Balkin- Constitutional Dictatorship- Its Dangers and Its Design
Qualitative Research · Qualitative research uses purposeful sampling—the emphasis is on studying...
Transcript of Qualitative Research · Qualitative research uses purposeful sampling—the emphasis is on studying...
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Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research
Rick Balkin, Ph.D., LPC-S, NCCRick Balkin, Ph.D., LPC-S, NCC
Balkin, R. S., 2008Balkin, R. S., 2008 22
6 Features of Qualitative6 Features of QualitativeStudyStudy
Field focusedField focused Self as instrumentSelf as instrument InterpretativeInterpretative
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6 Features of Qualitative6 Features of QualitativeStudyStudycontinuedcontinued……
Expressive use of languageExpressive use of language Attention to detailsAttention to details TransferTransfer
–– CoherenceCoherence–– InsightInsight–– Instrumental utilityInstrumental utility
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Why QualitativeWhy QualitativeResearch?Research?
Social inquiry is complex and requiresSocial inquiry is complex and requiresa variety of toolsa variety of tools
Realities are multiple, constructed, &Realities are multiple, constructed, &holisticholistic
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Why Qualitative Research?Why Qualitative Research?ContinuedContinued……
Research should be time and contextResearch should be time and contextboundbound
All entities are constantly changing, soAll entities are constantly changing, soit is impossible to establishit is impossible to establishrelationshipsrelationships
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Uses of QualitativeUses of QualitativeResearchResearch
Clarify/illustrate quantitative findingsClarify/illustrate quantitative findings Create instrumentsCreate instruments Develop policyDevelop policy Evaluate programsEvaluate programs Guide practiceGuide practice Develop theoryDevelop theory
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Sampling in QualitativeSampling in QualitativeResearchResearch
Qualitative research uses purposefulQualitative research uses purposefulsamplingsampling——the emphasis is on studyingthe emphasis is on studyinga phenomena in deptha phenomena in depth
This is different from probabilityThis is different from probabilitysampling used in quantitativesampling used in quantitativeresearch, in which the purpose is toresearch, in which the purpose is tostudy a phenomena and generalize thestudy a phenomena and generalize thefindings to a populationfindings to a population
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Sampling: Probability vs.Sampling: Probability vs.PurposefulPurposeful
RepresentationalRepresentational–– Goal: Enable generalizations from studyGoal: Enable generalizations from study
samples to populations.samples to populations.–– The sample displays variables (e.g., age,The sample displays variables (e.g., age,
gender) in similar proportions and patterns togender) in similar proportions and patterns tothe total population about which you wish tothe total population about which you wish tomake generalizations. Statistical conventionsmake generalizations. Statistical conventionsare used to calculate the probability thatare used to calculate the probability thatpatterns observed in the sample will exist inpatterns observed in the sample will exist inthe wider population.the wider population.
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Sampling: Probability vs.Sampling: Probability vs.PurposefulPurposeful
•• PurposefulPurposeful•• Goal: To understand a phenomenon, notGoal: To understand a phenomenon, not
to represent a population.to represent a population.•• The selection of information-rich cases forThe selection of information-rich cases for
intensive study. Commonly used inintensive study. Commonly used inqualitative research.qualitative research.
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Purposeful SamplingPurposeful Sampling
Sample size is smallSample size is small Participants are Participants are information-richinformation-rich
resourcesresources Selection is deliberateSelection is deliberate Goal is to gain a deeper understandingGoal is to gain a deeper understanding
of a phenomenaof a phenomena
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Types of PurposefulTypes of PurposefulSamplingSampling
Extreme or deviantExtreme or deviantcase samplingcase sampling
Intensity samplingIntensity samplingTypical case samplingTypical case samplingMaximum variationMaximum variation
samplingsamplingStratified purposefulStratified purposeful
samplingsamplingHomogeneousHomogeneous
samplingsamplingCritical case samplingCritical case samplingSnowball or chainSnowball or chain
samplingsampling
Criterion samplingCriterion samplingTheory-based orTheory-based or
operational constructoperational constructsamplingsampling
Confirming andConfirming anddisconfirming casedisconfirming casesamplingsampling
Purposeful randomPurposeful randomsamplingsampling
Sampling politicallySampling politicallyimportant casesimportant cases
Convenience samplingConvenience samplingOpportunistic samplingOpportunistic sampling
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Selected Types ofSelected Types ofPurposeful SamplingPurposeful Sampling
CriterionCriterion Maximum variationMaximum variation StratifiedStratified Typical caseTypical case Deviant caseDeviant case RandomRandom
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Criterion SamplingCriterion Sampling
A generic form of sampling involvingA generic form of sampling involvingthe selection of cases on pre-the selection of cases on pre-conceived empirical or theoreticalconceived empirical or theoreticalcriteria. Sometimes called selectivecriteria. Sometimes called selectivesampling.sampling.
Criteria may entail other kinds ofCriteria may entail other kinds ofsampling, such as typical or deviantsampling, such as typical or deviantcase sampling. Criteria can be acase sampling. Criteria can be ascore on a measure (score on a measure (qual/quantqual/quantcombined study).combined study).
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Maximum VariationMaximum Variation Selection of cases to represent a set ofSelection of cases to represent a set of
variations on specified aspects of avariations on specified aspects of aphenomenon (variables) that are relevant tophenomenon (variables) that are relevant toyour phenomenon of interest.your phenomenon of interest.–– Equality of number is not relevant.Equality of number is not relevant.–– What is important is that you have informationWhat is important is that you have information
so you can say something about that variable.so you can say something about that variable.–– Phenomenal, not demographic, variationPhenomenal, not demographic, variation–– Phenomenal variation can be demographicPhenomenal variation can be demographic
Researchers choose which and how manyResearchers choose which and how manyfeatures to vary (heterogeneity) and whichfeatures to vary (heterogeneity) and whichfeatures to fix (homogeneity).features to fix (homogeneity).–– More variation = larger sample size.More variation = larger sample size.
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Stratified PurposefulStratified PurposefulSamplingSampling
Selection of cases showingSelection of cases showingcombinations of pre-selected variables.combinations of pre-selected variables.
Can use stratified purposeful samplingCan use stratified purposeful samplingin grounded theory when therein grounded theory when there’’ssalready theory development.already theory development.
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Random PurposefulRandom PurposefulSamplingSampling
Used when there is a very large poolUsed when there is a very large poolof potentially information-rich casesof potentially information-rich casesand no obvious reason to choose oneand no obvious reason to choose onecase over another.case over another.
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Typical Case SamplingTypical Case Sampling
Selection of cases conforming to aSelection of cases conforming to aspecified standard, or pre-conceivedspecified standard, or pre-conceivednorm.norm.–– Comparatively typical: Within the sampleComparatively typical: Within the sample
you have selected, they are typical.you have selected, they are typical.–– Normatively typical: Typical in relation toNormatively typical: Typical in relation to
something out there, e.g., a measure.something out there, e.g., a measure.
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Deviant Case SamplingDeviant Case Sampling
Selection of cases departing from aSelection of cases departing from aspecified standard, or pre-conceivedspecified standard, or pre-conceivednorm.norm.–– Comparatively atypical: Within yourComparatively atypical: Within your
study, something stood out.study, something stood out.–– Normatively atypical: Not typicalNormatively atypical: Not typical
according to a standard outside youraccording to a standard outside yourstudy.study.
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Theoretical SensitivityTheoretical Sensitivity
The researcherThe researcher’’s ability tos ability to–– have insighthave insight–– give meaning to datagive meaning to data–– distinguish between what is pertinent anddistinguish between what is pertinent and
what is notwhat is not
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Theoretical SensitivityTheoretical Sensitivitycontinuedcontinued……
Dependent upon the researcherDependent upon the researcher’’ss–– MethodsMethods–– Professional experienceProfessional experience–– Personal experiencePersonal experience–– Analytic rigorAnalytic rigor
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Conducting QualitativeConducting QualitativeResearchResearch
ObservationsObservations InterviewsInterviews Document collectionDocument collection
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ObservationsObservations
Utilize focus factorsUtilize focus factors Shift your focus as time and reasonShift your focus as time and reason
seem to dictateseem to dictate Look for patternsLook for patterns
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ObservationsObservationscontinuedcontinued……
Define patterns as early as possibleDefine patterns as early as possible Create taxonomy to check againstCreate taxonomy to check against
continued patternscontinued patterns Ask questions to continue definingAsk questions to continue defining
patternspatterns
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ObservationsObservationscontinuedcontinued……
Focus FactorsFocus Factors InteractionsInteractions LanguageLanguage IndividualsIndividuals GroupsGroups RoutinesRoutines Interpretations byInterpretations by
participantsparticipants RitualsRituals
Social organizationSocial organization Time sequencesTime sequences NonverbalNonverbal
communicationcommunication Symbolic spaceSymbolic space SettingSetting Unplanned activitiesUnplanned activities What does notWhat does not
happenhappen
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InterviewingInterviewing
Closed, fixed response interviewClosed, fixed response interview Informal conversational interviewInformal conversational interview Guided interviewGuided interview Standardized open-ended interviewStandardized open-ended interview
See p. 268 in your text for an overviewSee p. 268 in your text for an overviewof each of these strategiesof each of these strategies
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Conducting InterviewsConducting Interviews
Experience/behavior questionsExperience/behavior questions Opinion/values questionsOpinion/values questions Feeling questionsFeeling questions Knowledge questionsKnowledge questions Sensory questionsSensory questions Background/demographic questionsBackground/demographic questions Time frame questionsTime frame questions
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Issues in QualitativeIssues in QualitativeInterviewingInterviewing
Sequencing of questionsSequencing of questions WordingWording True open-ended questionsTrue open-ended questions Singular questionsSingular questions
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Issues in QualitativeIssues in QualitativeInterviewingInterviewingcontinuedcontinued……
Avoid Avoid ““Why?Why?”” Remain neutralRemain neutral Probe and follow-upProbe and follow-up Support and recognizeSupport and recognize Maintain controlMaintain control
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Making sense of yourMaking sense of yourdatadata
Scan your dataScan your data Return to any word, phrase, sentence,Return to any word, phrase, sentence,
or idea that struck you as significant,or idea that struck you as significant,important, or of interestimportant, or of interest
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Making sense of yourMaking sense of yourdatadata
Ascertain frequency of word, phrase,Ascertain frequency of word, phrase,sentence, or ideasentence, or idea——it is a pattern?it is a pattern?
List all possible meaningsList all possible meanings Validate possible meaningsValidate possible meanings——useuse
theorytheory
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CodingCoding
OpenOpen——scanning and returningscanning and returning AxialAxial——organizing in to initial patternsorganizing in to initial patterns SelectiveSelective——validated the categories andvalidated the categories and
developed a theorydeveloped a theory
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TrustworthinessTrustworthiness
Trustworthiness is to qualitativeTrustworthiness is to qualitativeresearch what reliability and validityresearch what reliability and validityare to quantitative research.are to quantitative research.
Does the data show a pattern?Does the data show a pattern? Was it collected truthfully andWas it collected truthfully and
accurately?accurately? How did you reduce bias?How did you reduce bias?
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TrustworthinessTrustworthiness
Prolonged engagementProlonged engagement Persistent engagementPersistent engagement TriangulationTriangulation Peer debriefingPeer debriefing Member checksMember checks Audit trailAudit trail
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Prolonged engagementProlonged engagement
The documentation of patterns overThe documentation of patterns overtimetime
Must show adequate time andMust show adequate time andresources in the study.resources in the study.
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Persistent engagementPersistent engagement
Dealing with discrepant dataDealing with discrepant data Resolving inconsistent data withResolving inconsistent data with
pattern datapattern data Why was some data deemed notWhy was some data deemed not
worthy of consideration?worthy of consideration?
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TriangulationTriangulation
Comparison of data from differentComparison of data from differentsourcessources–– DataData–– ResearcherResearcher–– TheoryTheory–– MethodologicalMethodological
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Peer debriefingPeer debriefing
Subjecting your data andSubjecting your data andinterpretations to scrutiny by qualifiedinterpretations to scrutiny by qualifiedindividualsindividuals
How often?How often? How thorough?How thorough?
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Member checksMember checks
Allowing participants to read the dataAllowing participants to read the datayou collected and the conclusions youyou collected and the conclusions youdrew from themdrew from them
When were they performed?When were they performed? Did you included their reactions?Did you included their reactions? Why or why not?Why or why not?
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Audit trailAudit trail
Have you made a clear reference trailHave you made a clear reference trailback to your raw data?back to your raw data?
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Aspects of poorAspects of poorqualitative researchqualitative research
Inadequate amounts of evidenceInadequate amounts of evidence Inadequate variety in kinds ofInadequate variety in kinds of
evidenceevidence Faulty interpretative status of evidenceFaulty interpretative status of evidence Presence of disconfirming evidencePresence of disconfirming evidence Inadequate discrepant case analysisInadequate discrepant case analysis
Balkin, R. S., 2008Balkin, R. S., 2008 4141
Writing a QualitativeWriting a QualitativeMethods SectionMethods Section
You will have the following headingsYou will have the following headingsunder methodsunder methods–– Theoretical SensitivityTheoretical Sensitivity–– ParticipantsParticipants–– Data CollectionData Collection–– TrustworthinessTrustworthiness–– Data AnalysisData Analysis
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Theoretical SensitivityTheoretical Sensitivity
Explain why you are a goodExplain why you are a goodinstrument for this study.instrument for this study.
What experiences do you bring thatWhat experiences do you bring thatmake you an ideal researcher for yourmake you an ideal researcher for yourproposed project?proposed project?
See slides 19-20.See slides 19-20.
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ParticipantsParticipants
Who are your participants in theWho are your participants in thestudy?study?
Summarize the qualities you expectSummarize the qualities you expectfrom your participants (why are theyfrom your participants (why are theyan information rich source? Providean information rich source? Provideany pertinent demographicany pertinent demographicinformation)information)
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ParticipantsParticipants
How will you solicit participants?How will you solicit participants? Describe purposeful samplingDescribe purposeful sampling
procedureprocedure See slides 11 See slides 11 –– 18 and Purposeful 18 and Purposeful
Sampling under Doc Sharing inSampling under Doc Sharing inecollegeecollege..
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Data CollectionData Collection
What observations will you conduct?What observations will you conduct?What will be your focus factors (i.e.What will be your focus factors (i.e.slide 24). You should identify at least 4slide 24). You should identify at least 4focus factors.focus factors.
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Data CollectionData Collection
What type of interview will youWhat type of interview will youconduct? Include 10 (minimum) open-conduct? Include 10 (minimum) open-ended interview questions in anended interview questions in anappendix section of your project.appendix section of your project.
See slides 25-28.See slides 25-28.
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Data CollectionData Collection
What type of documents will youWhat type of documents will youcollect. What information do you needcollect. What information do you needto gather that will be important forto gather that will be important foryour study?your study?
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TrustworthinessTrustworthiness
Discuss how all six aspects ofDiscuss how all six aspects oftrustworthiness (slides 32-39) will betrustworthiness (slides 32-39) will beaddressed in your study.addressed in your study.