Psychology of Music Learning

Miksza

Behaviorism

Part I

• Classical Conditioning– Assumptions– Method– Phenomena– Counter conditioning– Figures

There is more detail in this section of the outline than is presented in Driscoll… it’s good information – but focus on Part II for the purposes of this class…

Behaviorist Assumptions

• John Watson (Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, 1913)– Introduced the term Behaviorism– Advocated for objective, scientific, observable forms of inquiry

• Equipotentiality• Learning best studied through stimuli and responses• Internal processes largely excluded (radical perspective)• Learning=change in behavior• Empiricist/blank slate• Learning greatly effected by the environment• Parsimony

Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov (Conditioned Reflexes, 1927)– Basic Form of 3 Steps

• Neutral stimulus – No response• Neutral stimulus/unconditioned stimulus paired –

unconditioned response• Conditioned stimulus – conditioned responses

• Signal learning

• Behavior Elicited – not necessarily conscious response

Watson’s take…

• Law of frequency– “The more frequently a stimulus and response occur

in association with each other, the stronger the S-R habit will become (Ormrod, p. 43).”

• Law of recency– “The response that has most recently occurred after a

particular stimulus is the response most likely to be associated with that stimulus (Ormrod, p. 43).”

• Extreme position regarding nature/nurture issues…

Classical Conditioning Phenomena

• Extinction– Behavior goes away

• Spontaneous Recovery– Behavior comes back

• Stimulus Generalization– Response occurs when presented with ‘similar’ stimuli

• Stimulus Discrimination– When an individual learns not to generalize a

response to ‘similar’ stimuli• Higher-order Conditioning

– Another ‘layer’ of pairing stimuli and responses…

More Recent Developments in Classical Conditioning

• Contingency/contiguity vs. random or coincidence-like pairing

• Salience of the conditioned stimulus– Some stimulus/response pairings make more

sense than others

• Cognition a part of the process– S/R relationships among mental

representations– Tolerance to drugs

Altering Conditioned Behaviors• Difficult to do… involuntary• Extinction

– Problems: unpredictable speed, avoidance, spontaneous recovery• Counter-conditioning (better than extinction)

– New response – must be incompatible with old response– Must identify a salient stimulus– Gradually introduced new stimulus in conjunction with old stimulus

• Threshold method– Present a stimulus faintly at first and then gradually increase the

strength• Systematic desensitization

– An example of counter-conditioning that is often applied to anxiety problems

• Exhaustion– The stimulus is presented continuously until the individual can no longer

respond in a habitual way

Other key figures…

• Edwin Guthrie– A stimulus and response relationship can form at full

strength in just one trial

• Clark Hull– Intervening or organismic variables are also important

to consider– A departure from radical behaviorist views in that

internal elements were seen as important…– ‘Drive’ a major factor – laid ground work for early

theories of motivation

Part II

• Operant Conditioning– Groundwork– True theory– Types of reinforcers– Reinforcement vs. Punishment– Conditions…– Phenomena– Eliminating undesirable behavior– Limitations of reinforcement

Groundwork for Operant Conditioning

• Edward Thorndike– Law of Effect

• Responses followed by satisfaction are strengthened

• Responses followed by discomfort are weakened• Originally focused on rewards and punishments• Later revised without emphasis on punishment

– Emphasized the importance of consequences in the learning process…

(Ormrod, p. 50)

Operant Conditioning Proper

• B. F. Skinner– Shifted emphasis from strength of S-R connections…

…to… …simply the strengthening of responses• A flip-flop of S-R to R-S (…or R-C)

– “A response that is followed by a reinforcer is strengthened and is therefore more likely to occur again.”

– “Reinforcer – a stimulus or event that increases the frequency of a response it follows (Ormrod, p. 52).”

– Rather than ‘elicit’ the focus is now on the individual ‘emitting’ a behavior, or ‘operating’ on their environment

Types of Reinforcers

• Primary– Those that satisfy an inherent biological need

or desire

• Secondary/Conditioned– Those that satisfy all other needs or desires– Material– Social– Activity– Intrinsic

Positive/Negative Reinforcers vs. Punishment

• Reinforcer – response increases• Punishment – response decreases

• Positive reinforcer – present something positive to increase certain response

• Negative reinforcer – take something away to increase a certain response

• Punishment – present or take something away to decrease a certain response

• (see Driscoll, Figure 2.2, p. 37)

Conditions for operant conditioning…

• Reinforcer occurs after response…

• Reinforcer comes immediately…

• Reinforcer is contingent on the desired response...

• Magnitude and appeal of reinforcer affects responses learned…

• Consistency of reinforcement is important…

Operant Conditioning Phenomena• Baseline

– Behavior in absence of reinforcer

• Terminal behavior– Desired response at end of reinforcement program

• Extinction– When response is no longer followed by a reinforcer and the

behavior ceases

• Superstition– When reinforcement is random and not contingent on behavior

• Shaping– Reinforcing successive approximations of a task

• Chaining– Reinforcing one response at a time, and then a sequence of

responses – simple to complex behaviors

Operant Conditioning Phenomena Continued…

• Stimulus generalization– Once a response/reinforcer connection is learned an individual will likely

respond similarly to similar reinforcers

• Stimulus discrimination– When an individual learns under what circumstances a response will or

will not be reinforced…

• Stimulus control– Cueing/Prompting

• Verbal or non-verbal cues that indicate a desired response (flicking lights, conducting, etc.)

– Setting events• Designing an environment that is conducive to the type of response desired…

• Learned Helplessness– The passive acceptance of events seemingly beyond one’s control

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Ratio– Reinforcements contingent on a certain number of

behaviors

• Interval– Reinforcement contingent on the passage of time

• Fixed– Occurrence of reinforcement is consistent

• Variable– Occurrence of reinforcement is not consistent

• (See Driscoll, Figure 2.5 and 2.6, p. 50 and 51)

Eliminating Undesirable Behavior…

• Extinguishing– A particular response is no longer reinforced

• Non-contingent consequences– May be beneficial for those who act out for attention

• Reinforcing other and/or incompatible behaviors– Differential reinforcement

• Contingency contracts• Personalized system of instruction

– IEPS and diverse learners

• CAI – Computer Assisted Instruction

Limitations of Reinforcement

• The reinforcer isn’t salient…

• Lack of consistency in reinforcement…

• Cost/benefit analysis results in an imbalance…

• Shaping a desired behavior too quickly…

• Extrinsic reinforcer may undermine intrinsic interest…

Basic educational implications related to Behaviorist principles…

• Practice

• Positive learning environment

• Methods for breaking bad habits

• Assessing learning by looking for behavioral changes

Part III

• Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA)– Essential components

ABA Assumptions and Pseudonyms…

• Assumptions– Behavioral issues are related to past and present environmental

circumstances…– Operant Conditioning concepts

• Reinforcement, extinction, shaping, chaining, stimulus control, reinforcing incompatible behaviors, etc…

– A=Baseline condition– B=Treatment/Intervention– A=Return to Baseline

• Pseudonyms and similar processes– Behavior Management…– Behavior modification…– Behavior therapy…– Contingency management...

Components of ABA

• Present and desired behavior are specified in observable, measurable terms (Driscoll step 1)

• Behavior is measured before and during intervention• Salient environmental/Intervention conditions and/or

reinforcers are identified (Driscoll step 2)• A specific intervention/treatment plan is developed – with

the individual when appropriate… (Driscoll step 3)• Treatment monitored for effectiveness and modified

along if necessary… (similar to Driscoll step 4 and 5)• Efforts made to show how change in behavior can be

generalized to other situations…• Treatment is phased out eventually…