptitude.

What is the city?

What is the city?

Working memory

� Brain system that provides temporary storage and manipulation of the information needed for complex cognitive tasks as � Language comprehension� Reasoning� Problem solving� Problem solving

� This definition has evolved from the concept of a unitary short-term memory system. Involves simultaneous storage and processing.

� Close link to executive processes:� Inhibition� Attention switching� Updating� Goal Maintenance

Working memory

Brain system that provides temporary storage and manipulation of the information needed for complex

This definition has evolved from the concept of a unitary term memory system. Involves simultaneous

Close link to executive processes:

Capacity Limit Theory

� Working memory and intelligence share a common capacity constraint. � The number of items that can be held in working

� The number of interrelationships among elements in a reasoning

� The reason for a common capacity limitation is assumed to lie in the common demand for attention when temporary lie in the common demand for attention when temporary binding processes are taking place to form representations in reasoning tasks (Halford et al. 2007).� Related proposal: Gf and working memory are primarily related through

attentional control processes (Grey et al., 2003).

� Carpenter et al. (1990) have proposed that the maintain a large set of possible goals in working memory accounts for individual differences

Capacity Limit Theory

memory and intelligence share a common capacity

number of items that can be held in working memory.

number of interrelationships among elements in a reasoning task.

reason for a common capacity limitation is assumed to lie in the common demand for attention when temporary lie in the common demand for attention when temporary binding processes are taking place to form representations

et al. 2007).and working memory are primarily related through

(Grey et al., 2003).

have proposed that the ability to maintain a large set of possible goals in working memory accounts for individual differences in tasks that measure Gf.

Cognitive neuroscience

� The underlying neural circuitries provide additional evidence for the shared variance between working memory and Gf in that both seem to rely on similar neural networks involving the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC).prefrontal cortex (dlPFC).

Cognitive neuroscience

The underlying neural circuitries provide additional evidence for the shared variance between working

in that both seem to rely on similar neural networks involving the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC).prefrontal cortex (dlPFC).

Jaeggi et al. intervention study

� Question: Is there a transfer effect from working memory gains through training to fluid intelligence?

� Methodology: � Methodology: � Pretest participants on a measure of

on another form of this measure.

� Difference among the four experiments was the number of training sessions between pre- and posttests, ranging from 8 to 19 sessions.

� To control for mere retest effects, the performance of the trained groups was compared with control groups who were also assessed on Gf, but who were not trained between the two testing sessions.

Jaeggi et al. intervention study

Question: Is there a transfer effect from working memory gains through training to fluid

Pretest participants on a measure of Gf and then post-testing them on another form of this measure.

Difference among the four experiments was the number of training and posttests, ranging from 8 to 19 sessions.

To control for mere retest effects, the performance of the trained groups was compared with control groups who were also assessed

, but who were not trained between the two testing sessions.

The n-back task that was used as the training task, illustrated for a 2

Jaeggi S M et al. PNAS 2008;105:6829-6833

©2008 by National Academy of Sciences

back task that was used as the training task, illustrated for a 2-back condition.

Performance increase in the trained task shown separately for each training group.

Jaeggi S M et al. PNAS 2008;105:6829-6833

©2008 by National Academy of Sciences

Performance increase in the trained task shown separately for each training group.

Transfer effects: Over 40% Gf test improvement after 19 sessions.

Jaeggi S M et al. PNAS 2008;105:6829-6833

©2008 by National Academy of Sciences

Transfer effects: test improvement after 19 sessions.

Online dual n-back experiment (summer 2009). Jensen’s & TRI

Pre-training intervention: x=105, sd=6.9; Post

Significantly different (p = 0.003)

back experiment (summer 2009). Jensen’s & TRI-52

training intervention: x=105, sd=6.9; Post-training: x = 117, sd=11.4

Significantly different (p = 0.003)

Gf intervention experiment

� Assess intervention effects with non

� Control condition: non-working memory exercise requiring sustained effort (visuogame), or single n-back.

Assess effects on both Gf and G� Assess effects on both Gf and G

� Look at the ‘decay rate’ of fluid intelligence gain over time.

� Investigate gains in different age groups.

� Target journal: Applied Cognitive Psychology

intervention experiment

Assess intervention effects with non-timed Gf test.

working memory exercise requiring sustained effort (visuo-spatial video

and Gc.and Gc.

Look at the ‘decay rate’ of fluid intelligence gain

Investigate gains in different age groups.

Applied Cognitive Psychology

TRAINING METHODS TO REDUCE COGNITIVE BIASES AND INCREASE RATIONALITY

2. A cognitive biases intervention

TRAINING METHODS TO REDUCE COGNITIVE BIASES AND INCREASE RATIONALITY

2. A cognitive biases intervention

Cognitive Biases & Heuristics

� A cognitive domain not assessed by tests of intelligence would seem to be the domain of heuristics & thinking biasesrationality rather than cognitive capacity.� Weighing up costs and benefits and making good decisions.

� The study of heuristics and biases has been an active topic in cognitive psychology for over 3 decades now (e.g. Kahneman & Tversky, 197

� Theoretical framework� Dual processes account: automatic / heuristic (System 1)

controlled, analytic, attention-2).

Cognitive Biases & Heuristics

A cognitive domain not assessed by tests of intelligence would seem to be the domain of

thinking biases. These relate to issues of rationality rather than cognitive capacity.

Weighing up costs and benefits and making good decisions.

The study of heuristics and biases has been an active topic in cognitive psychology for over 3 decades now

Kahneman & Tversky, 1979)

Dual processes account: automatic / heuristic (System 1) vs-demanding reasoning (System

Stanovich & West, 2008Stanovich & West, 2008

Example: Belief bias

� Belief bias occurs when people have difficulty evaluating conclusions that conflict with what they think they know about theworld.� All artwork is valuable. All valuable things should be protected. Therefore all

artwork should be protected.� All artwork is made of wood. All wooden things can be turned into clocks.

Therefore all artwork can be turned into clocks.

� Participants were instructed to judge the validity of the conclusion assuming that all of the premises were true(Markovits & Nantel, 1989)

� Results showed more errors when conclusions were contrary to beliefs.

� This bias is moderated by intelligence levellikely to account for individual differences in many (but not all) cognitive biases and ‘irrationalities’.

Example: Belief bias

Belief bias occurs when people have difficulty evaluating conclusions that conflict with what they think they know

artwork is valuable. All valuable things should be protected. Therefore all

All artwork is made of wood. All wooden things can be turned into clocks. Therefore all artwork can be turned into clocks.

Participants were instructed to judge the validity of the conclusion assuming that all of the premises were true

Results showed more errors when conclusions were

intelligence level. Intelligence is likely to account for individual differences in many (but not all) cognitive biases and ‘irrationalities’.

Conjunction Problem

� “Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations.”

� 1 _ extremely improbable

� 2 _ very improbable

� 3 _ somewhat probable

� 4 _ moderately probable

� 5 _ very probable

� 6 _ extremely probable

� C) It is ______ that Linda is a bank teller.

� D) It is ______ that Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement.

Conjunction Problem

“Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also

nuclear demonstrations.”

C) It is ______ that Linda is a bank teller.

D) It is ______ that Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement.

1. For a given task, is

‘mindware’

(declarative knowledge/

procedures) available to

carry out an override?

2. Does the individual

detect the need to detect the need to

override the heuristic

response?

3. Does the task require

fluid intelligence/working

memory capacity to carry

out the override?

Cognitive biases experiment

� Assess the independent contributions of Gto individual differences in cognitive biases using a well validated IQ test battery.

� Intervention studies investigating independent effects on cognitive bias task performance of:effects on cognitive bias task performance of:� 1. Training working memory using the dual n

� 2. Teaching relevant ‘mindware’ (declarative/procedural knowledge)

� There is evidence that these cognitive biases have profound impacts on people’s lives.

Cognitive biases experiment

Assess the independent contributions of Gf and Gcto individual differences in cognitive biases using a well validated IQ test battery.

Intervention studies investigating independent effects on cognitive bias task performance of:effects on cognitive bias task performance of:1. Training working memory using the dual n-back.

2. Teaching relevant ‘mindware’ (declarative/procedural

There is evidence that these cognitive biases have profound impacts on people’s lives.

Unstable preferences

� What people choose is strongly influenced by details of the context in which they make their choice, such as framing effects:� Question: whether to undergo risky surgery:

� A: “Of those who undergo this procedure, 90 percent are still � A: “Of those who undergo this procedure, 90 percent are still alive after five years”

� B: “Of those who undergo this procedure, 10 percent are dead after five years.”

� People far more likely to undergo surgery in case A. What, then, are the patient’s “preferences” with respect to this procedure? Repeated experiences with such problems might be expected to eliminate this framing effect, but doctors too are vulnerable to it.

Unstable preferences

What people choose is strongly influenced by details of the context in which they make their choice, such

Question: whether to undergo risky surgery:

A: “Of those who undergo this procedure, 90 percent are still A: “Of those who undergo this procedure, 90 percent are still

B: “Of those who undergo this procedure, 10 percent are dead

People far more likely to undergo surgery in case A. What, then, are the patient’s “preferences” with respect to this procedure? Repeated experiences with such problems might be expected to eliminate this framing effect, but doctors too are vulnerable to

Collaborator

Dr Tom StaffordDr Tom Stafford

University of Sheffield, UK

Currently on sabbatical at Berkeley, USA

Collaborator

Dr Tom StaffordDr Tom Stafford

University of Sheffield, UK

Currently on sabbatical at Berkeley, USA

References

� Ashton Smith, M. (Forthcoming, late 2010). Functions of Unconscious and Conscious Emotion in the Regulation of Implicit and Explicit Motivated Behaviour: A Dual Process Account. In Dr. and Gülsen Yıldırım (Eds.), Affective Computing and Interaction: Psychological, Cognitive and Neuroscientific Perspectives, IGI Global.

� Carpenter PA, Just MA, Shell P (1990) What one intelligence test measures: A theoretical account of the processing in the Raven Progressive Matrices Test. Psychol

� Cattell RB (1963) Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment.22.

� Gray JR, Chabris CF, Braver TS (2003) Neural mechanisms of general fluid intelligence.Neurosci 6:316–322.

� Halford G, S, Cowan N, Andrews ,G (2007). Separating cognitive capacity from knowledge: A new � Halford G, S, Cowan N, Andrews ,G (2007). Separating cognitive capacity from knowledge: A new hypothesis. Trends Cog Sci 11 :236–242.

� Harrison, N. A. N., C.E., W., & H.D., C. (2007). Processing of observed pupil size modulates perception of sadness and predicts empathy. Emotion, 7(4), 724-729.

� Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of� decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263–291.� Markovits, H., & Nantel, G. (1989). The belief-bias effect in the production and evaluation of logical

conclusions. Memory & Cognition, 17, 11–17.� Spearman, C. (1904). ‘General Intelligence’: Objectively determined and measured.

Psychology 15, 201-293� Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2008). On the relative independence of thinking biases and cognitive

ability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94,� Winkielman, P., Berridge, K. C., & & Wilbarger, J. (2005). Unconscious affective reactions to masked

happy versus angry faces influence consumption behavior and judgments of value. Psychology Bulletin, 31, 121-135.

References

Ashton Smith, M. (Forthcoming, late 2010). Functions of Unconscious and Conscious Emotion in the Regulation of Implicit and Explicit Motivated Behaviour: A Dual Process Account. In Dr. Didem Gökçay

Affective Computing and Interaction: Psychological, Cognitive and

What one intelligence test measures: A theoretical account of the Psychol Rev 97: 404–431

Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment. J Educ Psychol 54: 1–

Neural mechanisms of general fluid intelligence. Nat

Separating cognitive capacity from knowledge: A new Separating cognitive capacity from knowledge: A new

Harrison, N. A. N., C.E., W., & H.D., C. (2007). Processing of observed pupil size modulates perception of 729.

, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of

bias effect in the production and evaluation of logical

Spearman, C. (1904). ‘General Intelligence’: Objectively determined and measured. American Journal of

, K. E., & West, R. F. (2008). On the relative independence of thinking biases and cognitive Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 672-695.

Winkielman, P., Berridge, K. C., & & Wilbarger, J. (2005). Unconscious affective reactions to masked happy versus angry faces influence consumption behavior and judgments of value. Personality and Social