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e a s o n m S e n e c a

J O S I A H B . G O U L D

M A x P O HL EN Z , i n h i s l a s t g r e a t w o r k o n t h e S t o a , 1 m a i n t a i n e d t h a t

Logos

i s t he

c e n t r a l c o n c e p t o f S t o i c p h i l o s o p h y ( I , 3 4 ). N e i t h e r M e t t e 2 n o r E d e l s t e i n , 3 e a c h o f

w h o m r e v i e w e d P o h le n z ' s s t u d y , n o t e s t h e a u t h o r ' s f r e q u e n t r e m i n d e rs t h a t S t o i-

c i s m i s e i n e L o g o s p h i l o s o p h i e a n d h i s c o n t e n t i o n , s e t f o r t h e a r ly i n V o l u m e I ,

t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f L o g o s h a s i n S t o ic p h i l o so p h y p u s h e d w h o l l y t o o n e s id e t h e

A r i s t o t e l i a n

J,o~s in

d o c t r i n e a s w e l l a s i n t e r m i n o l o g y .

O n e w h o i s f a m i l ia r w i t h t h e f r a g m e n t s o f t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e e a r l y S t o i c s h a r d l y

n e e d s t o b e t o l d t h a t f o r Z e n o , C l e a n t h e s , a n d C h r y s i p p u s ,

Logos

is a f u n d a m e n t a l

n o t i o n . H e l p

is

n e e d e d w h e n o n e t r i e s t o m a k e c l e ar t o h i m s e l f t h e c o n t e n t o f th i s

n o t io n . A n e x a m p l e is th e m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y o f C h r y s i p p u s a s w e h a v e r e c o n s t r u c te d

i t f r o m t h e f r a g m e n t s o f h i s w r i ti n g s .

F o r C h r y s i p p u s t h e b a s i c e x p r e s s i o n i n S t o i c m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y , life i n a c c o r d -

anc e w i th na tu re (zb ~arh ~b~Lu ~ '~u) bec om es

life

i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h r e a s o n

(r~ KaTh~,bTou~ '~ ) . I h a v e , h o w e v e r , f o u n d i t d if f ic u l t t o r e n d e r a n a c c o u n t o f w h a t ,

f o r C h r y s i p p u s , i t w o u l d b e t o l i v e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h L o g o s o r r e a s o n . O n o n e

h a n d , i t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t o l i v e i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h r e a s o n i s t o b e g u i d e d b y

c u m u l a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e o r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s f r o m p a s t e x p e r i e n c e a b o u t w h a t w o u l d

o r w o u l d n o t b e a d v a n t a g e o u s . I t s e e m s , t h a t i s , t o b e a s s e n t t o r e a s o n w h e n i t

p a s s e s f r o m e x p e r i e n c e o f

this

bene f i t fo l l owing on

that

a c t io n t o j u d g m e n t s s u c h a s

t h a t

kind

of ac t i on i s sues i n

this

k i n d o f a d v a n t a g e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , r e as o n

o r L o g o s , i n a f u l l y d e v e l o p e d s t a t e , w e a r e i n f o rm e d , i s t h e k n o w l e d g e o f g e n u i n e l y

g o o d a n d g e n u i n e ly b a d t h in g s ; a n d s u c h k n o w l e d g e i s o b v i o u s ly n o t t h e k i n d o f

t h i n g t o b e i n d u c e d f r o m p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r i e n c e s . I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e a j u d g m e n t t h a t

a p a r t i c u l a r c o n s e q u e n c e o f a p a r t i c u l a r d e e d i s o f v a l u e p r e s u p p o s e s t h e k n o w l e d g e

w h i c h C h r y s i p p u s d e s c r ib e s a s th e k n o w l e d g e o f t h i n g s r e a ll y g o o d o r r e a l ly a d -

v a n t a g e o u s . F o r e x am p l e , g i v e n t h a t o n e h a s a r e l a t i v e l y c l e ar n o t i o n a s t o w h a t

h e a l t h i s , h e w i t h s o m e e x p e r i e n c e , c a n j u d g e w h e t h e r o r n o t t h i s f o o d a n d t h a t

a c t i v i t y c o n t r i b u t e t o h e a l th . B u t , o n C h r y s i p p u s ' v i e w , i t w o u l d s e e m t h a t r e a s o n

o r L o g o s i n o r d e r t o c o m e t o c o n c l u s io n s a b o u t t h e v a l u e o f h e a l t h - in d u c i n g f o o d s

o r a c t iv i t i e s h a s t o p o s s e s s a r e l a t i v e l y c l ea r n o t i o n a b o u t t h e v a l u e o f s o m e t h i n g

e ls e i n w h o s e a c q u i s it i o n h e a l t h i s i n s t r u m e n t a l . T h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t a c t i o n s l e a d i n g

t o h e a l t h o r w e a l t h h a v e v a l u e c o u l d n o t f o ll o w f r o m s o m e sp e c i al i n s ig h t b y L o g o s

i n t o t h e i n tr in s i c w o r t h o f h e a l t h o r w e a l t h , f o r i t is e x p l ic i tl y d e n ie d t h a t t h e y a r e

u n q u a l i f i e d l y g o o d . T h e q u e s t i o n t h e n a r is e s w h e t h e r L o g o s h a s a n i n s i g h t i n t o

1Max Pohlenz, Die Stoa. Geschichte einer geistigen Beweg ung. 2nd . ed. (GSttingen: Van-

denhoeck & Rupreeht, 1959).

H. J . Met te ,

Max Pohlenz: Die Stoa.

Geschichte einer geistigen Bew egung. 2 Bde. (G6t-

tingen: Vandenh oeck und Ruprecht). Review, GnomonXXIII (1951), 27-39.

Ludw ig Edelstein, Max Pohlenz. Die Stoa. Geschichte einer geistigen Bewegung. (GSt-

tingen: Ya nden hoec k und Rup recht, I [1948}, 490 pp .; II [1949], 230 pp .). R ev iew ,

American

Journal of Philology, LX X II (Oct., 1951),426--432.

[13]

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14 HISTORY OF PHIL OSOP HY

something else which is genuinely good by reference to which judgments can be

made abou t the value of health and wealth under certain conditions. The suspicion

that this is so is heightened by the exalted status assigned to the wise man. The

ideal of the wise man does not fit snugly with Chrysippus' conception of Logos as a

generalizing instrument for determining what things and activities are useful. The

wise man is too contemptuous of or, at least, too indifferent toward the goods

of the world. It is unthinkable th at he should att end to t hem with a view to deter-

mining which of them is useful. He knows

a l r e a d y ;

his wisdom comes from other

parts. He is sure of what is really good because an unobfuscated reason or Logns

has declared this to him in an immedia te way; he has not had to wait for the verdict

of reason's generalizations on experience. It is difficult to ignore either of these

aspects of Logos or reason in Chrysippus ' philosophy, and yet they do not sit well

together in it.

Not being satisfied with my account of Chrysippus' moral philosophy, I decided

to begin at the other end of the Stoic tradition where we are not limited to frag-

ments alone. Chrysippus' books were studied in the first century A.D. Seneca ad-

mired Chrysippus and rightly regarded him as one of the leading figures of the

early Stoa. In the whole body of Seneca's works, there are fifteen allusions to Chry-

sippus. If one reads through in turn the passages in which they occur, he cannot

fail to discern that, in Seneca's mind, Chrysippus is one of the pillars of the Porch.

Seneca usually mentions him in the same breath with other esteemed philosophers--

in large measure, Stoic philosophers--for example, Zeno; Zeno and Cleanthes;

Zeno and Socrates; Cleanthes; Plato, Zeno, and Posidonius; Zeno, Cleanthes,

Panaetius, and Posidonius. And in each of these passages it is obvious that Seneca

is pointing out great men to his readers; representative is this sentence from O n

Ben e f i t s

(vii. 8. 5): I shall not remind you of Socrates, of Chrysippus, of Zeno,

and the others, truly great men--in fact too great, because envy set no bounds to

our praise of the ancients. '4 While it is not at all apparent that Chrysippus, in

Seneca's estimation, is in any way a unique authority in the Stoic tradition, one

who has cast a shadow on any of the other prominent figures in the school--he

alludes to Cleanthes thirteen times and to Zeno twenty-one it is at the same time

manifest tha t Chrysippus is viewed as one among the solidly preeminent spokesman

for and exemplars of Stoic principles.

The first step in the inquiry is that of determining how Seneca conceived ra t i o

or

r e a s o n

Judging from Seneca's use of the expression, what, I have asked, are the

functions of reason in the cosmos and in the individual person? All of this might

cast some light on at least the early Stoa's conception of reason and, at most, on

some of the Chrysippean fragments. Whether or not this will be the case depends

also on the delicate task of distinguishing in Seneea's thought original elements from

influences coming not only from the ancient Stoa but also from those having thei r

provenance in Posidonius and Panaetius. What I wish to present in this paper are

some very provisional results of the first stage in this inquiry.

Reason, as understood by Seneca, may be appropriately discussed in two major

4 All quotations from Seneca's works are from the translations in the Loeb Library editions

of Seneca's moral essays and epistles.

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R E A S O N I N S E N E C A 15

s t e p s : (1 ) I t m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d a s c o s m i c ; (2 ) i t m a y b e a p p r o a c h e d a s t h e r u l in g

pr inc ip l e i n man .

R e a s o n i n t h e m a c r o c o s m o r t h e u n i v e r s e a s a w h o l e i s , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h o l d e r

S t o i c v i e w s , i d e n t if i e d b y S e n e c a w i t h G o d . B o t h G o d a n d r e a s o n o n a c o s m i c l e v e l

a r e , f o r h i m a s f o r t h e S t o i c s g e n e r a l l y , n a m e s f o r t h e a c t i v e o r m o t i o n - i n d u c i n g

p r i n c i p l e i n t h i n g s . T h i s a c t i v e p r i n c i p l e i t s e l f i s o n e o f t h e t w o f u n d a m e n t a l i n -

g r e d i e n t s i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s , t h e o t h e r b e i n g u n q u a l i fi e d M a t t e r . T h i s s e c o n d

e l e m e n t , m a t t e r , d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n c o n f l a g r at io n s , b e c o m e s d i f f e r e n t ia t e d

i n t o a v a r i e g a t e d u n i v e r s e b y t h e a c t io n o f G o d o r R e a s o n p u l s a t i n g t h r o u g h i t.

G o d o r C r e a t i v e R e a s o n ratio faciens) i s a l so ca l l ed t he genera l cause o f t he

u n i v er s e. A n d b y g e n e ra l c a u s e S e n e c a m e a n s t h e a g e n t b y w h i c h a quo) i t w a s

p r o d u c e d . I n a n e x p o s i t io n o f t h e n o t i o n o f c a u s e a s f o u n d i n P l a t o a n d A r i s to t l e - --

u n u s u a l i n t h e g e n e r a l l y h o m i l e t i c a l S e n e c a - - f i n a l a n d f o r m a l c a u s e s a r e r e j e c t e d

o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t t h e y a r e m e r e l y a c c e s s o r y E p . l x v. 1 1) . B u t i t s o o n b e c o m e s

e v i d e n t t h a t S e n e c a ' s e f fi c ie n t c a u s e w o r k s p u r p o s e f u l l y .

R e a s o n a s C r e a t i v e F o r c e i n t h e c o s m o s o p e r a t e s , w e a r e t o l d , i n t h e m a n n e r o f

a n a r t i s t . T h e w h o l e f a b r i c o f t h e u n i v e r s e i s c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e h a n d o f G o d o r

R e a s o n E p . lx xi. 1 2). H a v i n g l a id d o w n t h a t a l l t h i n g s a r e m a d e u p o f m a t t e r

a n d o f G o d , S e n e c a g o e s o n t o s a y G o d c o n t r o l s m a t t e r , w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e s h i m

a s i t s g u i d e a n d l e a d e r . Nempe universa ex materia et ex deo constant. Deus ista

temperat, quae circumfusa rectorem secuntur et ducem. Ep. l xv . 23 . ) The un ive r se

i t se l f i s a scene o f cyc l i ca l change . Every th ing t ha t i s , i nc lud ing t he ea r th , has i t s

a p p o i n t e d t i m e t o b e b o r n , t o g r o w , t o b e d e s t r o y e d . A l l t h i n g s i n c l u d i n g t h e u n i -

v e r s e i t s e l f , h a v i n g b e e n p u t t o g e t h e r w i l l b e r e s o l v e d i n t o t h e i r e l e m e n t s a n d , i n

S e n e c a ' s w o r d s , T h e e t e r n a l c r a f t s m a n s h i p o f G o d , w h o c o n t ro l s a l l t h i n g s , is

w o r k i n g a t t h i s t a s k . In hoc opere aeternam artem cuncta temperantis dei verti . E p .

l xx i. 1 4 .) S e n e c a ' s c o n v i c t io n t h a t G o d o r R e a s o n p r e s i d e s o v e r t h e u n i v e r s e p r o v i -

d e n t i a U y s t e m s f r o m t h e o r d e r a n d r e g u l a r i t y w i t h w h i c h i n h i s v i e w p h e n o m e n a

o c c u r . T h e m o v e m e n t s o f c e l es t ia l b o d i e s a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n s o n o r n e a r t h e s u r f a c e

o f t h e e a r t h t a k e p l a c e w i th a n a r t i s t ry w h i c h, a c c o r d in g t o h i m , i s fa r r e m o v e d

f r o m c h a n c e On Providence, i . 2 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e e v e n t h o s e h a p p e n i n g s w h i c h

appear

t o b e i r re g u l a r a n d u n d e t e r m i n e d - - s h o w e r s , c l o u d s , v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n s , a n d

e a r t h q u a k e s - - d o n o t h a p p e n w i th o u t a re a so n sine ratio). T h e y r e s u l t f r o m s p e c i a l

c a u s e s

causas suas)

w h i c h , S e n e c a i m p l i e s , p a t i e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l u n v e i l

O n

Providence, i. 3 ). H e r e S e n e c a is e v i n c i n g th e C h r y s i p p e a n v i e w t h a t t h e r e a r e n o

u n c a u s e d e v e n t s . O n t h e l ev e l o f t h e m a c r o c o s m G o d o r R e a s o n , i t o u g h t t o b e

n o t e d , i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e p r e s e n c e o f c a u s e s w h i c h s u f f i c i e n t l y e x p l a i n t h e o e -

c u r e n c e o f p h e n o m e n a .

I f co s m i c R e a s o n , p e n e t r a t i n g p r i m o r d i a l m a t t e r , g i v e s t h e u n i v e r s e th e c h a r a c t e r

i t h a s , w e e x p e c t t o f i n d s p e c if i ca t io n s o f t h a t r e a s o n i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t s o f th e

u n i v e r s e . I n f a c t , i n t h e a n c i e n t S t o a , s u c h s p e c i f i c a t i o n s w e r e r e g a r d e d a s t a k i n g

d i f f e r e n t f o r m s ; f o r e x a m p l e , r e a s o n i s t h e

binding force

i n i n a n i m a t e o b j e c t s a c -

count ing fo r t he i r cohes ion ; i t i s ca l l ed nature in p l a n t s ; i t t a k e s t h e f o r m o f soul in

a n i m a l s ; a n d i n m e n , i t i s d e s c r i b e d v a r i o u s l y a s s o u l o r reason. S e n e c a a l l u d e s

p r i m a r i l y t o t h e l a t t e r m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f r e a s o n . I t i s m a n ' s r e a s o n w h i c h l in k s h i m

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16 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

t o t h e r e a s o n o f t h e C o s m o s . I n d e e d , S e n e c a g oe s f u r t h e r ; h e h o l d s t h a t r e a s o n " i s

n o t h i n g e ls e t h a n a

por t ion

o f t h e d i v i n e s p ir i t s e t i n a h u m a n b o d y . " 5

R e a s o n a p p e a r s i n m a n a t b i r t h . I t i s i n it i a ll y i m p e r f e c t b u t c a p a b l e o f b e i n g

p e r f e c t e d ( E p . x li x. 1 2 ). I t s p e r f e c t i o n is t h e d i s t i n c ti v e m a r k o f m a n i n th e w a y

t h a t f r u i tf u l n e s s is t h a t o f t h e v i n e ( E p . x li . 7 - 8 ) . R e a s o n , t h a t i s, i s t h e p r o p e r t y

i n m a n w h i c h d i s ti n g u is h e s h i m a s s u c h. I t i s t h e q u a l i t y w h i c h c a n n o t b e t a k e n

f r o m h i m i n t h e w a y t h a t h is h o m e o r i n c o m e m i g h t b e . A s S e n e ca p u t s h i s c a se ,

M an i s s t rong ; so i s the l ion . Man i s comely ; so is the peacock . M an i s swif t ; so i s the ho rse .

I do no t say tha t ma n i s su rpassed in a ll these qua l i t i e s . I am no t seek ing to f ind th a t wh ich

is g rea tes t in h im, bu t th a t wh ich i s pecu l ia r ly h is own. M an has body ; so a l so have the t rees .

M a n h a s t h e p o w e r to a c t a n d t o m o v e a t w i l l; s o h a v e b e a s t s a n d w o r m s . M a n h a s a v o i c e ;

bu t how much louder i s the vo ice o f the dog , how much sh r i l le r th a t o f the eag le , how much

d e e p e r t h a t o f t h e b u l l , ho w m u c h s w e e t e r an d m o r e m e lo d io u s t h a t o f t h e n ig h t i n g a l e W h a t

then i s pecu l ia r in man? Reason (Ep. lxxvi. 9-10).

N o t o n l y d o e s r e a s o n d i f fe r e n t ia t e m a n f r o m t h e o t h e r a n i m a l s ; i t is b y v i r t u e o f

r e a s o n t h a t h e s ur p a ss e s t h e m ( E p . l x x vi . 9 ) . I n S e n e c a ' s e y e s t h e f a c t t h a t m a n i s

e s s e n t i a l l y r a t i o n a l ( r a t io n a l en im a n ima l e s t h o mo ; E p . x l i . 8 ) , a n d t h a t r e a s o n

m a y b e p e r f ec t e d h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t b e a r i n g o n m a n ' s h a p p i n e s s ; b u t t h i s w il l b e

m o r e f i t t in g l y d i s c u s se d i n t h e f o l lo w i n g s e c t io n w h e r e I h o p e w i t h a v i e w t o o p e n i n g

u p f u r t h e r S e n e c a ' s c o n c e p t io n o f r e a s o n t o s h o w h o w , a c c o r d i n g t o h i m , r e a s o n

o p e r a t e s i n m a n ' s l i f e .

R ea s o n , th e r u l in g p r in c ip le in men .

S e n e c a m a i n t a i n s t h a t r e a s o n is t h e r u l in g

p r i n c i p l e ( r eg iu m; p r in c ip a le ) in m a n ( D e I r a i. 3 . 7 ) . W h a t a r e t h e f u n c t i o n s o f

t h i s p r in c ip a le , t h e L a t i n v e r s i o n o f t h e ~ e ~ o w ~ v o f t h e a n c i e n t S t o a ? T o u s e a

l oo s e p h r a s e , r e a s o n h a s a b e a r i n g o n t h e o r e t ic a l t r u t h s a n d o n p r a c t ic a l t r u t h s .

W h a t is t h a t b e a r in g ?

T h e a n c i e n t S t o a h a d d e f in e d w i s d o m a s k n o w l e d g e o f t h i n g s h u m a n a n d d i v i ne .

S e n e c a is s i m p l y r e t a il i n g t h is n o t i o n w h e n h e t e ll s u s t h a t t h e w i s e m a n , i n w h o m

r e a s o n i s p e r f e c t e d , i s n e v e r m o r e a c t i v e i n a f fa i rs t h a n w h e n t h i n g s d i v i n e a s w e l l

a s t h in g s h u m a n h a v e c o m e w i t h i n h is k e n " (E p . l xv f i i . 2 ) . B u t w h a t d o t h e s e

g r a n d i o s e e x p re s s io n s m e a n ? S e n e c a u se s th e e x p r es s i on " d i v i n e t h i n g s " t o d e n o t e

n a t u r a l o c c u r r e n c e s - - t h e m o v e m e n t s of t h e s t a r s a n d p l a n e t s , m e t e o r o l o g ic a l p h e -

n o m e n a , o c c u r re n c e s o n t h e s u r f a ce o f t h e e a r t h s u c h a s t h e r is e a n d f a ll o f t h e w a t e r s

o f t h e N i l e; a n d s u b t e r r a n e a n p h e n o m e n a - - e a r t h q u a k e s a n d v o l c an i c er u p ti o n s .

H e d e v o t e d s e v e n b o o k s t o i n qu i ri e s i n to t h e s e p h e n o m e n a . T h e y , h o w e v e r , c o n s is t

i n t h e m a i n o f t h e o p i n i o n s o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s o n n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a ; h e r e l ie s i n

p a r t i c u l a r o n P o s i d o n iu s . W h e r e a s n o o n e c a n d e n y t h a t S e n e c a ' s e n t h u s i a s m f o r a

k n o w l e d g e o f t h e u n i v e r s e i s g e n u i n e , t h e e c l e c t ic i s m o f h i s w o r k i n t h i s f ie ld i s

h a r d l y d i s g u i s e d .

S e n e c a i s e l o q u e n t i n h i s a f f i r m a t i o n o f t h e b e a u t y o f d i s i n t e r e s t e d s c ie n t if i c

r e s e a rc h : t o t h e q u e s t io n , w h a t a d v a n t a g e i s t o b e d e r i v e d f r o m h i s la b o r , h e r e p li e s:

t h e g r e a t e s t o f a l l - - t o k n o w N a t u r e . I n v e s t i g a ti o n s s u ch a s th e s e c a n re n d e r m a n y

5 Ratio autem nih il aliud est quam in corpus humanum pars divini spiritus me rsa (Ep. lxvi .

12). Spir itus i s the Greek r ~e ~a which fo r some S to ics is the subs tan ce o f God o r reason .

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R E A S O N I N S E N E C A 17

u s e f u l s e r vi c e s; b u t w h a t t h e y g i v e u s o f m o r e v a l u e i s t h a t o f r e t a i n i n g t h e a t t e n -

t i o n o f m a n b y t h e i r s p l e n d o r i t se l f a n d t h a t o f b e i n g c u l t i v a t e d b y r e a s o n o f th e

m a r v e l s t h e y u n f o l d r a t h e r t h a n f o r t h e pr o f it t h a t o n e m i g h t d e r i v e f ro m t h e i r

d i sc lo su re

N.Q.

v i . 4. 2 ). A n o t h e r o f S e n e c a ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t ic v i e w s a b o u t k n o w l e d g e

o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s i s t h a t t h e r e i s i n s c ie n c e a n i n d e f i n i te p ro g r e s s; i n o n e o f

h i s l e t t e r s h e w r i t e s :

I worship the discoveries of wisdom and their d iscoverers; to enter, as i t were, in to the inheri t-

ance of m an y predecessors is a delight . . . Bu t we should play the pa rt of a careful house-

holder; we should increase w hat we have inheri ted . This inheri tance shall pass from me to m y

descendents larger th an before. Much st i l l remains to do, and he who shall be born a thousa nd

years hence wi l l no t be barred f rom h is op por tun i ty o f add ing someth ing fu r ther Ep. lxiv. 7-8).

N e e d l e s s t o s a y , t h i s p a s s a g e , w h i c h c o u l d h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n y e s t e r d a y , d o e s n o t

s i t w e l l w i t h t h e c y c l ic a l v i e w o f h i s t o r y e s p o u s e d b y S e n e c a .

A c c o m p a n y i n g t h e e x p re s s io n s o f z e a l f o r d i s i n t e r e s t e d s c i en t if i c in v e s t i g a t i o n ,

a n d t h e a v o w a l o f a n u n l i m i t e d p r o g re s s i n s c ie n ti f ic e n q u i r y , t h e r e a r e i n S e n e c a ' s

w r i t i n g s a n u m b e r o f e n d o r s e m e n t s o f t h e u t i l i t y o f i n q u i ri e s i n t o n a t u r e i n re s p e c t

o f t h e i r e d i f i c a ti o n o f t h e s o u l. H a p p i n e s s , w e a r e t o l d , c a n n o t b e a c h i e v e d w i t h o u t

a k n o w l e d g e of t h i n g s h u m a n a n d d i v in e

Ep.

l x x i v . 2 9 ) . T h e m i n d i n b o n d a g e t o

e m o t i o n s ex p e ri e n ce s l i b e r a t io n w h e n i t t u r n s t o a c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f d i v i n e t h i n g s - -

t h a t i s , a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e c a u s e s o f n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a . T h e s e c o n d p a r t o f

p h i l o s o p h y , a s S e n e c a c o n c e iv e s i t, w e a r e t o l d , t e a c h e s t h e t h i n g s w h i c h m e n o u g h t

t o d o

N. Q . i .

1 ). W h e n w e t u r n t o S e n e c a 's v ie w s o n w h a t m i g h t b e c a l l ed t h e

p r a c t i c a l f u n c t i o n o f r e a s o n , h is c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h a t f a c u l t y e m e r g e s ,

I b e li e ve , m o r e d i s t i n c t l y t h a n i s t h e c a s e in h i s n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y .

A c a r d i n a l d o c t r i n e f o r S e n e c a i s t h a t reason in m a n is t h e s o u r ce o f t r u t h a n d o f

v i r t u e

Ep.

l xx v i. 22 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h e s a y s l i t t le b y w a y o f h e l p i n g u s t o u n d e r -

s t a n d h o w r e a s o n o p e r a t e s a s a n i n s t r u m e n t f o r t h e a c q u i s i t io n o f t r u t h . S e n e c a ' s

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d d i a l ec t i c ia n s , e v e n t h o s e o f h i s o w n s c h o o l w h o h a d s t u d i e d w o r d s ,

t h e i r m e a n i n g s , a n d p r o o f s , w a s - - i n b r i e f - - t h a t l if e i s t o o s h o r t f o r t h i s s o r t o f

t h i n g

Ep. lxxxix.

5 - 6 ) . H e i s l e s s r e s e n t f u l a n d m o r e l o q u a c i o u s w h e n h e t u r n s t o

c o n s i d e r t h e w a y i n w h i c h r e a s o n f u n c t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o c o n d u c t , a n d i t i s h e r e

i f a n y w h e r e t h a t w e s h a l l di s c o v e r m o r e e x a c t l y w h a t r e a s o n m e a n s f o r S e n ec a .

H i s d o c t r in e , p u t c o n c i se l y t h o u g h n o t u n a m b i g u o u s l y , is : W h e n r e a s o n is r i g h t

a n d h a s r e a c h e d p e r f e c t io n , m a n ' s f e l i c i ty i s c o m p l e t e

Ep.

l x x v i . 1 0) . I f w e ask e d

S e n e c a w h a t t h i s m e a n s , h e w o u l d p r o b a b l y r e f e r u s t o t h e 1 24 le t t e r s h e w r o t e t o

L u c i l i u s , h i s f r i e n d ( a n d

confessor,

o n e i s t e m p t e d t o s a y ) . I f w e t h e n s t r a i n t h i s

m a s s o f h o m i l y a n d e x h o r t a t i o n , w e g e t a n a n s w e r t o o u r q u e r y w h i c h c o n s i st s o f

t h r e e m a i n to p i c s : ( 1) r e a s o n a n d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l m o r a l p r e c e p t ; (2 ) r e a s o n a n d

t h e e m o t i o n s ; ( 3 ) r e a s o n a n d d e a t h .

T h e r e w a s a d o c t r i n e i n t h e a n c i e n t S t o a t h a t w h a t i s m o r a l l y g o o d (r~ K akS~ ) i s

t h e k n o w l e dg e o f w h a t i s g e n u i n e l y a d v a n t a g e o u s a n d w h a t i s g e n u i n e ly d is a d -

v a n t a g e o u s - - a k n o w l e d g e w h i c h e n a b l e s i t s po s s es s o r t o u s e t h i n g s b e n e f i c ia l l y o r

i n j u r i o u s l y - - a n d that n othing e lse is good except that knowledge. T h e v i e w i s c o n -

c i s e ly e x pr e s se d i n t h i s f r a g m e n t

S.V.F.

I I I , 1 65 ) o f S t o i c p h i l o s o p h y :

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If to sail well is good and to sail

badly is bad, then to sail is neither

good nor bad. And if to live well is

good and to live badly is bad, then

to live is neither good nor bad.

This knowledge of what is genuinely beneficial and what is genuinely harmful

was held to be the excellence of reason; ignorance of these matters was thought to

be reason's vice. Many things commonly thought to be good such as wealth and

health, it was claimed, are not in fact good because there are circumstances in

which they could conceivably be injurious, while it is the property of what is good

always to benefit, never to injure S .V.F. III, 117). I mention this ancient Stoic

doctrine again for it appears that Seneca, too, adhered to it. Indeed one of the

cash values of a perfected reason, according to him, is its conviction th at this funda-

mental moral doctrine is true.

The morally good in Latin becomes quod est hones tum and is most frequently

transla ted th at which is honorable. Seneca's view in these terms is that th at

which is honorable is the only good; all other goods are alloyed and debased Ep .

lxxi. 4). A perfected reason, or right reason as Seneca sometimes called it, is one

which has grown to the point at which all the actions of life, taken as a whole, are

controlled by the consideration of what is honorable or base

Ep.

lxxvi. 18). Of

course, reason does not grow toward this discernment in the way in which an acorn

grows to be an oak. It requires the aid of a philosopher to point out the unpalatable

consequences of adopting the opposite view.

Here, then, is Seneca's argument, as I construe it, against the contradictory

view, i.e., the view that there is something good other thau that which is morally

good. To assume that other things are good is to place oneself in the hands of

Fortune or under the control of another; one who is under the control of Fortune

cannot achieve genuine happiness. Therefore, one who assumes that other things

are good cannot achieve genuine happiness. To make a ease for his premises, Seneca

introduces a number of examples: a man is saddened by his child's death; another

is embittered because his child does something disgraceful; one man is tortured by

passion for his neighbor's wife; another, by passion for his own. Most men are

driven to despair by the expectation of death. Everyone is troubled when evils

come suddenly upon his neighbor. Seneca implies that a child's death, a woman's

desirableness, and one's own death are matters over which one has no control;

the y are circumstances controlled by Fortune, a catch-all term to designate things

outside one's own power. To call any of these things good or bad is, consequently,

to make trouble for oneself; it is simply to underwrite for oneself a life of anxiety

and disquietude Ep. lxxiv. 1-9).

His second argument against the assumption that anything is good besides what

is honorable is th at to make it is to make an unfavorable judgment upon Providence.

For whatever thing one may designate as good will be something which some good

men do not possess

Ep.

lxxiv. 10). Other considerations which work against the

assumption that, in addition to the honorable, other things are good, are (1) this

would be to assert th at man is more fortunate than God, for God does not experience

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R E A S O N I N S E N E C A 19

l u s t n o r e n j o y b a n q u e t s a n d w e a l t h ; a n d (2 ) o n e w o u l d h a v e t o c o n c lu d e t h a t a n i-

m a l s a r e m o r e f o r t u n a t e t h a n m e n , f o r s o m e o f t h e t h in g s c o m m o n l y r e g a rd e d a s

g o o d a r e ~ iv e n t o t h e m i n g r e a t e r m e a s u r e . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e y e a t th e i r f o o d w i t h

b e t t e r a p p e t i t e a n d a r e n o t w e a k e n e d b y s e x u a l i n d u l g e n c e . A

perfected reason is,

i t i s i m p l ie d , n o t m e r e l y o n e w h i c h h a s f o u n d t h e c o n c l u si o n o f t h e s e a r g u m e n t s

c o n v i n c in g . I t i s a l so o f s u c h n a t u r e t h a t i t c a n t a k e u p a p o s i t iv e s t a n c e w i t h

r e s p e c t t o t h e t h i n g s m e n o r d i n a r i ly c a ll g o o d .

I n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e a n c i e n t S t o a , S e n e c a c a l l s t h e s e s o - c a l l e d g o o d s a d v a n -

t a g e s

commoda)

or p re fe r r ed t h ings

p r o d u e t a = v p o ~ v ~ w ) .

T h e y a r e t h in g s w h i c h

w e m a y p o s s e s s b u t u p o n w h i c h w e o u g h t n o t t o p l u m e o u r se lv e s . T h e y a r e t h i n g s

t o b e u se d , b u t n o t t o b e b o a s t e d a b o u t . T h e y a r e t h in g s w h i c h o n e h a s u p o n l o an ,

a s i t w e r e , a n d a r e o f t h e s o r t t h a t m a y b e w i t h d r a w n , a n d a r e s u c h th a t i f o n e h a s

b e c o m e t o o z e a lo u s ly a t ta c h e d t o t h e m a p o r t i o n o f h im s e l f is ta k e n a w a y w h e n h e

l o se s t h e m ; b u t , e v e n w h i le c li n g in g t o t h e m a n d b e f o r e t h e i r p o s s i b le l o ss , h e i s

a n x io u s a b o u t t h e t i m e w h e n h e w i ll b e b e r e f t o f t h e m . I n b r ie f , o n e m u s t e m p l o y

reason

i n t he possess ion o f t h ings o f t h i s so r t

E p .

lxxiv. 18).

W h a t o u g h t t o b e n o t e d h e r e i s t h a t , i n S e n e c a ' s v i e w , p e r f e c t e d r e a s o n i s a s s o -

c i a t e d w i t h t h e f u n d a m e n t a l m o r a l p r i n c i p l e i n t w o w a y s ; i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , r e a s o n

is p r e s u m a b l y t h e f a c u l t y w h i c h b e c o m e s c o n v in c e d o f t h e t r u t h o f t h a t p r in c ip l e,

a n d s e c o n d , i t i s r e a s o n w h i c h a l l e g e d l y a d m i n i s t e r s t h i s p r i n c i p l e w i t h t h e h e l p o f

d i c t a a n d e x a m p l e s o f t h e s o r t S e n e c a g i v es .

B e f o r e w e t u r n t o t h e s e c o n d p r a c t i c a l u s e o f r e a s o n , o r r a t h e r

because

w e a r e

a b o u t t o c o n s i d e r i t , a t t e n t i o n m u s t b e g i v e n t o a s u b s i d i a r y p o i n t i n r e g a r d t o t h e

f u n d a m e n t a l m o r a l p r i n c ip l e a s c o n c e iv e d b y S e n e c a . I n a l e t t e r t o L u c i l iu s

E p .

xxi i i ) , which i s , i n e f f ec t , an exhor t a t i on t o soundness o f mind

ut te exhorter ad

bonam m en t em ) ,

S e n e c a s a y s t h a t t h e m a i n b u s i n e s s o f a m a n ' s l if e i s t o l e a r n h o w

t o f e e l j o y

disce guadere) .

A n d h i s le s s o n i s t h a t t h i s j o y d e r i v e s fr o m t h e c u l t iv a -

t i o n o f th e b e s t p a r t o f on e se lf , b y w h i c h h e c a n o n l y m e a n r e a s o n

E p .

xxiii. 6).

H e r e c u l t i v a t i o n o f r e a s o n i s i d e n ti fi e d n o t o n l y w i t h a n a d h e r e n c e t o t h e p r i n c ip l e

t h a t o n l y w h a t i s h o n o r a b l e is g o o d, b u t t o t h e c o n s t a n c y o f p u r p o s e w h i c h d e r i v e s

f r o m s u c h a d h e r e n c e . O n e c a n n o t b e h a p p y i f h e p l a c e s h i s h a p p i n e s s i n t h e c o n -

t ro l o f ex t e rna l s

in al iena potestate; Ep. xxf i i .

2 ). W h a t S e n e c a w i sh e s t o c o m m e n d

is t h e e v e n a n d c a l m w a y o f l iv i ng w h i ch t re a d s b u t o n e p a t h , a w a y o f l if e t h a t

i s s u p p o s e d t o r e s u l t w h e n o n e , g u i d e d b y r e a s o n , c o n t e m n s t h e g i f ts o f f o r t l m e

ex contempto for tu i torum ) .

I a l l u d e t o t h i s c o r o l la r y o f S e n e e a ' s f u n d a m e n t a l m o r a l

p r i n c i p l e b o t h b e c a u s e i t i s r e l e v a n t t o h i s v i e w o f r e a s o n a n d a l s o b e c a u s e h i s

r e m a r k c o n c e r n in g j o y o u g h t t o b e b o r n i n m i n d w h e n w e c o n s i d e r h i s p r o s c r i p t io n s

w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e o t h e r p a s s i o n s.

Reason and the emot ions .

T h e f u n c t i o n o f re a s o n a b o u t w h ic h S e n e c a i s m o s t

o u t s p o k e n i s t h a t i n v o l v e d i n c o n t r o l l i n g t h e e m o t i o n s . T h e d i a g n o s i s a n d t h e r a -

p e u t i c t r e a t m e n t o f t h e e m o t i o n s , r e g a r d e d a s d i se a s e s o f t h e m i n d , o c c u p i e d a n

i m p o r t a n t p l a c e i n t h e m o r a l t h e o r y o f th e a n c i e n t S t o a . C h r y s i p p u s , f o r e x a m p l e,

r e g a r d e d a n e m o t i o n a s a n e r r o n e o u s j u d g m e n t a b o u t t h e g o o d n e s s o r b a d n e s s o f

s o m e t h i n g w h i c h p r o v o k e d a v i o l e n t i m p u l s e . A n d h i s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r r e l i e f

f r o m e m o t i o n a l m a l a d i e s w e r e in t e r m s o f e f f e c ti v e w a y s a n d p r o p i t i o u s t i m e s f o r

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20 HISTORY OF PHILOS OPHY

helping the victim understand the error in his judgment. Apparently influenced by

Posidonius, Seneca rejected the intellectualistie psychology upon which this therapy

is founded; he, in short, agrees with Plato and Aristotle that there are irrational

elements in the soul (Ep . xcii. 1). He, nevertheless, opposing Posidonius and agreeing

with Chrysippus, holds that the emotions are not merely to be moderated but to

be eradicated. Moderate passion, in his view, is nothing else than a moderate

evil.

Seneca nowhere engages in a systematic discussion of the passions; the ones he

mentions most often in his letters and essays are anger, fear, lust, and greed. He

did write an essay on anger, and I propose to use that passion as a paradigm case

of the way in which for Seneca perfected reason functions with respect to the emo-

tions. This is not to make an entirely gratuitous inference, for Seneca himself says

tha t the tyr ann y under which an angry mind labors is the ty ranny under which

that man must live who surrenders to the bondage of any passion

(de I ra

i. 10.2).

Seneca defines anger in much the same way as does Aristotle's dialectician in the

d e A n i m a

(403a 30). It has its being in an onrush of resentment, raging with a

most inhuman lust for weapons, blood, and punishment, giving no thought to

itself if only it can hurt another, hurling itself upon the very point of the dagger,

and eager for revenge though it may drag down the avenger along with it (de I ra

i. 1). Having discussed several preliminary questions about anger--its uniqueness

in man, its difference from irascibility, the different forms it takes, and its non-

conformity with human nature Seneca turns to the query whether or not anger

in moderation might not at times be beneficial. His answer is an unqualified no.

In the first place, it is easier to exclude passions tha n to moderate them once they

have been admitted. Second, Reason to whom the reins of power have been en-

trus ted is contaminated by the passions. Reason can and ought to be kept apart

from the passions, for once i t plunges into anger, love, or the other passions, it

has no power to check its impetus

(de Ira.

i. 7.4). Seneca goes even further and,

in an apparent lapse from the Platonic psychology avowed elsewhere, maintains

that once passions are permitted a limited range, the mind is itself transformed into

the passion, on the ground that reason and passion are not really distinct but only

the transformation of the mind toward the better or the worse

(sea affectus et ratio

in mel ius peiusque mutat io animi es t ; de I ra i. 8.3). In brief the passions, Seneca

holds, are as bad subordinates as they are leaders

(de I ra

i. 9.3).

Seneca next (de I ra ii. 1.1) turns to t he question whether anger arises spontane-

ously from impulse or from choice, that is whether it arises of its own accord or

with our knowledge, the point being of course that if it has arisen involuntarily,

anger will not succumb to reason. Anger does not, Seneca holds, follow

immediate ly

upon the direct impression of an injury. Even following such direct impression,

anger can only act with the approval of the mind

(anim o adprobante;

ii. 1.4). Anger

is a complex mental process involving the giving of assent, and is not to be assimi-

lated to such reflex acts as shivering and blushing. Anger entails the direct impres-

sion of injury, the condemnation of the act, and the attempt to avenge it. The

mind's condemnation of the act and its attempt to avenge it follow upon assent to

the direct impression of injury and the becoming indignant; the first--the direct

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R E A S O N I N S E N E C A 21

i m p r e s s i o n o f i n i u r y - - - S e n e c a s u g g e s t s , c a n h a r d l y f a i l t o o c c u r ; t h o u g h s u c h i m -

p r es s io n s m a y b e w e a k e n e d b y p r a c ti c e a n d w a t c h fu l n e ss . B u t t h e j u d g m e n t i s

v e r y m u c h i n m a n ' s p o w e r ( ii. 4 .2 ) . A n d i t i s o n t h i s f a c t o r t h a t S e n e c a c o n c e n t r a t e s

i n h is r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r t h e r a p y o f t h e p a s s io n s g e n e r a l ly a n d a n g e r i n p a r t i c u -

l ar . T h e m e d i c i n e t h a t i t is t o b e a p p l i e d t o t h e e m o t i o n s is t h e l o r e t h a t i s e m b o d i e d

i n p r e c e p t s . A c c o r d i n g l y a n g e r i s t o b e r o u t e d b y m e a n s o f precepts, w e a r e t o l d .

I n o r d e r t h a t a n g e r b e a v o i d e d , c e r t a i n rules (quaedam praecipientur) wi l l be l a id

d o w n w h i c h a p p l y t o t h e w h o l e p e r io d o f lif e. T h e s e r u l es f al l u n d e r t w o h e a d s :

t he pe r iod o f educa t i on an d t h e l a t e r p e r iods o f l if e ( i i . 18 .1 ). Sen eca , I m igh t say ,

t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e k i n d s o f d i s p o s i t i o n s t h a t a r e g i v e n t o p e r s o n s b y n a t u r e

h e r s el f w h e n s h e m a k e s s o m e o n e o f t h e f o u r e l e m e n t s p r e d o m i n a t e i n t h e m ; f o r

e x a m p l e , h e i n w h o m f i r e d o m i n a t e s h a s a f i e r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d i s d i s p o s e d t o b e

w ra thfu l ; a p redom inanc e o f co ld m ake s fo r cow ard i ce (i i. 19.2 ). N oth ing can be

d o n e t o c h a n g e n a t u r e , b u t i t is p r o f i ta b l e t o t a k e n o t e o f h o w s h e h a s m a d e u s s o

t h a t w e m a y t a k e c o n p e n s a t i n g m e a s u r e s ; f i e r y c o n s t i t u t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e , o u g h t

t o s t a y a w a y f r o m w i n e.

H a b i t , h o w e v e r , i s a m o r e si g n if ic a n t fa c t o r t h a n n a t u r e a n d i n th i s c i r c u m s t a n c e

i s g r o u n d e d t h e s u m m a r y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s S e n e c a m a k e s c o n c er n in g t h e e d u c a t i o n

o f c h i ld r e n . W h a t i s i m p o r t a n t i s t h a t i n q u el li n g a n g e r w e d o n o t b l u n t t h e n a t i v e

sp i r i t o f t he ch i l d . I g ive on ly one sample o f t he precepts h e e n u m e r a t e s ; m y t o p i c

i s n o t S e n e c a ' s e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y , b u t w e o u g h t t o h a v e a c l e a r - c u t c a s e

b e f o r e u s o f w h a t h e m e a n s b y

precepts.

O f t h e c h i l d ' s e d u c a t i o n S e n e c a s a y s ,

I n

s t ru g g l e s w i t h h i s p l a y m a t e s w e o u g h t n o t t o p e r m i t h i m e i th e r t o b e b e a t e n o r to

g e t a n g r y ; w e s h o u l d t a k e p a i n s t o s e e t h a t h e i s f r ie n d l y to w a r d t h o s e w i t h w h o m

i t i s h i s p r a c t i c e t o e n g a g e i n o r d e r t h a t i n t h e s t r u g g l e h e m a y f o r m t h e h a b i t o f

w i s h in g n o t t o h u r t h i s o p p o n e n t b u t m e r e l y t o w i n ( ii . 2 1 .5 ) .

W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e p r e c e p t s w h i c h a r e t o b e l e a rn e d a t t h e l a t e r p e r i o d s o f life ,

s o m e c e n t e r u p o n t h e i m p r e s s i o n w h i c h t r i g g e r s t h e e m o t i o n ; t h e g i s t o f t h e s e

p r e c e p t s is t h a t w e o u g h t n o t t o b e t o o p r o n e t o g i v e c r ed e n c e to s u c h i m p r e s s i o n s - -

f o r e x a m p l e , t h e i m p r e s s io n o f i n j u r y i n th e c a s e o f a n g e r . W e o u g h t a l w a y s t o a l l o w

s o m e t i m e t o e l a p s e . W e o u g h t n o t t o g i v e a r e a d y e a r t o t h o s e w h o m a l i g n u s ; w e

o u g h t t o p l e a d t h e c a u s e o f t h e a b s e n t p e r s o n (ii. 2 2 .2 ) . W e o u g h t n o t t o b e e x a s -

p e r a t e d b y t ri fl in g a n d p a l t r y i n c i d e n t s ( i i. 2 5 .1 ) . T o b e i u s t j u d g e s w e m u s t r e -

m e m b e r t h a t n o o n e o f u s i s f r e e f r o m f a u l t (ii. 28 .1 ) . W e o u g h t a l w a y s t o s e a r c h

in to t h e ch a rac t e r an d p urpo se o f t he o f f ender (ii . 30 .1 ) .

O t h e r s o f t h e p r e c e p t s a r e p e r t i n e n t t o t h e s e c o n d c o n d i t io n o f a n g e r , t h e b e l i e f

t h a t w e h a v e b e e n i n j u r e d u n j u s t l y (ii. 3 1 .1 ) . W e o u g h t n o t t o c o n f u s e w h a t i s

u n e x p e c t e d w i t h w h a t i s u n d e se r v e d . W e o u g h t a l w a y s t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e w i ll

c o m e s o m e b l o w to s t r i k e u s . M o r e g e n e ra ll y , w e o u g h t t o b e a r i n m i n d h o w h i d e o u s

t h e e m o t i o n o f a n g e r i s a n d h o w

in jur ious

i t is . I n S e n e c a ' s v ie w , a t t e n d a n c e t o s u c h

p r e c e p t s a s t h e s e b r e a k s t h e c i r c u it o f t h e c o m p l e x p a s si o n o f a n g e r s o t h a t j u d g m e n t

o r r e a so n r e m a i n s i n c o n t r o l. T h e c o n t e n t o f t h e s e p r e c e p t s is o f i n t e r e s t, b u t w h a t

i s p e r t i n e n t t o o u r s u b j e c t i s t h e i r source. A s o n e m a y h a v e a n t i c ip a t e d , t h e i r s o u r c e

is reason. A s I h a v e i n d i c a t e d , S e n e c a h o ld s t h a t t h e m a n i n w h o m r e a s o n i s p e r -

f e c t e d k n o w s d i v i n e a n d h u m a n t h in g s , a n d w h i l e I d i s c u s s e d t h e d i v i n e , I g a v e

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H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

s c a n t n o t ic e t o t h e h u m a n t h i ng s m e n t i on e d . I n h is Natural Quest ions , S e n e c a s a y s

t h a t t h e s c i en c e o f h u m a n t h i n g s t e ac h e s t h a t w h i c h i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d o o n e a r t h .

I t d i s p e l s o u r e r r o r s a n d p l a c e s a t o u r d i s p o s a l the light w h i c h e n a b l e s u s t o s e e

c l e a r l y i n t o t h e p e r p l e x i t i e s o f li f e ( N . Q . I . 1 ). S e n e c a , I b e l i e v e , c a n n o t b u t m e a n

t h a t r e a s o n i s t h e s o u r c e o f t h o s e p r e c e p t s w h i c h h e l p u s t o e r a d i c a t e t h e p a s si o n s.

S o u r c e , I r e a d i l y c o n c ed e , i s a n a m b i g u o u s e x pr e s si o n . R e a s o n a s a s o u r c e m i g h t

f u n c t i o n e i t h e r a s a n o r a c l e o r a s a n i n s t r u m e n t f o r g e n e r a l i z i n g o n e x p e r i e n c e .

T o t h i s p o i n t I r e c u r i n t h e c o n cl u si o n. E n o u g h h a s b e e n s a i d t o i n d ic a t e t h e i m -

p o r t a n c e o f r e a s o n i n t h is , i t s se c o n d p r a c t i c a l f u n c t io n , t h a t o f e x t r u d i n g t h e p a s -

s i o n s f r o m t h e s o u l .

I n o w t u r n t o t h e l a s t o f re a s o n ' s p r a c ti c a l f u n c t i o n s i n S e n e e a ' s p h i lo s o p h y ,

a n d t h i s i s i t s r e l a t i o n t o o n e ' s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d d e a t h .

T h e f e a r o f d e a t h i s a n e m o t i o n a n d , l i k e a n g e r , i t i s b a s e d u p o n a j u d g m e n t w h i c h

i s n o t i n c o r ri g i b le . S e n e c a i s k e e n l y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e f o r m s t h i s p a s s i o n t a k e s i n t h e

h u m a n m i n d . H e s a y s :

D ea th be longs am ong those th ings wh ich a re no t indeed ev i l s , bu t s t i l l have in them a sem-

b lance o f ev i l ; fo r the re a re im plan ted in us love o f se l f , a des i re fo r ex is tence a nd se l f -p rese r -

va t ion , and a l so an abhor rence o f d i s so lu t ion , because dea th seems to rob us o f many goods

a n d t o w i t h d r a w u s f r o m t h e a b u n d a n c e t o w h i c h w e h a v e b e c om e a c c u s to m e d . A n d t h e r e i s

a n o t h e r e l e m e n t w h i c h e s tr a n g e s u s f r o m d e a t h : w e a r e a lr e a d y f a m i l ia r w i t h t h e p r e s e n t , b u t

a re ignoran t o f the fu tu re in to wh ich we sha l l t r ans fe r ou rse lves , and we sh r ink f rom the un-

k n o w n . . . . Th e r e f o r e , a l t h o u g h d e a t h i s so m e t h i n g i n d if f er e n t, i t i s n e v e rt h e l es s n o t a t h i n g

w h i c h w e c a n e a s il y i g n o re . Th e s ou l m u s t b e h a r d e n e d b y l o n g p r a c ti c e , s o t h a t i t m a y l e a r n

t o e n d u r e t h e s i g h t a n d a p p r o a c h o f d e a t h (Ep . lxxxii. 15-16).

I f w e c o u l d a s k S en e c a w h a t i t is t h a t t h e s o u l m u s t b e c o m e p r a c t ic e d a t i n o r d e r

t o l i b e r a t e i ts e lf f r o m t h e f e a r o f d e a t h , h i s a n s w e r w o u l d c o n c e r n r e a s o n i n t w o

r e s p e ct s . T h e f ir s t w o u l d b e a r u p o n t h e s t a t u s i ts e lf o f r e a s o n i n t h e u n i v e r s e . T h e

s e c o n d w o u l d b e a r u p o n t h e u s e b y m a n o f h i s re a s o n i n l u ll in g h i s f e ar t o s l e ep

(Ep . l v i. 6 ) w i t h a S t o i c l u l l a b y , a s i t w e r e . L e t u s h a v e a l o o k a t t h e s e i n o r d e r .

I t w i l l b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t , i n S e n e c a ' s v i e w , r e a s o n in m a n i s a f r a g m e n t a r y

p o r t i o n o f t h e d i v i n e o r c o s m i c r e a s o n . W h e n a m a n p e r i s h e s, h i s b o d y i s r e s o l v e d

i n t o i ts e l e m e n t s a n d t h e f i er y s u b s t a n c e w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s h i s r e a s o n is r e a b s o r b e d

i n t o t h e c o s m i c e t h er . T h i s w a s a v i e w S e n e c a s h a r e d w i t h h i s p r e d e c e ss o r s i n t h e

S t o a , t h o u g h a m o n g t h e m w e f r ed s l ig h t v a r ia t i o n s . O n e h o ld s t h a t t h e so u ls o f

g o o d m e n r e j o i n t h e c o s m i c s o u l i m m e d i a t e l y , a n d t h a t t h e s o u ls of b a d m e n d o n o t

r e c o m b i n e w i t h t h e d i v i n e s o u l u n t i l t h e n e x t c o n f l a g r a t i o n . S e n e c a , h im s e l f , d o e s

n o t h a v e a f i xe d v i e w . I n o n e p la c e (Ep . l i v. 4 ), h e s a y s t h a t d e a t h i s n o n - e x i s t e n c e .

W e m o r t a l s , h e s a y s , a r e li g h t e d a n d e x t i n g u i s h ed ; t h e p e r io d o f s u f fe r in g c o m e s

i n b e t w e e n , b u t o n e i t h e r si de t h e r e i s a d e e p p e a c e (Ep . l iv . 5 ). I n a n o t h e r p a s s a g e

(Ep . l x x vi . 2 5 ), h e a r g u e d t h a t t h i n g s c o n v e n t i o n a l l y c a l l ed g o o d a r e n o t g o o d

o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t , i f t h i s w e r e so , s o u ls o n c e s e t fr e e f r o m t h e b o d y w o u l d b e

w o r s e o f f, w h e r e a s

i f

o n l y i t i s t r u e t h a t o u r s o ul s, w h e n r e l ea s e d f r o m t h e b o d y ,

s t il l a b i d e , a h a p p i e r c o n d i t i o n i s i n s t o r e f o r t h e m t h a n i s t h e i r s w h i l e t h e y d w e l l

i n t h e b o d y . I n s ti ll a t h i r d p l a c e (Ep. lxxi . 1 6 ), S e n e c a i s u n s u r e w h e t h e r t h e s o u l

a t d e a t h i s s e n t f o r t h i n t o a b e t t e r l if e, d e s ti n e d t o d w e l l w i t h d e i t y a n d g r e a t e r

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REASON IN SENECA 23

radiance and cairn or without suffering any harm to itself, it will be mingled with

nature again, and will return to the universe. Reabsorption being the fate of the

soul when the body perishes, Seneca's view, I gather, is that reason's business is

to liberate the mind from the fear of death by adhering to this doctrine as the

likely tale about it. Indeed it is one's first duty to free himself from this fear ( E p .

lxxx. 6). Seneca goes so far as to speak of the summons upward which the soul

receives while still in its body ( E p . ~ . 11-12). Reason, then, functions with

respect to this passion by recounting alleged tru ths about its own destiny; the fear

is presumably allayed once it is understood that its object is not a passage into

the unknown, but a return of the soul to its authentic home.

To summarize reason's practical functions, we may say that in Seneca's view a

perfected reason is one which assents to the fundamental moral truth of Stoic

philosophy: the only good thing in the world is what is morally good and the only

bad thing in the world is what is morally base. And this assent is accompanied by

what one may term reason's administering of this rule. It makes the soul tranquil

and free by valuing in due measure those things which are advantageous and those

which are disadvantageous in life which in Seneca's eyes makes for a de tachment

with respect to them which could not be achieved were they judged to be good or

bad. Second, reason is instrumental in expelling passions from the soul inasmuch

as it issues precepts designed to interrupt and thereby make inefficacious the

complex act which constitutes the passion. In the ease of fear of death, a particu-

larly vicious passion in view of the anxiety it generates, the precept which reason

enjoins has a special status due to the circumstance that it has recourse to truths

about the career of reason itself in the life of man. The precept, I gather, would be

formulated somewhat as follows: one ought not to fear death, for this event is not

a plunge into the unknown and it is not a termination of one's existence. It is

rather a continuation of the life of the best par t of oneself and under bet ter condi-

tions. In addition to this practical function of reason, we have seen tha t for Seneca

reason has what one might call an ontological status and a theoretical function.

On a cosmic level, reason is the divine creative substance which gives form to an

otherwise unqualified matter. And in man it is the instrument by which he may

achieve an ever-increasing knowledge of astronomical, atmospheric, and terrestrial

phenomena. Its employment for this purpose, as we saw, is not only a source of

truth b ut also a source of happiness. In point of fact Seneca alludes to three aspects

of theoretical knowledge. The marvels tha t it unveils are of themselves wondrous

to behold. Truths learned about the universe are useful for the bette rment of man's

material existence. Finally, reason exercised is a source of joy inasmuch as it is an

engagement of that faculty in man which at once makes him most distinctively

what he is and most akin to God.

Such then is Seneca's account of reason. By way of conclusion, I should like to

att empt t o give more content to Seneca's view of reason in its practical function by

attending to the notion of

precept. Praecipio

means to give rules, to advise, ad-

monish, warn, inform, teach; to enjoin, direct, bid, order . (Lewis and Short, A

Latin Dictionary). A precept is a n authoritative command to do some particular

act (The O xfo rd U niversal Dict ionary). Now it will be remembered that when

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2 4 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

S e n e c a g i v e s u s e x a m p l e s o f t h e k i n d s o f p r e c e p t s r e a s o n e n j o i n s i n o r d e r t o e x p e l

a n g e r , h e f o r m u l a t e s t h e m i n t h e p e r i p h r a s t i c m o o d , t h a t i s , i n i m p e r a t i v e t e r m s :

w e o u g h t n o t t o g i v e a r e a d y e a r t o t ra d u c e r s ; w e o u g h t t o p l e a d t h e c a u s e o f t h e

a b s e n t p e r s o n a g a i n s t o u r s e l v e s ; w e o u g h t n o t t o b e e x a s p e r a t e d b y i n s i g n i f i c a n t

e v e n t s ; w e o u g h t t o r e m e m b e r t h a t n o o n e is f re e f r o m f a u lt , a n d s o f o r t h - - e a c h o f

t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s e m p l o y s e it h e r a n ought o r a n oug ht not . I f r e a s o n i s t h e source

o f s u c h in j u n c t io n s , w h e r e o n e w i s h e s t o a s k S e n e c a - - d o e s it fi n d t h e m o r h o w d o e s

i t b e c o m e p e r s u a d e d o f t h e i r t r u t h ? S e n e c a in n o p l a c e g i v e s u s a d i r e c t n o n - m e t a -

p h o r i c a l a n s w e r t o t h i s q u e r y , b u t I t h i n k w e c a n m a k e s o m e i n f e r e n c e s f r o m h i s

i l lu s t r a ti o n s o f t h e p r e c e p t s h e f o r m u l a t e s . T h e u p s h o t o f t h e s e i l lu s t r a ti o n s s i m p l y

p u t i s t h a t o n e i s h a r m e d w h e n h e v i o l a t e s t h e i n j u n c t i o n a n d i s b e n e f i t e d w h e n

h e o b e y s i t. T h e t y r a n t H i p p i a s , a n g e r e d b y h i s w o u ld - b e -a s s as s in a p p r e h e n d e d

b e f o r e t h e a c t c a m e o f f, t o r t u r e s h i m a n d m a k e s h i m r e v e a l h is a c c o m p l ic e s , w h o

a r e k i l l e d o n e b y o n e a s t h e y a r e n a m e d . W h e n H i p p i a s a s k e d i f t h e r e w e r e a n y

m o r e , t h e s h r e w d p r is o n e r w h o h a d n a m e d t h e f r ie n d s o f t h e t y r a n t r e p l ie d , N o ,

y o u a l on e r e m a i n ; f o r I h a v e l e f t n o o n e e l s e w h o c a r e s a n y t h i n g a b o u t y o u de I ra ,

ii. 2 3 .1 ) . T h e t y r a n t ' s h a s t y j u d g m e n t h a d l e d h i m t o s l a y h is o w n f ri e n d s . H o w d o e s

t h i s s t o r y b e a r o n t h e t r u t h o f t h e p r e c e p t t h a t w e o u g h t n o t t o b e l ed t o a n g e r

q u i c k l y e v e n b y o p e n a n d e v i d e n t a c t s? I s u g g e s t th a t i t is in t e n d e d t o d o s o b y

m a k i n g o n e see t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t a n g e r m i g h t e n t a i l i n h i s o w n life . T h e a s s u m p -

t i on i s, o f cour se , t h a t one wi shes no t o n ly t o p re se rve h i s ow n li fe , bu t t o l i ve we ll .

A n d m o r e p e r t i n e n t l y f o r o u r t o p i c , i t i s a s s u m e d t h a t r e a s o n w i l l g e n e r a l i z e f r o m

i n s t a n c e s o f th i s s o r t t o p r in c i pl e s. I n o t h e r w o r d s , o n e w i ll in f e r f r o m t h e f a c t s t h a t

H i p p i a s a n d A l e x a n d e r w e r e h a r m e d b y w r a t h , t h a t h e , t o o , w i ll b e p l a c e d a t a

d i s a d v a n t a g e b y i t .

I n t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , t h e p h i l o so p h e r s A r i st i p p u s , E u d o x o s , a n d A r i s to x e n u s h a d

a r g u e d t h a t p l e as u r e i s t h e h i g h e s t g o o d o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t e v e r y a n im a l , b o t h t h e

ra t i ona l and t he i r r a t i ona l , a ims a t i t ; i t i s t he f i na l goa l o f l i f e bu i l t i n to t he s t ruc -

t u r e o f t h i n g s b y n a t u r e i ts e lf . I t i s n o n o v e l t y t h e n , i f t h e h e l le n is ti c p h i l o s o p h e r s

c o n t i n u e t o t a k e t h i s e m p i r ic a l t a c k i n t h e i r d i s c u ss i o n o f t h e f in a l g o o d . T o p r o v e

th a t p l easu re i s t he f i na l end of l if e , Ep i curu s use s t he f ac t t ha t l i v ing t h ings , a s

s o o n a s t h e y a r e b o r n , a r e w e l l - p le a s e d w i t h i t , b u t i n im i c a l t o w a r d s p a i n , a n d t h i s

n a t u r a l l y a n d a p a r t f r o m r e a s o n . P o l e m o a p p e a l e d t o t h e s a m e f a c t o f e x p e ri e nc e

b u t h e g i v e s i t a d if f e re n t in t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h a t w h i c h e v e r y n a t u r a l o r g a n i s m s t r iv e s

a f t e r , i n h i s v i e w , i s i t s o w n s a f e t y a n d p r e s e r v a t i o n . T h i s a p p e a r s a l s o to h a v e b e e n

Z e n o ' s w a y o f r e g a rd i n g t h is m a t t e r S . V . F . I , 1 9 8 ) . C h r y s i p p u s s e t s f o r t h t h e

doc t r i ne exp l i c i t l y

S . V . F .

I I I , 178) i n h i s book

Concerning Ends ,

t a k i n g u p t h e

c u d g e l s a g a i n s t t h e E p i c u r e a n s c h o o l. H e m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h a t w h i c h i s f ir s t c o n f o r m -

a b l e t o t h e n a t u r e o f e v e r y a n i m a l i s n o t p l e a s u r e , b u t r a t h e r i t s o w n c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d

i t s c o n s c i o u sn e s s o f th i s . B y m a k i n g t h e l i v in g b e i n g d e a r t o i t s el f, n a t u r e m a k e s h i m

i n s u c h a w a y t h a t h e d r a w s n e a r t o t h o s e t h i n g s w h i c h a r e s u i t a b l e t o h is c o n s t i t u -

t i o n a n d i s r e p u l s e d b y t h o s e t h i n g s w h i c h m i g h t h a r m h i m . P l e a s u r e i s a n i n c i d e n t a l

f a c t o r c o n s e q u e n t t o n a t u r e ' s h a v i n g f o u n d w h a t i s s u i t a b l e t o t h e a n i m a l c o n s t i t u -

t i o n . S o m e a n i m a l s c o n t i n u e t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r l i v e s t o b e g u i d e d b y i m p u l s e o r

i n s t i n c t; i n o n e s p ec i es , n a m e l y m a n , r e a s o n s u p e r v e n e s o n i m p u l s e. A n d j u s t a s i t i s

n a t u r a l f o r t h e o t h e r a n i m a l s a n d t h e y o u n g o f t h e h u m a n s p e c ie s t o l i v e i n a c -

8/11/2019 Reason in Seneca

14/14

R E A S O N I N S E N E C A 2 5

c o r d a n c e w i t h i n s t i n c t , i t i s n a t u r a l f o r m a n a f t e r c h i ld h o o d , t o l i v e i n a c c o r d a n c e

w i t h r e a s o n ( S . V . F . I I I . 1 7 8 ) .

T h i s a n c i e n t S t o i c d o c t r i n e i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t a f f i r m e d b y S e n e c a i n h i s e s s a y ,

O n th e H a p p y L i f e , a n d i t h e l p s u s t o u n d e r s t a n d m o r e c l e a r ly , I b e li e v e , t h e p r a c t i -

c a l f u n c t i o n o f r e a so n . S e n e c a ' s t h e o r y o f p r e c e p t s , a s I h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o c o n s t r u e

i t , is a s f ol l o w s : E v e r y m a n d e s i re s b y n a t u r e t o p r e s e r v e h i s li fe a n d t o l i v e w e l l ; i f

o n e w o u l d l i v e w e ll , h e m u s t o b e y c e r t a i n p r e c e p t s w h i c h e m e r g e f r o m g e n e r a l iz a -

t i o n s m a d e o n e x a m p l e s a n d e x p e ri e n ce 9 B u t w h i l e t h i s e x p l a i n s t h e o r i g in o f p r e -

c e p t s - w h i c h , i t m i g h t b e n o t ed , h a v e t u r n e d o u t t o b e h y p o th e t ic a l i m p e r a t i v e s - -

a n d r e a s o n ' s ro l e i n o b t a i n i n g t h e m , i t w o u l d s e e m a t t h e s a m e t i m e t o m a k e a

h e d o n i s t o f o u r S t oi c p h il o s o p h e r. S e n e c a c e r t a i n l y w o u l d n o t d e n y t h a t t h e u s e o f

r e a s o n i n t h e w a y w e h a v e d e s c ri b e d i n v o l v e s p l e as u r e f o r i ts p o s s e s so r (de V i ta

B e a k , I X . 1 ), b u t h e w o u l d m a i n t a i n t h a t t h i s w a s n o t t h e a g e n t ' s a i m . H i s g o al

r a t h e r i s j u s t e x c e ll e n ce o f r e a s o n o r s o u n d n e s s o f m i n d . I t i s c h o i c e i t s e l f o f t h e

r a t i o n a l s o l u t io n w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s t h e h i g h e s t g o o d (de V i ta Bea ta , I X . 3 ). A s S e n e ca

h i m s e l f s a y s ,

9 . . e v e n t h o u g h v i r t u e i s s u r e t o b e s t o w p l e a s u re , i t i s n o t f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t v i r t u e i s s o u g h t;

fo r i t i s no t th i s , bu t someth ing more than th i s tha t she bes tows , no r does she labor fo r th i s ,

bu t he r l abor w h i le d i rec ted to ward som eth ing e l se , ach ieves th i s a l so . As in a p loughed f ie ld ,

wh ich has been b roken up fo r co rn , some f lowers wi ll sp r ing up he re and the re , ye t i t w as no t

f o r th e s e p o o r l i t t le p l a n t s , a l t h o u g h t h e y m a y p l ea s e t h e e y e , t h a t s o m u c h t o i l w a s e x p e n d e d - -

the sower had a d i f fe ren t pu rpose , these were supera dde d- - ju s t so p leasu re i s ne i the r the cause

nor the reward o f v i r tue , bu t i t s by -p rod uc t , and we do no t accep t v i r tue because she de l igh ts

us , bu t i f we accep t he r , she a lso de l igh ts us . Th e h ighes t good l ie s in the ve r y cho ice o f i t ,

a n d t h e v e r y a t t i t u d e o f a m i n d m a d e p e r f e c t , a n d w h e n t h e m i n d h a s c o m p l e te d i t s c o u rs e a n d

fo r t i f i ed i t se l f wi th in i t s own bounds , the h ighes t good has now been pe r fec ted , and no th ing

fu r the r i s des i red ; fo r the re can no more be any th ing ou ts ide o f the who le than the re can be

s o m e p o i n t b e y o n d t h e e n d " (de Vita Beata, IX. 1-4).

P l e a s u r e i s a b y - p r o d u c t o f vir tue o r s o u n d n e s s o f m i n d . I t i s t h e a c t u a l d e c i s i o n t o

f o ll o w t h e e d i c ts o f r e a s o n r a t h e r t h a n a n y a d v a n t a g e s w h i c h r e s u l t t h e r e f r o m

w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s m a n ' s h i g h e s t g o o d . T h i s , I a ls o b e l i e v e , c l ar i fi e s s o m e w h a t t h e

r e l a t io n o f r e a s o n t o t h e f u n d a m e n t a l m o r a l p r in c i p l e of S t o ic i s m , f or t o s a y t h a t

t h e k n o w l e d g e o f w h i c h t h i n g s a r e g e n u i n e l y b e n ef ic i al a n d w h i c h g e n u i n e l y h a r m f u l

i s t h e o n l y g o o d t h i n g i n t h e w o r l d , is a h i g h -p o w e r e d e n d o r s e m e n t b y r e a s o n o f i t s

o w n a c t i v i t y i n m a n ' s lif e. S en e c a w o u l d h o l d, t h e n , t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g g r e a t e r t o

w h i c h t h e b l e ss i ng o f a s o u n d m i n d m a y b e a s c r ib e d a n d a l l o t h e r b l e ss in g s fl ow f r o m

i t .

I s h o u l d l i k e t o a d d a f m a l n ot e 9 S e n e e a ' s n o t i o n o f r e a s o n i s o b v i o u s l y s t e e p e d i n

f a r - r e a ch i n g d o c tr i n e s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t he a l l - - i f I m a y e m p l o y a G r e e k c o n c ep -

t i o n - a n d a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f m a n . B u t t h a t h i s a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e l if e o f r e a s o n is

s o m e t h i n g o f t h e o r d e r o f a d e d i c a t i o n i s n o t a l w a y s c o n c e a l e d . I n a d e f i a n t a d d r e s s

t o F o r t u n e h e s a y s , D o w h a t y o u w il l, y o u a r e t o o p u n y t o d i s t u r b m y s e r e n i ty .

R e a s o n , t o w h o m I h a v e c o m m i t t e d t h e g u i d a n c e o f m y l if e, f o r b i d s i t "

(de Ira ~fi .

2 5 .4 ) . O n e w i s h e s t h a t S e n e c a h a d e x p l o r e d f u r t h e r t h e n a t u r e o f s u c h a c o m m i t m e n t .

Claremont Graduate School