Research Methods Presentation-July2010

8/8/2019 Research Methods Presentation-July2010

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Psychology as anempirical science: An

introduction toresearch methods for

GCSE/GCE students

ATP Conference July 2010By

Dr George Varvatsoulias


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1. Exploring research methods in psychology (a generalaccount)

2. Applying research methods (in the study of memory)

3. Quantitative and Qualitative research methods in

psychology

4. How do we design a study (in detail)

5. Are we as teachers committed to using empiricalmethodology as scientists?

Learning objectives


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Starting with a story...

Choose each of the

above statements

And match it with one of the

above items

In winter people wearheavy clothes

The weather outside iscold and there are

storms People wear heavy

clothes during winter inorder to protectthemselves

It is so because it iswinter

Observation

Rationale

Hypothesis

Prediction


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Examples of researchdesigns


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Between-participants/Withinparticipants designs


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Types of research


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Making sense of our datavia...

Descriptive statisticsrefer to the central

tendency

Inferential statisticsrefer to statistical

techniques


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Applying research methods in thestudy of memory (an example)


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Research methods are a useful tool in psychologytowards studying human behaviour

Different research types as well as statisticaltechniques are employed for different aspects ofresearch

In designing a study we pose a research question inorder to seek evidence that will support our

hypothesis

Summary No. 1

Q i i d Q li i


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Quantitative and QualitativeResearch Methods in

PsychologySpecification Content Advantages/Disadvantag

es of research methodsrelated to the scientific

nature of psychology Experiments

Investigations throughcorrelational analysis

Naturalistic observations

Questionnaires

Interviews

Comment

Description of eachmethod

Being aware of at leasttwo advantages and twoweaknesses

How research methodsrelate to the scientificnature of psychology

Distinguishingpsychological knowledgefrom commonsense

Ethical guidelines


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Terminology (1)

Ways in allocating participants to participate to a study: randomly,opportunity sample (friends, relatives, and anyone who is around that time),self-selection (via advertising the study, and finding participants whovolunteered themselves volunteer sample)

IV (Independent Variable): It is manipulated by the experimenter, i.e. theexperimenter puts down the rules to be followed by each participant; eachIV is independent of the value of any other variable (IV)

DV (Dependent Variable): It is depended on the value provided by the IV(existence or dismissal of such dependence is questioned in relation to thehypothesis investigated)

One-tailed/Two-tailed hypotheses (othewise called: directional/non-directionalhypotheses: One-tailed or directional hypothesis refers to the increase ordecrease of one variable in favour to the other; once there may be an effectof one variable to the other, and the direction of this effect is unknown wehave a two-tailed or non-directional hypothesis

Null hypothesis: No significant difference (in our case: no real effects inmeasuring the blood pressure of participants)


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Terminology (2)

Between participants/within participants:randomly allocating participants to differentgroups/no random allocation and all participantsperform on all conditions

Probability Value (p): Is normally set to p


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Research methods listinglabels (1)

Researchmethods

Nature and use Pros & Cons Ethical issues

Lab experiment Manipulation ofthe IV to findeffects on DV

under controlledconditions

For: Causalconclusions; Noconfounding

variables;ReplicationAgainst: Artificial;Experimenterand Participanteffects

Deception;Informedconsent;

Psychologicalharm

Field experiment Looking forcausalrelationships innatural places

For: Causalconclusions;Ecologicalvalidity;Participantseffects are

Informedconsent;Difficulty indebriefing;Privacy


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Design & Implementation(1)

Assumed study: A psychologist chose toinvestigate the kinds of tasks which createdstress for teachers. He asked for teachersfrom several schools to volunteer to take

part in the study, and selected 20 maleteachers. Each volunteer was asked toperform two tasks: Presentation of aprepared speech to a group of 200 students;

marking a set of books full of mistakes. Aftereach task the researcher recorded the bloodpressure of each participant


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Research method: Field experiment (Class environment reactionsare tested, both at the speech as well as at the marking tasks)

Aim of the study: Investigating kinds of tasks to see if they createstress to teachers

Hypothesis: Teaching to a large number of pupils as well as markingtheir homework may have an effect in teachers blood pressure. The

hypothesis will be non-directional Design: Quasi-experimental, because we dont randomly allocate

participants to conditions; we have only one gender group ofparticipants; we cannot manipulate each participant in terms ofeach task performance

IV/DV: Teaching before a large group & Marking homework 2 IVs;Blood pressure recordings (score noted for each participant) - DV

Within participants study: All participants will take part in bothconditions

Co-variables in the study: Teaching before a large group & Markinghomework


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Pros & cons of the design employed: Participants seem to not having been informed aboutthe purpose of the study, and then to be asked to take place; no reference to how theexperimenter would deal with the data collected

Confounding/extraneous variables: No reference to the age of each participant, so individualdifferences in performance to be discussed; anxiety proneness of teachers prior to teachingwas not taken into account, so to possibly influence their performance during the study aswell as their blood pressure scores after both tasks; speaking to public as a stressful life

event was not discussed; female participants could also be employed Ethical issues: Lack of further procedural information to participants before the study to be

taken place, such as anonymity, debriefing, etc

Internal validity of the study: No reference about the subject of the talk to pupils, or if eachparticipant could choose a subject of his own likeness; if so, whether different topics affectteachers performance

External validity: It isnt known if speaking to the public out of a class environment wouldhave the same results; external validity is not clear in many types of the experimental

designs

Ecological validity: A variety of reasons could fall in replicating the study with differentteachers in different classes; probably the study is not ecologically valid, i.e. it cannot relyon the collection of the same data when applied to different environments


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Discussion: The study could be replicated by asking all participants to perform onthe same tasks via two different conditions for each of the IVs: easy topic/difficulttopic, and good homework/bad homework conditions

Selection of participants: Volunteer sample (self-selection)

Pilot study prior the study to be conducted: Half of volunteer teachers prepared aspeech and delivered it to a small audience of students; they also marked the

scripts of both exceptional and non-exceptional students. In this way, confoundingvariables such as the ones named above could be avoided

Statistical procedure possibly to fail: By what means of an instrument the talk andmarking of homework would be measured? Would that be a quantitative approachor qualitative? In which way data will be collected in terms of the performance ofteachers, so these to be discussed in relation to their blood pressure scores afterboth tasks had been performed? Also, would increased of decreased blood

pressure be associated to both tasks, or to one of them, or otherwise (looking forstressful life events other than the participation to these tasks)?


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Summary No. 2

Different research methods are used fordifferent types of studies

By clearly stating the aims, the hypothesis, andthe design of a study we can carry on with the

other issues associated to the study Ethical issues should be presented before

embarking on a study

The ways to selecting participants can help us

to identify possible confounding variablesrelated to the execution of the experiment


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How do we design a study(in detail-1)

A research project into eatingproblems sought to find out aboutadolescent and pre-adolescent

dieting practices. The study involvedthe use of a questionnaire, includingboth quantitative and qualitative

questions. The questionnaire waspiloted with a small group ofuniversity students


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How do we design a study(in detail-2)

Aspects to be considered in the design of this study1.Research method2.Aims

3.IV/DV

4.Hypothesis5.1-tailed or 2-tailed hypothesis6.Selection of participants

7.Quantitative (numbers)/Qualitative (interviews)

8.Possible confounding variables not only to the type of

study, but also to the use of a questionnaire, and theselection of participants


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Studies using correlation

Positive correlation: When both variables increase in a study Negative correlation: When one variable increases and the

other decreases Co-efficients in correlation: A figure (number)

demonstrating the degree to which both variables arerelated (positive correlation +1/negative correlation -1). Thecloser the correlation to a perfect relationship (+1 or -1),the stronger the association between variables

Stating correlations:1. Zero (0 or closer to zero)2. Weak (0.1-0.3)

3. Moderate (0.4-0.6)4. Strong (0.7-0.9)5. Perfect (+1/1)


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Example of a correlationalanalysis

Larger class sizes are positivelycorrelated to exam success

1. Try to criticise this research, and think

of the arguments you might give tosupport the claim that smaller classsizes are actually of greater benefit toschoolchildren

2. Consider any extraneous orconfounding variables that might haveaffected the above claim


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Advantages of correlationaldesigns

- Predictions more easily plausible: If therehas been found a correlation, then we canmake predictions regarding the effect of onevariable to the other

- Allows quantification of relationships:Correlations show the strength of arelationship between two variables

- Manipulation is not possible: No requirementof manipulating the behaviour of

participants, so correlations are ethically-prone to collecting data and analysing them


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Disadvantages of correlationaldesigns

- Quantification problems: Although, correlations seem to appear quite low, theycan be meaningful or significant if the number of scores recorded is quite high.Contrary to that, we may have a large figure in correlation, and the results not tobe significantly meaningful

- Cause and effect: We do not infer causation from correlation. Effects arepractically inexistent since the relationship between variables cannot justify (be

sure of) the direction of the association, for no IV or DV can be selected- Extraneous associations: There may be other variables, except the ones studied;

i.e. blowing wind and peoples character traits in a normal winter day, howeverwhat about summer temperatures?

- Only works for linear relationships: Straight-line relationships are tested whetherin a negative or positive correlation. If we have a curvilinear correlation it meanswe have aero significance in our results (correlation coefficient/Pearsons r)


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An example for discussion

Possible correlations:1.Lower-income parents have more children2.Older people make poorer eyewitnesses3.Sales of running shoes have increased at the

same time as sales of personal computersD.Think up of possible extraneous variables for

the above assumed correlationsE.Consider hypothetical correlations that might

account for a link between those variables

F. By changing one variable with a confoundingvariable (modifying our hypothesis) can wework out a more viable correlation?


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Observational techniques

1. Participant observation: Bybecoming, the experimenter aparticipant of his/her participants

observation actual response to thestudy

2. Non-participant observation: By

being the researcher involved in theobservation of his/her participantsbehaviour from a distance


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Advantages of observationaltechniques

- High external validity: Observation takes placein the natural environment; participants tend tobehave naturally, and results can be easilygeneralised to other settings

- Practical method: Social context instead ofcooperation with participants: naturalenvironments where deliberate manipulationswould be unethical or impractical

- Fewer demand characteristics: Participants donot know they are observed, so with theirresponses they cannot satisfy the experimenter


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Disadvantages of observationaltechniques

- Cause and effect: With observations we do not havemanipulations. Little control over extraneous variables

- Observer bias: The question about reliable observation because ofthe danger the results coming out of observations to be fabricated,it is cross-checked with anothers experimenter procedure of thesame study (inter/between reliability). Also, by checking all stagesof the study and by comparing them with one another frominception to completion, we look for intra/within reliability

- Replication: Lack of proper control participants (proper, in terms ofrepeating the same study again) leads to a stable problem ofreliability and validity of all observations (all of us do not possessthe same senses, or sensitivity abilities when observingsituations)

- Ethics: Issues of informed consent and invasion of privacy arisewhen participants are unaware of being observed

- Practical problems: It is difficult for experimenters to remainunobserved, so to avoid demand characteristics, or to categorisethe observed behaviours accurately


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Practical learning: Classroomobservation

You are a government inspector of psychology classes.You decide to use a non-participant observationtechnique:

1.Outline exactly how you observe a psychology lesson

2.Consider the number of times students contribute tothe lesson; how frequently they take notes, their levelof engagement (behavioural categories). How wouldyou record the categories?

3.Observe a psychology lesson and write up yourexperiences

4.Was the lesson accurately taught to students?


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Questionnaires

1. Closed (fixed) questions orstatements: Usually ask for tickingboxes. Easy for quantification, but

are restriction-prone2. Open questions/statements: Allowing

participants to answer in their own

words. They are difficult to analyse,but allow freedom of expression


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Advantages ofquestionnaires

Quick and clear

Large samples Quantitative and qualitative analysis

Replication by the use of

standardised questions


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Shortcomings ofquestionnaires

1. Misunderstandings: Misinterpretation ofquestions by the participants

2. Biased samples: Needs time to be spent;asked from people who are literate, or

samples are chosen to satisfy the findingsexpectation of the experimenter (his/herhypothesis to be supported)

3. Low response rate: Not all questionnaires arereturned back

4. Superficial issues: Sensitive issues arise thatneed detailed understanding

5. Social desirability: Answers being presentedin a socially positive light


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Interviews

1. Structured (formal) interviews: Identicalquestions addressed to participants inthe presence of the experimenter

2. Unstructured or informal interviews: Lesscontrolled and involve an informaldiscussion as a particular topic.Questions are posed in relation to

participants answers to the subject


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Advantages of interviews

Complex issues: Complicated orsensitive issues are more easily to bedealt with in a face-to-face interview

Ease misunderstandings: Interviewershave the chance to clarify any questionof participants during interview

Data analysis: Both quantitatively andqualitatively: Variety and flexibility to

the collection of data Replication: The more structured an

interview the more easier to replicate


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Disadvantages of interviews

Interviewer or interviewee effects: Biased questions soto elicit fabricated answers. Interviewers may biasthe respondents answers, but interviewees maydevelop demand characteristics, and social desirabilityissues

Interview training: structured interviews do not requireformal training. However, skills are needed for anunstructured interview to be conducted

Ethical issues: If participants do not know the truepurpose of the interview, ethical issues such asdeception and respect to privacy may arise

Think of a topic both of a


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Think of a topic both of aquantitative and qualitative

research Examples:

1.Investigating peoples views oneuthanasia

2.Questioning peoples exposure tostressful life events, and how theyhave experienced their impact


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Reading a story and preparingit for research

A research project on memory aimed to findout about individuals earliest memories. Inorder to do this the research team conductedunstructured interviews with people aged 10to 50 years. The interviewers started with aset of standard questions, but then adaptedtheir questions in response to the answersgiven by the interviewees

ett ng comm tte as


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ett ng comm tte asteachers in research

methodology Research methodology is difficultalso for us teachers...

Assuming hypothetical studies whilein class with the students

Outlining the combination betweentheory and research practice (theory

as a tool, research as the meanstowards maintaining findings)


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TE(The End)

Research Methods Presentation-July2010

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