Reduction of Dustfall and Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) … · 2017. 11. 14. · of TSP was...
Transcript of Reduction of Dustfall and Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) … · 2017. 11. 14. · of TSP was...
International Journal of Applied Environmental Sciences
ISSN 0973-6077 Volume 12, Number 11 (2017), pp. 1927-1938
© Research India Publications
http://www.ripublication.com
Reduction of Dustfall and Total Suspended
Particulate (TSP) Generation from Alluvial Soil
Surface
A.S. Yuwono1, F. Khoirunnisa1, M. Fauzan1, Iskandar2 and R.A.Regia3
1Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB) PO Box 220 Bogor. 16002, Bogor, Indonesia.
2Dept. of Soil Science and Land Resources, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Indonesia.
3Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Andalas University, Indonesia
Abstract
The main environmental pollution is the decreasing of air quality as caused by
dustfall and total suspended particulate (TSP) generation from soil surface. This
research was conducted to analyze the correlation between dustfall and TSP
generation along with soil moisture, wind speed, and land coverage of alluvial
soil, to compare the generation of dustfall and TSP before and after reduction,
and to analyze the size distribution of dustfall and TSP. The gravimetric method
was implemented based on the national standard, which are SNI 13-4703-1998
and SNI 19-7119.3-2005. The result shows that the average dustfall generation
before reduction was 5 ton/km2/month whereas after the reduction was 4
ton/km2/month. The average TSP generation before reduction was 33 µg/Nm3
whereas after reduction is 24 µg/Nm3. Positive correlation is formed between
dustfall and TSP generation with wind speed, but no correlation is formed with
soil moisture and land cover. The particle size’s distribution of 2.5 µm, 2.5-10
µm and >10 µm were 97.2%, 94.4% and 8.4%, respectively.
Keywords: dustfall, land cover, reduction, TSP, soil moisture, wind speed.
1928 A.S. Yuwono, F. Khoirunnisa, M. Fauzan, Iskandar, R.A.Regia
INTRODUCTION
The main environmental pollution is the degradation of air quality that is caused by the
dustfall and total suspended particulate (TSP) generation from soil surface. Both are
ambient air quality parameters that are stipulated in Indonesia through the Government
Regulation (GR Nr. 41/1999) on Air Pollution Control. Therefore, they must be
presented to explain the environmental baseline assessment or air quality.
Dustfall are consisted of rough solid and liquid particle, with aerodynamic diameter
(>10 μm) are collected through gravitational settling by using a container with opened
mouth bottle for a designated time [15]. According to Liu et al. [12], TSP is a part of
particulate matter (PM) with diverse sources and its composition is a combination of
inorganic ions, trace elements, elemental carbons (black soot), crustal materials,
organic compounds, and biological matters [5]. The finer parts of solid fraction of
airborne pollutants are particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 are
also known as PM10 while the ones that are less than 2.5 μm are also known as PM2.5.
In order to increase the air quality, dustfall and suspended particulate generation must
be reduced. It could be done by watering the soil surface to increase the soil moisture
and planting paddy as land cover. Through this research, correlation between dustfall
and TSP generation with soil moisture, wind speed, land cover from alluvial soil will
be analysed along with the comparison of dustfall and TSP generation before and after
reduction and also size distribution of dustfall and TSP.
TIME AND VENUE
This research was conducted from February to April 2017. During the analysis process,
dustfall and TSP generation were measured by using laboratory scale. The gravimetric
analysis was executed in Water and Air Quality Laboratory at SEAMEO Biotrop,
Bogor. Sample of soil was taken from Pasar Ambon, Bandar Lampung Municipality.
MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENTS
The materials and instruments that were used during the laboratory experiments were
dustfall canister [model AS-2011-1], high volume air sampler [Staplex-USA TFIA-2],
blower [Hercules Ø=24’’; 220 V; 50 Hz; 170 W], digital anemometer, thermometer and
humidity meter [Lutron AM-4201], digital moisture tester [OGA model TA-5], tunnel
[7.6 m length; 0.76 m width; 2.4 m height], analytical balance [Sartorius], Petri dish
(Ø= 80 mm), universal oven UNB 400, desiccator [Automatic Temperature Change],
tray 80 cm x 60 cm, tweezers [Retz], microscope [MD 3000 Binocular], filter paper 10
μm (Whatmann #41), filter paper (TGAGF 41), soil sample, paddy [Ciherang variety],
distillation water.
Reduction of Dustfall and Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) Generation… 1929
Measurement of Dustfall and Suspended Particulate
Dustfall and TSP generation were calculated through the gravimetric analysis, where
the difference between the weight of the paper filter before and after it was inserted into
the dustfall canister and high volume air sampler is considered. Both dustfall and TSP
were controlled by these elements: wind speed, soil, moisture, and land cover. The
flowchart of this research is presented on Figure 2, while the experiment’s scheme is
presented on Figure 2.
Figure 1. Research framework
Figure 2. Schematic experimental in tunnel [9]
1930 A.S. Yuwono, F. Khoirunnisa, M. Fauzan, Iskandar, R.A.Regia
Dustfall generation is measured based on the national standard titled SNI 13-4703-1998
on determining the level of dust in the air by using dustfall canister, while the generation
of TSP was measured based on the SNI 19-7119.3-2005 on testing method for total
suspended particle using high volume air sampler (HVAS) with gravimetric method.
The required duration to measure the dustfall in tunnel is 12 hours while the
measurement of TSP only requires 1 hour. The wind speed that was used for the
measurement process was 0.7 m/s, 1.0 m/s, and 1.2 m/s. However, the temperature and
relative humidity changed relatively. The flow rate that was used for the HVAS was
from 1.2 to 1.5 m3/min. To calculate the dustfall generation the first formula (Formula
1) was used, while the second formula (Formula 2) was used to calculate the TSP
generation.
𝐶 =W
A 𝑥
30
T (1)
𝐶2 = 𝐶1 𝑥 (t1
t2)0.185 (2)
Where “C” is dustfall generation in the ambient air [ton/km2/month], “W” is dustfall
mass accumulated on the filter [ton], “A” is surface area of dustfall canister [km2], “T”
is measurement elapse time [day], “C2” is standard concentration [µg/Nm3], C1 is
particulate concentration in ambient air [µg/Nm3], “t1” is momentary exposure time
[hour], and “t2” is standard exposure time [hour].
Reduction dustfall and TSP
Dustfall and TSP were reduced by watering with water and paddy planting. The type
of paddy that used was Ciherang varieties. The percentages of land cover that used were
10%, 20%, 30% and 40%. The height of paddy was around 15 cm and needed 2 weeks
until fertile. The soil moisture that used was 15%, 18% and 21%. Dustfall and TSP
generations before reduction using soil moisture were around 15%. The number of
dustfall and suspended particulate generation before reduction compared with dustfall
and suspended particulate after reduction.
Measurement of Particle Size Distribution
To measure the particle size distribution, a complete digital microscope was used along
with a camera that was put above the object glass. The object glass itself was placed on
the edge of the dustfall canister. A computer was used to show the result which can also
save the images. The distance of object in pictures was calculated by using Corel Draw.
Then, the collected are input to Microsoft Excel to obtain the particle’s diameter, which
are later used to classify the dustfall and TSP, in μm unit.
Reduction of Dustfall and Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) Generation… 1931
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Correlation dustfall and total suspended particulate (TSP) with soil moisture,
wind speed and land cover
Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) is a complex mixture of solid particles, liquid or
both in the air and contains inorganic and organic substances [10]. The diameter of TSP
is less than 100 μm [20], whereas according to EPA the size ranges 0.1-30 μm [23].
The correlation of TSP generations with soil moisture and wind speed is presented in
Figure 3.
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Correlation between TSP generations
and soil moisture (a) and wind speed (b)
Reduction Dustfall and Total Suspended Particulate
Based on Figure 3 (a), the lowest TSP generation is 18 µg/Nm3 when the wind speed
0.7 m/s and soil moisture 21.5%. The results of long term precipitation measurement of
pollutants (monthly, quarterly, and annual periods) are the basis of the assessment of
pollution trends on covered areas [4]. High soil moisture will affect TSP generation.
Based on the result, the correlation between TSP and soil moisture is negative. The
highest R2 from the Figure 3 was 0.999. The level of influence of the wind speed and
soil moisture content on dustfall generation is represented by the R-Sq value [22].
Based on Figure 3 (b), the generation TSP generation is 50 when the wind speed is at
1.2 m/s and soil moisture is at 15.3%. It proves that when the wind speed is high, the
suspended particle generation is relatively large. The local persistent dust sources and
simultaneously evaluate the most related synoptically parameters to dust emission, such
y = -24.31ln(x) + 92.08
R² = 0.992
y = -17.12ln(x) + 81.626
R² = 0.999
y = -19.67ln(x) + 102.7
R² = 0.985
15
25
35
45
55
14 16 18 20 22
TS
P (
µg/N
m3)
Soil Moisture (%)
Wind Speed 0.7
m/sWind Speed 1.0
m/sWind Speed 1.2
m/s
y = 6.2591e1.575x
R² = 0.9952
y = 6.4883e1.628x
R² = 0.9947
y = 10.9e1.2159x
R² = 0.9993
15
25
35
45
55
0.5 0.8 1.1 1.4
TS
P (
µg/N
m3)
Wind Speed (m/s)
Soil Moisture
21%Soil Moisture
18%
1932 A.S. Yuwono, F. Khoirunnisa, M. Fauzan, Iskandar, R.A.Regia
as temperature, wind speed, and number of dusty days [7]. The correlation between
dustfall generation with soil moisture and speed is shown on Figure 4.
(a) (b)
Figure 4. The correlation between dustfall generations and soil moisture (a) and wind
speed (b).
Based on Figure 4 (a), the lowest dustfall generation was 2 tons/km2/month when the
wind speed was 0.7 m/s and soil moisture was 21.5%. The highest dustfall generation
when the wind speed was 1.2 m/s and soil moisture content 15.3% was 9
tons/km2/month. If the generation of dustfall was tested on the field, the obtained result
might be different from the ones that were conducted in laboratory due to the influence
of non-uniform vegetation type, meteorological factors, C-organic content of the soil,
unstable soil moisture content, and wind speed [22]. According to Amaliah et al. [1]
and Yuwono et al. [21], the increase in soil water content will decrease the number of
dustfall generation.
According to Yuwono et al. [22], the highest the number of dustfall generation was 26
tons/km2/month for Regosol soil and 18 tons/km2/month for red yellow Grumusol soil.
High generation of dust into the ambient air is affected by four things: strong wind, dry
soil, sparse vegetation, and saltating particles [13].
Based on Figure 4 (b), the high dustfall generation will affect the wind speed. The
generation of dust fall is positively correlated with wind speed. At higher wind speeds
and larger values of the friction velocity, both the re-entrainment of particles that
became lodged in the floor at low speeds [17]. The correlation of dustfall and TSP
generation and land cover is presented on Figure 5.
y = -0.2621x + 8.0494
R² = 0.9986
y = -0.3658x + 11.808
R² = 0.9621
y = -0.333x + 13.774
R² = 0.9998
2
4
6
8
10
14 16 18 20 22
Du
stfa
ll (
ton
/km
2.m
nth
)
Soil moisture(%)
Wind Speed 0.7 m/s
Wind Speed 1.0 m/s
Wind Speed 1.2 m/s
y = 6.2106ln(x) + 4.8354
R² = 0.8994
y = 8.6024ln(x) + 5.816
R² = 0.9496
y = 8.0626ln(x) + 6.8458
R² = 0.9923
2
4
6
8
10
0.5 0.8 1.1 1.4
Du
stfa
ll (
ton
/km
2.m
on
th)
Wind Speed (m/s)
Soil moisture
21%Soil moisture
18%
Reduction of Dustfall and Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) Generation… 1933
Figure 5. The correlation between dustfall and TSP generation and land cover
When the soil moisture was 18.8% and wind speed was 1.2 m/s, the dustfall and TSP
generation were 8 tons/km2/month and 45 µg/Nm3. Both were measure when the soil
moisture of the land cover was 15% and wind speed was 1.2 m/s. Other percentages of
land cover were used to measure the dustfall generation, which are 10%, 20%, 30% and
40%. The result shows that the dustfall generation were 6 tons/km2/month, 5
tons/km2/month, 3 tons/km2/month and 2 tons/km2/month respectively. Meanwhile the
TSP generation that was measured after the reduction with land cover at 10%, 20%,
30% and 40% were 38 µg/Nm3, 25 µg/Nm3, 20 µg/Nm3 and 13 µg/Nm3, respectively.
According to previous research [2] the wind speed is known to be positively correlated
with dustfall generation, while soil moisture and land cover is negatively correlated
with dustfall generation. Higher vegetation cover results in higher surface roughness
length and less dust emission, thereby reducing dust storm occurrence [14].
Soil texture is an important factor in soil erodibility because soil texture determines the
consistence, cohesion, and mobility of the soil [16]. Based on tests performed in the
Soil and Plant Laboratory, SEAMEO Biotrop, alluvial soil texture has the composition
of sand, dust and clay were 57.9%, 18.2% and 23.9%. Because alluvial soils that are
used tend to be a lot of sand then based on studies of [8] the sandy surfaces produced
the least amounts of dust. The composition of organic C in alluvial soil was 0.56%.
The comparison between dustfall and TSP generations before and after reduction
Fugitive dust emissions can be managed by a range of inclusive strategies consisted of:
y = -0.794x + 43.45
R² = 0.96
y = -2.995ln(x) + 13.376
R² = 0.9785
2
4
6
8
10
08
16
24
32
40
0 10 20 30 40 50
Du
stfa
ll (
ton
/km
2.m
on
th)
TS
P (
µg/N
m3)
Land Cover (%)
TSP Dustfall
1934 A.S. Yuwono, F. Khoirunnisa, M. Fauzan, Iskandar, R.A.Regia
chemical stabilization using surfactants, planting of vegetation cover, construction of
wind breaks, and finally, watering. The application of chemical material provides
longer periods of dust suppression than watering, but can be costly, adversely affect
plant and animal life, and contaminate the treated material [17].
Reduction Dustfall and Total Suspended Particulate
Watering is the most common and affordable method. Unfortunately, there are few
guidelines concerning the amount and frequency of watering needed to either reduce or
prevent the emission of dust [17]. The comparison between dustfall generations based
on the national standard with dustfall generation before and after reduction is presented
on Figure 6.
Figure 6. The comparison between dustfall generation in national standard with
dustfall generation before and after reduction
According to the Government Regulation (GR) 1999, the dustfall generation for 30 days
is 10 tons/km2/month. Based on Figure 8, generation of dustfall was reduced by 1
ton/km2/month. Reduction efforts testing were carried out by using the land covered of
rice field in Ciherang. According GR1999, TSP generation for 24 hours is 230 µg/Nm3.
The comparison between TSP generation in national standard with TSP generation
before and after reduction is presented in Figure 7.
10
5
4
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
dustfall generation national standar (PP
RI 1999)
average of dustfall generation before
reduction
average of dustfall generation before
reduction
Du
stfa
ll (
ton
/km
2.m
on
th)
Reduction of Dustfall and Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) Generation… 1935
Figure 7. The comparison between TSP generation in national standard with TSP
generation before and after reduction
Based on Figure 7, the difference of TSP generation before and after the reduction
process is 9 µg/Nm3. The magnitude of the generated TSP reduction is considerable
land cover by using a variation of 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%. The increasing of land
cover proven effective to reduce dust (particulate matter) generated from the soil [18].
The increasing of land cover is proven effective in reducing dust (particulate matter) as
generated by the soil.
The size distribution of dustfall and TSP
Size distribution, composition, and shape of dustfall in the air will affect the
environment [6]. Particulate matter suspended in the atmospheric air that has
aerodynamic diameter less than 10 micron refers to respirable suspended particulate
matter (RSPM) or PM10. These particulate are small enough to be inhaled deeply into
respiratory tract and pulmonary system of human beings and pose health related
problems to person inhaling it [11]. Particle size distribution is presented on Table 1.
Table 1. The size distribution of particle
Size of
particulate
(µm)
Size distribution of particulate (%)
Without land cover With Land cover
< 2.5
2.5-10
> 10
60.8
35.3
3.9
36.4
59.1
4.5
230
3324
0
50
100
150
200
250
TSP generation national standar
(PP RI 1999)
average of TSP generation
before reduction
average of TSP generation
before reduction
TS
P (
µg/N
m3
)
1936 A.S. Yuwono, F. Khoirunnisa, M. Fauzan, Iskandar, R.A.Regia
Based on Table 1, the size distribution for diameter < 2.5 µm, 2.5-10 µm and > 10 µm
are 97.2%, 94.4% and 8.4% respectively. The size distribution of alluvial particle is
from 2.5 μm to 10 μm. Because of its small diameter, PM2.5 could sediment in lung and
due to its large surface area, toxins including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
and heavy metals is absorbed onto the surface. Organs such as lung and heart, cells and
DNA could be damaged by these toxins [3].
CONCLUSION
The conclusions of this research are as follow:
1. The generations of dustfall and TSP correlated positively with wind speed but
correlated negatively with soil moisture and land cover.
2. The average of dustfall generation before reduction was 5 tons/km2/month
whereas after reduction was 4 tons/km2/month. The average of TSP generation
before reduction was 33 µg/Nm3 whereas after reduction was 24 µg/Nm3.
3. Particle size distribution of 2.5 µm, 2.5-10 µm and >10 µm particles are 97.2%,
94.4% and 8.4% respectively.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research was conducted with financial support from The Ministry of Research,
Technology and Higher Education, Republic of Indonesia, under PUPT research grant
scheme in Bogor Agricultural University (IPB).
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