UNIVERSIDAD DE CHILEFacultad de Filosofa y HumanidadesLinguistics DepartmentEnglish Language III, Written Discourse 2015Professor Pascuala Infante

Herrera, CamilaMeneses, Ariel

Divergences between Spanish and English research article introductions in the field of Phonology

1. IntroductionAnalysis of research articles, their structure and the way in which they are constructed, is a topic that has caught linguists attentions in the last few decades. Being more specific, analysis of research article introductions (RAI) in the field of English for Academic Purposes is been also a topic of study in recent years. Comparisons between RA introductions from different disciplines were mainly made in order to determine how they differ in terms of construction, as Swales & Najjar (1987) and Samraj (2002) did in their studies. Swales even proposed a new model, CARS (Creating A Research Space), in his work Genre Analysis (1990) which would help to determine how these introductions differ by comparing the moves and steps established by the model.Despite all the previous investigation made about RA introductions, no further research has been made in one of the more investigated subfield of Linguistics as Phonology is, as all the other articles chosen are compared in terms of non-specific subdisciplines. This brings up the next problem, since it is difficult to ignore the lack of studies whose variable for analysis is the linguists main concerning: language. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to compare different research article introductions in terms of language and determine their difference concerning this variable. For this precise purpose, firstly a theoretical framework will be addressed to contextualize and explain the information related to this research. Secondly, the investigations methodology will be explained to show the steps that were followed and what questions guided the research. Thirdly, the results will be shown and analysed to explain and determine the reasons behind each one of them. These results also are supposed to give an answer to the previously made questions. Lastly, a conclusion will be provided in order to explain what were the final inferences regarding this investigation.

2. Theoretical framework

Over the past decades there has been considerable attention drawn to differences in research article introductions, especially concerning disciplinary variation. This divergence is explained as every discipline of study has distinctive components that differ from others. For the analysis of these introductions of Spanish and English research articles, an overview on Swales CARS model (Creating A Research Space) will be presented below, which has often been used by many researchers to analyse and study the structure of academic research writing. The model Swales proposed and called CARS (1990) is illustrated in Table 1, which is composed by the functional constituent, Move, and by its subcategory, Step. Those elements must be followed by any writer that decides to write a research article introduction. Hence, it is important to make use of the previous research articles made by Swales and Najjar (1987), Swales (1990) in order to see if there is a language variation in Spanish and English research article introductions. Moreover, Samrajs proposal (2002) will be addressed also as she studied disciplinary variation in two related field introductions, Wildlife behaviour and Conservation Biology.

Table 1:Swales Create A Research Space (CARS) model summary

MoveSteps

Move 1:1 Claiming CentralityEstablishing the territory2 Making topic generalization(s)3 Reviewing items of previous research

Move 2:1A Counter-claimingEstablishing a Niche1B Indicating a gap1C Question-raising1D Continuing a tradition

Move 3:1A Outlining purposesOccupying the Niche1B Announcing present research2 Announcing principal findings3 Indicating RA structure4 Evaluation of Findings

Note. Source: Adapted from Chahal, D. (2014). Published in The Journal of Teaching English for specific and academic purposes (p. 3). University of Ni, Serbia.

2.1 Swales and Najjar

In order to study research article introductions, it is important to consider the disciplinary variation studied by Swales and Najjar (1987). They decided to focus on the variation between hard sciences such as Physics and social sciences such as Educational Psychology to determine whether the presence of statements of principal findings in RA introductions is a regular element or not. To determine this presence, Swales and Najjar applied an early version of CARS model, which consisted of 4 different moves, as a suggestion to the problem that arose in using Zappens Problem-Solution-Model of Article Introductions, an alternative to problem-solution models is the create-a-research-space model, which attempts to capture rather more of the dark side (Swales, 1981, 1984). This new model clearly established a new starting point in analysing research article introductions.

2.1.1 Early and later CARS model

This first report of CARS model proposed that the author of a research article introduction must start by using the first move, which should claim that the area of study is non-peripheral. Then, the second move is supposed to summarise by means of a selection of the relevant previous research that has been done. Later, the move 3 must indicate that there is a gap in the previous work because the reported previous research is not complete, or also by presenting a question or by indicating that a new and fresh explanation is needed. In the end, in move 4, the author turns the gap into the research space for the present article he is writing, or presenting the answer to the question given in move 3.Swales and Najjar early CARS model was lately modificated and synthesised in the 3-moves CARS model (Swales, 1990) presented in Table 1 above. This model determined research article introductions must present a very clear set of moves and steps that make up a structure which helps the writer to organise the information that will be developed along the research article of the study that has been done.

2.1.2 Outlining Purposes: Verb tenses

In Swales proposal (1990), he established that the use of present tense occurred when the writer was referring to a physical entity or concept as the referent of the sentence, and the past tense when the writer was referring to an abstract concept as the agent of such sentence. This relation was suggested as the starter step in Swales CARS model (1990) in order to occupy the niche (move 3) that has been established before (move 2).

2.1.3 Move 2: Linking wordsThe use of linking words is a characteristic feature of establishing a niche (Swales, 1990). After the writer has described important elements of his research territory, he will claim a niche for his study. This move is indicated by the presence of different connectors or linking words that express a contrast or negative evaluation of the previous research that has been presented before as Swales said (1990). The most common connectors used are: however, but, in spite of and hence.

2.2 Samraj

Samrajs proposal (2002) was focus on studying the use of reviewing items of previous research or also called literature review and the analysis of Move 2 which could differ in terms of disciplinary variation and cultural differences between research article introductions from two associated fields, which were Wildlife Behaviour and Conservation Biology.

2.1.1 Literature reviewThe research studies carried out by Samraj (2002) showed that in Wildlife Behaviour and Conservation Biology introductions the function of reviewing items of previous research as a step was much more than just presenting information about previous studies made by other author(s) in move 1, but it could be used also as a feature that performs various rhetorical functions in other moves as well. As Samraj said, the step literature review need not just appear in the first move but can also be embedded within other steps, such as indicating a gap (2002). Thus, the analysis of introductions confirmed that literature review in move 2 could be presented as a section of the step indicating a gap, before the characteristic linking word as another way of claiming the niche of the research. Therefore, Samraj pointed up that literature review also performs the role of providing background information subordinated within step 1 of move 3, as she went through Wildlife Behaviour samples.

2.2.2 Positive Justification

Other of the main achievements of Samrajs pieces of research was the inclusion of a new positive step named positive justification (Samraj, 2002). This new concept was introduced as a new way that could be used by writers in order to provide positive reasons for carrying out their studies in move 2, changing the aspect of this move that tended to be aggressive. Positive justification was found by Samraj in languages where there is no need to compete for research space and to use an aggressive language because of the size of the discourse community is very limited. Samraj pointed out that in two of the Wildlife Behaviour introductions positive justification was exhibited, where the writers gave recognition and value to others projects and research studies previously presented. She also mentioned other three cases where authors provide positive reasons for conducting their investigations instead of using aggressive or contrast connectors. Therefore, this absence or low presence of Moves 2s in some languages was also set out by Fredrickson and Swales (Fredrickson and Swales 1994, in Samraj 2002) in Swedish linguistics RAs.

3. Methodology

Six research article introductions (RAI) were analysed for this specific research. Though all of them belong to the Phonological field of Linguistics, they were subdivided into two groups according to the research article introductions language: three introductions written in Spanish and three introductions written in English language. The main purpose of this subdivision is to contrast and compare them by using Swales CARS model proposal (1990) in order to determine if language is a component that affects research article introductions construction.

3.1 Sample description

3.1.1 Spanish research article introductions

1. Fonos que realizan la secuencia grafmica hu+vocal en 17 sujetos de Concepcin e hiptesis inicial sobre su organizacin fonolgica, written by Elizabeth H. Aguilar Fernndez and Gastn F. Salamanca Gutirrez, and published in 2013. Linguistics, Phonology is the discipline of this research. Elizabeth Aguilars gender is female, she is Chilean and she is a native Spanish speaker; Gastn Salamancas gender is male, he is Chilean and he is also a native Spanish speaker. Abstract is present in the article. Extension of pages: 1.5

2. An Approach to the Phonological Processing in Prereading Spanish Children: Phonological Awareness, Verbal Short-Term Memory and Naming, written by Luca Herrera and Silvia Defior, published in 2005. Luca Herreras gender is female and she is from Spain and she is a Spanish native speaker; and Silvia Defiors gender is female, she is also from Spain and she is a Spanish native speaker. Abstract is present in the article. Extension of pages: 4

3. Desarrollo fonolgico en nios de 3 y 4 aos segn la fonologa natural: Incidencia de la edad y del gnero, written by Carmen Julia Coloma, Mara Mercedes Pavez, Mariangela Maggiolo and Christian Pealoza, published in 2010. Carmen Colomas gender is female, she is Chilean and she is a Spanish native speaker; Mara Pavezs gender is female, she is Chilean and she is a Spanish native speaker; Mariangela Maggiolos gender is female, she is Chilean and she is a Spanish native speaker; and Christian Pealozas gender is male, he is Chilean and he a Spanish native Speaker. Abstract is present in the article. Extension of pages: 3.5

3.1.2 English research article introductions

1. Nasalisation in English: Phonology or phonetics, written by Abigail C. Cohn, published in 1993. Phonology is the discipline of this study. The authors gender is female, her nationality is American and her first language is English. There is no presence of abstract in this article. Extension of pages: 1

2. Phonology and vocal behavior in toddlers with Autism Spectrum Disorder, written by Elizabeth Schoen, Rhea Paul and Katyrzyna Chawarska and published in 2011. The discipline of this study is Phonology. Elizabeths genre is female and she is an English native speaker; Rhea Pauls gender is female and she is an English native speaker; Katyrzyna Chawarskas gender is female and she is an English native speaker. Abstract is present in the article. Extension of pages: 2.5

3. A description of Turkish-English Phonology for Teaching English in Turkey, written by Mehmet Celik and published in 2008. The authors gender is male, he is Turkish and he is a Turkish native speaker. Abstract is present in the article. Extension of pages: 1

3.2 Procedures

As it has been already established before, Linguistics sub-discipline Phonology was the one chosen to be studied because of its importance and development in the Linguistic field, and also for the long data available for this investigation. However, it was decided that the main purpose of this research was to compare research article introductions from the Phonological field in terms of one particular variable: language. For this task, it was necessary to select six research article introductions from which three of them were originally written in Spanish and the rest three in English. After the selection of items was completed, analysis of these RA introductions was the next step to follow and for this task, it was necessary to: analyse these introductions in terms of form (extension, amount of paragraphs and words, etc) and also they were analysed by using Swales CARS model proposal only. Once this was done, notes were taken and written down in order to make future comparisons for the following task required for this investigation. The following step was to propose at least five research questions which would be the ones that would guide and help to the investigation. When they were finally created, all the six samples were analysed once again but this time in base of these research questions which would allow new conclusions. Lastly, after the results were collected and compared, new conclusions were made.

3.3 Research questions

Long before the six samples were selected and analysed for the first time, one of the main concerns of this research was to manage to compare them and determine how these introductions differ in terms of language. Once the analysis task had been already done and the new data had been collected, and considering this new information, it was necessary to make questions in base of it in order to help to the comparing task. As a consequence, the research questions for this investigation were the following: 1. Are Spanish or English research article introductions related to Phonology closer to Swales CARS model in the sequence of moves presented?2. Which step is the most frequently used in Spanish and English RA introductions according to Swales CARS model? And which are the rhetorical implications related?3. How do Spanish and English RA introductions present a variation in terms of length? Why?4. Which tenses are used in outlining purposes in Spanish and English RA introductions? Do they follow Swales proposal? Why? Why not? (Move 3, step 1A)5. Which is the difference in the use of Linking Words in establishing a niche in Spanish and English RA introductions? (Move 2)

4. Results

Once the analysis has been carried out applicating CARS model (Swales, 1990), it was needed the creation of Table 2 below, where the number of moves and their corresponding steps that have been found in English and Spanish research article introductions was organized in order to authenticate the similarities and differences obtained from the previous mentioned analysis.

Table 2.Number of Spanish and English introductions that contain the three moves and their pertinent steps according to CARS model (Swales, 1990)

Spanish research articlesEnglish research articles

Move 1Claiming centrality21Making topic generalization(s)23Reviewing items of previous research104Move 2Counter-claiming11Indicating a gap21*Question-raising00Continuing a tradition10**Positive Justification01Move 3Outlining purposes32Announcing present research03Announcing principal findings11Indicating RA structure12Evaluation of Findings10

Note. The most frequent steps was reviewing items of previous research, following by making topic generalizations, outlining purposes and indicating a gap. *Question-raising was not found. **Positive Justification was incorporated in the analysis as a possibility in move 2 (usually aggressive) as Samrajs proposal postulated.

5. Discussion of results

5.1Closeness to Swales CARS model

Both Spanish and English research article introductions related to Phonology seem to be equally close to Swales proposal of CARS model in terms of the sequence in which these moves are presented on them. This means that in most of these introductions, every step from every move is used in the sequence established by Swales in his proposal. For example:

1. Yet current views of the relationship between phonology and phonetics make the distinction between phonological rules and phonetic ones less automatic than once assumed and a reconsideration of the status of these rules is warranted. In the present article, I use phonetic data from English to investigate these rules.

In this extract from sample number 1 from English introductions, Establishing a niche, counter claiming (Move 2, step 1A) is followed by Occupying the niche, announcing present research (Move 3, step 1B) in order to describe what the investigations sets to do considering the gaps that the previous research in this field has left. Spanish introductions also seem to follow this pattern:

2. El tema de los segmentos deslizados del espaol [j] (e) y [w] (y) se mantiene siempre vigente y en constante estudio. [Move 1, step 1] Es as como en los estudios fontico-fonolgicos clsicos del espaol (Navarro (1918), Alarcos (1961), Harris (1983), Quilis y Fernndez (1999)) se plantea ya una discusin y clasificacin de dichos segmentos dentro del inventario fonolgico de la lengua [Move 1, step 3] () Sin embargo, uno de los problemas que presentan estos trabajos es que, generalmente, organizan fonolgicamente un material fontico cuya naturaleza se postula sin una base emprica o se determina de acuerdo con el idiolecto del investigador [Move 2, step 1A]. En este contexto, dos objetivos centrales que nos propusimos con nuestra investigacin fue, por una parte, instalar el tema de los segmentos deslizados como un tpico relevante para la discusin en fontica/fonologa sobre el espaol de Chile [Move 3, step 1A] () Ahora, dada la envergadura que supondra la recogida de datos para la interpretacin de todo el continuum que va de /i/ a / / y de /u/ a /g/, en esta investigacin nos focalizamos en determinar qu fonos realizan la secuencia hu+vocal [Move 3, step 2] () Para cumplir estos objetivos se utilizan dos instrumentos: el instrumento que se presenta en Cifuentes y Salamanca (2012) especficamente, dos de las tres tareas que all se contienen y la lectura en voz alta. Esto, con la finalidad de abarcar dos estilos de habla: (semi)espontnea y cuidada. Finalmente, los hallazgos obtenidos se comparan con los resultados contenidos en Calvo (2008) [Move 3, step 3] In this particular sample, firstly it is established a territory by claiming centrality in the topic addressed and then the author reviews items of previous research; secondly, a niche is established by introducing an opposite point of view regarding the previous investigation; finally, the niche is occupied by outlining the researchs purposes, announcing its main findings and indicating its structure. As it can be seen, every move and step follows the sequence proposed by Swales, similarly to English introductions.

However, not all this samples followed the sequence. There were two exceptions in the samples that were analysed, one from each category did not meet this characteristic as some moves were not used in the order proposed by Swales. As it is presented in the following example:

3. Lo anterior puede resultar particularmente til para identificar nios con problemas fonolgicos.De este modo, los objetivos de este trabajo son: a) caracterizar el desarrollo fonolgico en nios de 3 y 4 aos considerando el uso de PSF y sus subprocesos; y b) establecer la influencia del gnero en el desarrollo fonolgico de los nios en esas edades.

In this Spanish introduction, step 4 from Move 3 is followed by step 1A from the very same move, which means that the author first evaluates the investigations findings instead of establishing the structure of the paper. If Swales CARS model would have been followed, then establishing the structure of the paper would be used before evaluating the investigations findings and not the other way around. Something similar occurs in the following introduction:

4. Several studies (Paul, Chawarska, Cicchetti, & Volkmar, 2008; Wetherby, Watt, Morgan, & Shumway, 2007) have described the communicative characteristics of children in the second and third year of life who are identified with ASD () Although these studies have amply demonstrated that, among other communication difficulties, children with ASD are almost universally delayed in their acquisition of spoken language (Tager-Flusberg, Paul, & Lord, 2005; Wetherby et al., 2004), little research has focused on the phonological and other vocal characteristics of these toddlers () Ricks and Wing (1976) studied parents' identification of the meaning of prelinguistic vocalizations of preverbal preschoolers with ASD and found that their parents were unable to understand the intentions behind the vocalizations of other parents' children with ASD, even though they could understand their own child's messages. As the sample shows, primarily, the authors starts by reviewing items of previous research within the Phonology field, then they introduce an opposite point of view when establishing a niche [a step frequently used after reviewing items of previous research], and finally they once again talk about the investigation that was made earlier, which breaks the sequence determined by Swales in his model. In conclusion, most of samples in Spanish and English introductions did equally follow CARS model in terms of sequence, therefore it cannot be determined which one of these subgroups of Phonetics studies is closer to Swales model considering the previous mentioned parameter. Taking that into account, it may be concluded that most of authors thrust on CARS model as it helps and it is a guide when construction of introductions is concerned. However, these two exceptions in the samples reveal that even though there seems to be a pattern in terms of sequence, there may be some introductions that do not meet this specific characteristic as for some reason, authors make use of non-common resources when it comes to write a research article introduction. As a consequence, it cannot be said that Swales CARS model applied to each one of the analysed samples.

5.2 Reviewing items of previous research represents authors choice

In Spanish as well as in English research articles introductions, the step most frequently used by several authors was reviewing items of previous literature. This step was presented in all cases, though it had a larger number of appearances rather in Spanish than in English research article introductions. This statement can be confirmed in the following samples:

5. Numerosas investigaciones han sealado que las habilidades de conciencia fonolgica constituyen un factor fundamental para que los nios prelectores lleguen a ser lectores y escritores eficaces (Bradley & Bryant, 1985; Jimnez, Rodrigo, Ortiz & Guzmn, 1999; Lundberg, Frost & Peterson 1988; Roth, Speece & Cooper, 2002; Sprugevica & Hien, 2003; Storch & Whitehurst, 2002; Swanson, Mink & Bocina, 1999; Wagner, Torgesen & Rashotte, 1994).

6. En espaol se han llevado a cabo distintos estudios con nios (Carrillo, 1994; Carrillo & Marn, 1996; Defior & Herrera, 2003; Domnguez, 1996a, 1996b; Gonzlez, 1996; Jimnez, 1992; Jimnez & Ortiz, 2000) que han puesto de manifiesto que los prelectores son capaces de realizar tareas de segmentacin silbica con un alto nivel de ejecucin, lo que probara que el conocimiento metafonolgico referido a la estructura silbica de palabras en castellano se encuentra bien establecido en la mayora de los nios prelectores a partir de los cinco aos (aunque no con todos los tipos de tareas).

7. El estudio ms reciente al que hemos podido acceder es el realizado por Calvo (2008) Las Semiconsonantes y Semivocales en los diptongos del espaol: propuesta de anlisis fonolgico. Aqu, la autora presenta una investigacin acerca del estatus fonolgico, an en discusin, de los sonidos deslizados en los diptongos del espaol de Costa Rica, para lo cual realiza un recorrido cronolgico por las diferentes propuestas de autores esenciales en el tema, pasando por perspectivas estructuralistas y generativistas.

8. These include rules of Anticipatory Nasalisation, e.g. bean /bin/ [bn]; Coronal Stop Deletion, e.g. kindness /kajndnes/ [kjnnes]; Nasal Deletion and optionally Glottalisation, e.g. sent /sent/ [set] or [set'] (see Malecot 1960; Selkirk 1972; Kahn 1980 [1976]; Zue -& Laferriere 1979). These rules, characterised largely on the basis of impressionistic data, are widely assumed to be phonological rules of English.

The rhetorical implications related to the use of this step were mainly to provide a more extensive contextualisation of the research area involved (move 1: Establishing a territory), and also to motivate the reader to understand which is the authors niche that he has claimed for his research (move 2: Establishing a niche). In this direction, Reviewing items of previous research must be considered as a free standing substep and not one only and static or immobile step, as Samraj concluded in her investigation.Samples of Reviewing items of previous research placed after Establishing a niche (move 2):

9. More recently, McCleery, Tully, Slevc, and Schreibman (2006) reported that minimally verbal 2-3 year old children with ASD also showed a normal sequence of phonological acquisition in an elicited imitation task. However, Wolk and Edwards (1993) and Wolk and Giesen (2000) have reported both delayed and atypical patterns of phonological production in a single case study and in a case series of four siblings with ASD. They observed some degree of chronologic mismatch in speech sound development, such that early-developing sounds were absent whereas later developing sounds were present.

10. Existen algunos trabajos translingsticos en los que, adems de las diferencias en ejecucin en funcin del nivel de la prueba de conciencia fonolgica utilizada, se encuentran diferencias en funcin del sistema lingstico y ortogrfico que utilizan los nios (ver en Defior, 2002, una revisin sobre este tema); adems, algunos de ellos muestran diferencias en las habilidades de lectura de palabras y pseudopalabras en funcin del grado de transparencia fonolgica del sistema ortogrfico. La cuestin que se ha planteado es si las habilidades de procesamiento fonolgico varan, dependiendo de las caractersticas de cada lengua y del sistema ortogrfico (Caravolas & Bruck, 1993; Cossu et al., 1988; Frith, Wimmer & Landerl, 1998; Goswami, Gombert & Barrera, 1998; Landerl, Wimmer & Frith, 1997; Paulesu et al., 2000; Seymour, Aro & Erskine, 2003). As, en el estudio de Cossu et al. (1988), los nios de 4 aos ingleses e italianos obtienen unos porcentajes de xito de 46% y 67% respectivamente en la segmentacin silbica y de 0% y 13% en la segmentacin fonmica, comparados con el mismo tipo de tarea. All the samples presented evidence that Reviewing items of previous research is the step most frequently used in English and Spanish research article introductions, and also that this step must be addressed as a free standing substep, which can be embedded in any other move and step performing the role of indicating a gap for example as Samraj proved in her studies (2002).

5.3 Extension of samples When it comes to the length of research article introductions about Phonology, there is a significant difference between Spanish and English articles. Generally speaking, all three Spanish RA introductions make a total of 4,346 words, each one separately with an average of 1,448 words. While English RA introductions make a total of 2,102 words, with an average of 700 words per sample. This shows that with no doubt Spanish introductions were bigger in terms of extension as it can be seen when introductions amount of pages in both groups are compared in Table 3: Table 3.Comparison between Spanish and English introductions in terms of length

Spanish Samples:Extension in number of pages1. Fonos que realizan la secuencia grafmica hu+vocal1.5 pagesen 17 sujetos de Concepcin e hiptesis inicial sobre suorganizacin fonolgica2. An approach to the phonological processing in 4 pagesprereading spanish children: Phonological awareness,verbal short-term memory and naming3. Desarrollo fonolgico en nios de 3 y 4 aos segn la3.5 pagesfonologa natural: Incidencia de la edad y del gnero

English Samples:1. Nasalisation in English: Phonology or Phonetics1 page.2. Phonology and vocal behavior in toddlers with Autism Spectrum Disorder2.5 pages.3. A description of Turkish-English Phonology for teaching English in Turkey1 page.

The vast difference between these samples is undeniable. However, this dissimilarity may be explained. One of the most presented steps in these introductions is reviewing items of previous research which is precisely used to talk about the earlier investigation done regarding the topic addressed. Therefore, if the topic or the field of research has been researched deeply, the introduction of the RA will be larger as there is so much more to be mentioned about this specific subject. That seems to be the case of Spanish RA introductions, even though there is just one sample in English introductions in which the extension of it goes beyond one page. But something that it seems to be a pattern in terms of presence in the samples is precisely the use of step reviewing items of previous research as it is the main influence of these introductions length. Samrajs proposal seems to fit as the second explanations to why this step is frequently used as she says that reviewing items of previous research is not a move neither a substep, but it is actually a free standing substep which can also be embedded within other steps along research article introductions (2002). Therefore, it would be more freely used in introductions rather than the other steps whose conditions and restrictions are more specific. 5.4 Tenses in Outlining purposes and their implications on Swales proposal

After a deep analysis in the verb tenses used by an author in Outlining purposes in Spanish and English research article introductions, the main conclusion that arises is directly connected with the previous work developed by Swales (1990) and previously mentioned. This supposed relation between the use of present tense or past tense and the material condition, abstract or physical, of the concept referred by the author is not always accurate. As it can be seen in the following samples:

11. The aims of this investigation are...12. De este modo, los objetivos de este trabajo son...

Although in some cases this contradiction may be uncertain, as it can be observed in the next sample:

13. El objetivo principal de este trabajo es (...) un segundo objetivo era...

And with a much minor number of instances, the Swales relation between the verb tense used and the abstractness or concreteness of a concept may be right. As it is presented in one Spanish sample:

14. En este contexto, dos objetivos centrales que nos propusimos con nuestra investigacin fue...

In spite of the corpus of this study may not be wide enough to be representative, this is an optimal attempt to prove that Swales proposal (1990) about the relation between the verb tense adopted and whether the writer is referring to an abstract or physical concept may not be completely accurate.

5.5 Linking Words in establishing a niche

In the analysed samples of English and Spanish introductions the most common connectors used in order to establish a niche (move 2) were sin embargo, 'although and yet. These linking words were used to express a contrast when talking about previous research mentioned before establishing a niche for the present study. Some of these connectors were related to other negative expressions, as it can be seen in the next samples:15. Sin embargo, uno de los problemas que presentan estos trabajos es que, generalmente, organizan fonolgicamente un material fontico cuya naturaleza se postula sin una base emprica o se determina de acuerdo con el idiolecto del investigador. (Spa 1: p 1)

The phrases sin una base emprica and se determina de acuerdo con el idiolecto del investigador are pointing up a negative opinion of the previous research mentioned before.Likewise, there are other uses of these contrast connectors that present a less negative attitude when making reference to others research studies, for example:

16. Sin embargo, no se han estudiado los dos otros aspectos del procesamiento fonolgico, aspectos que tambin se han considerado en esta investigacin. 17. En el estudio del desarrollo fonolgico, el gnero es un factor que se ha investigado, aunque su posible influencia no ha sido suficientemente consensuada.

In the case of English samples, the use of contrast linking words in move 2 does not differ from Spanish samples, as it can be observed in the following samples:

18. Although these studies have amply demonstrated that, among other communication difficulties, children with ASD are almost universally delayed in their acquisition of spoken language (Tager-Flusberg, Paul, & Lord, 2005; Wetherby et al., 2004), little research has focused on the phonological and other vocal characteristics of these toddlers.

19. Yet current views of the relationship between phonology and phonetics make the distinction between phonological rules and phonetic ones less automatic than once assumed and a reconsideration of the status of these rules is warranted.

However, there is a particular case on english introductions that established a difference among all the other moves 2 presented in the introductions, which is the presence of positive justification, one of the main components of Samrajs proposal, in one of the introductions, as it can be seen in the sample below:

20. In view of these observations, a framework can be developed for both the teaching and testing of pronunciation, based on recognition of the individual learners linguistic background, i.e. first language.

The author establishes his niche for his research by means of not using an aggressive language or any contrast connector, but by indicating what is possible to do as his study includes the analyses of two languages (Turkish and English) based on the practices and communication strategies of those bilinguals speakers and also learners of English in instances of communication with native speakers and non-native speakers of English, the viability of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in order to reach determined pronunciation objectives and the review of recent studies related to the territory. In fact the author does not provide any negative evaluation of previous research studies because he is more interested in presenting a new study in order to contribute to the research studies where his mother tongue (Turkish) is involved than disqualifying other studies.

6. Conclusions To sum up, it can be concluded that Moves and their corresponding steps according to Swales CARS model (1990) were found in almost all the samples analysed in Spanish and English introductions, and they followed the sequence showing a clear pattern that respected Swales CARS model because of all the many instances where the sequence was repeated. Although, this analysis also showed that there were only minor exceptions as in Spanish sample 3, where the move 3, step 4 was preceding the move 3, step 1A, and in English Sample 2, where following CARS model, move 2, step 1B was embedded between move 1, step 3 Reviewing items of previous research. These two cases were slightly different from Swales CARS model (1990) sequence. This study also confirmed that the step most frequently used in Spanish and English research article introductions was Reviewing items of previous research (move 1, step 3 according to Swales CARS model) having rhetorical implications of contextualisation of the research area involved in the studies and to motivate the reader to comprehend which was the importance of the niche claimed by the writer. Therefore, Samrajs proposal was addressed where she names this step literature review and defines it as a free standing substep (2002), which can be embedded in various moves and steps performing different rhetorical functions. In the case of the length of English and Spanish samples, the results of this investigation concluded that Spanish research article introductions were more extensive than English ones in terms of total amount of words and the extension of the pages in which those introductions were written as it can be seen in Table 3. This vast divergence has one explanation: the big extension of the step reviewing items of previous research. In Spanish introductions, this step was impressively wider than in English ones. These larger number of appearances of reviewing items of previous literature cannot be explained and observed as one only immobile step, but it can as a free standing substep that is embedded in other moves as well, as Samrajs proposal indicated has been mentioned before and along this study. This fact reinforces the conclusion obtained from her investigation (2002). Therefore, the verb tenses used in outlining purposes (move 3, step 1A) revealed that Swales proposal (1990) about a relation in the use of present or past tenses and the abstractness or concreteness of the agent in sentences presented in outlining purposes might be wrong. This supposed connection established that when a writer takes as a referent a physical object he uses the present tense and when the writer chooses an abstract concept as the agent of the sentence he uses the past tense. However, the results in this investigation concluded that this connection may be inaccurate because there is a tendency to contradict such relation, as in three of four instances such relation proposed by Swales (1990) was wrong. Once again, the corpus may not be representative because of the amount of samples studied and that is the reason why Swales relation cannot be refused. Besides, after analysing linking words in move 2 in Spanish and English research article introductions the results demonstrated that the most common connector in Spanish was sin embargo while in English although and yet. These contrast connectors were related with other negative expressions in order to follow the characteristic negative evaluation in establishing a niche (move 2). Nevertheless, there was one case in English research article introduction (Sample 3) where the move 2 did not present an aggressive language or a negative review of previous research studies, in this unique case there was presented Positive justification because of the writers intention to establish his niche in a positive way by not using a language that could contribute to a negative evaluation of previous studies mentioned before as it was presented by Samraj (2002). This action can be justified as the writers research studies were related about Turkish and English, a type of studies not common and where there is no competence for research space as Fredrickson and Swales said (1994, in Samraj 2002).

7. References

7.1 Primary sources sectionSamraj, B. (2002). Introductions in research articles: variations across disciplines. The American University. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre Analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Swales, J. M., & Najjar, H. (1987). The writing of research article introductions. Written communication, 4, 175-191.

7.2 Secondary sources section

Aguilar, E., & Salamanca, G. F. (2013). Fonos que realizan la secuencia grafmica hu+vocal en 17 sujetos de Concepcin e hiptesis inicial sobre su organizacin fonolgica. Literatura y Lingstica, (28), 193-213.

Celik, M. (2008). A description of Turkish-English phonology for teaching English in Turkey. Journal of Theory and Practice in Education, 159-174.

Cohn, A. (1993). Nasalisation in English: phonology or phonetics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 43-82.

Coloma, C. J., Pavez, M., Maggiolo, M. M., & Pealoza, C. (2010). Desarrollo fonolgico en nios de 3 y 4 aos segn la fonologa natural: Incidencia de la edad y del gnero. Revista Signos, 31-48.

Herrera, L., & Defior, S. (2005). An Approach to the Phonological Processing in Prereading Spanish Children: Phonological Awareness, Verbal Short-Term Memory and Naming. SciELO Chile , 81-95Schoen, E., Paul, R., & Chawarska, K. (2011). Phonology and vocal behavior in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Res, 4(3), 177-188. doi:10.1002/aur.183

8. Appendix