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Psychological Science is Born
Wundt and psychology’s first graduate students studied the “atoms of
the mind” by conducting experiments at Leipzig, Germany, in
1879.
This work is considered the birth of psychology
as we know it today.
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Psychological Science DevelopsBehaviorists
Watson and later Skinner emphasized the study of overt behavior as the subject matter
of scientific psychology.
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Survey
Random Sampling
If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a
sample, it is called a random sample
(unbiased).The fastest way to know about
the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.
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Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Correlation coefficient
Indicates directionof relationship
(positive or negative)
Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)
r = 0.37+
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two
variables.
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Experimentation
Experimentation is the backbone of psychological research.
Experiments isolate causes and their effects.
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Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept
under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.
Exploring Cause & Effect
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Evaluating Therapies
Double-blind Procedure
Neither the participant nor the research assistant knows whether the participant is receiving the treatment or a placebo
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An independent variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the
study.
For example, when examining the effects of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast
feeding is the independent variable.
Independent Variable IV
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A dependent variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a
behavior or a mental process.
For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence,
intelligence is the dependent variable.
Dependent Variable DV
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FAQ
Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?
Q3. Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals?
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Neuron
A nerve cell, or a neuron, consists of many different parts.
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Myelin sheath
• Specialized Glial cells • Acts as an electrical
insulator • Not present on all
cells• When present
increases the speed of neural signals down the axon.
Myelin Sheath
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Action PotentialA neural impulse. A
brief electrical charge that travels down an
axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of
channels in the axon’s membrane.
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Threshold
Threshold: Each neuron receives excitatory and inhibitory signals
from many neurons.
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Action Potential Properties
All-or-None Response: A strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more often, but it does not affect the
action potentials strength or speed.
Intensity of an action potential remains the same throughout the length of the
axon.
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Types of Neurotransmitters• Acetylcholine• Serotonin• Norepinephrine• Dopamine• Endorphins• GABA • Glutamate
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Acetylcholine
• Found in neuromuscular junction
• Involved in muscle movements
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Serotonin
Serotonin pathways are involved with
mood regulation.
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DopamineImportant for
movement, rewards & pleasure.
Involved with diseases such as
schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease.
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Endorphins• Control pain and
pleasure• Released in response
to pain• Morphine and codeine
work on endorphin receptors Involved in healing effects of acupuncture
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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Sympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy.
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PET Scan
PET (positron emission tomography) Scan is a visual display of brain activity that detects a radioactive form of glucose while the brain performs a given task.
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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to
produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures
within the brain
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fMRI - Functional MRI
Compares MRI scans taken less than a second apart
Detects blood moving to active parts of the brain
Shows brain function
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Brain Stem
The Thalamus is the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
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The Limbic System is a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebrum, associated with emotions such as fear, aggression and drives for food and sex. It includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
The Limbic System
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Hypothalamus
The Hypothalamus lies below (hypo) the thalamus. It directs several maintenance activities like eating, drinking, body temperature, and control of emotions. It helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
"TALE of the hypothalamus":
Temperature
Appetite
Libido
Emotion
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The Cerebral Cortex
• Cerebral Cortex – the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells
that covers the cerebral hemispheres– the body’s ultimate control and information
processing center
• Glial Cells – cells in the nervous system that are not neurons
but that support, nourish, and protect neurons
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Figure 2.24 The cerebral cortexMyers: Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
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The Cerebral Cortex
• Frontal Lobes
– involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
• Parietal Lobes
– include the sensory cortex
• Occipital Lobes
– include the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field
• Temporal Lobes
– include the auditory areas
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The Cerebral Cortex
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Split Brain
a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the corpus Callosum.
Sperry and Gazzaniga are key researchers in this area.
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Environmental Influence
Culture the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes,
and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Norm an understood rule for accepted and
expected behavior
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Developmental Psychology
Issue Details
Nature/Nurture
How do genetic inheritance (our nature)
and experience (the nurture we receive)
influence our behavior?
Continuity/Stages
Is developmental a gradual, continuous
process or a sequence of separate stages?
Stability/Change
Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become
different persons as we age.
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Infancy and Childhood
Infancy and childhood span from birth to the teenage years. During these years,
the individual grows physically, cognitively, and socially.
Stage Span
Infancy Newborn to toddler
Childhood Toddler to teenager
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Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
Schema a concept or framework that
organizes and interprets information, they are building blocks of intellectual development
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Typical Age Range
Description of Stage
Developmental Phenomena
SensorimotorBirth to nearly 2 years
Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing)
•Object permanence•Stranger anxiety•Some cause and effect
PreoperationalAbout 2 to 6 years
Concrete operationalAbout 7 to 11 years
Formal operationalAbout 12 through adulthood
Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning
•Pretend play•Egocentrism•Language development•Think in symbols
Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations
•Conservation •Mathematical transformations
Abstract reasoning, speculation •Abstract logic•Potential for moral reasoning
Piaget’s Stages
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Sensorimotor Stage
In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching,
mouthing, and grasping. Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp object permanence, i.e., objects that are out of
sight are also out of mind.
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Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
Conservation the principle that properties such as mass,
volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
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Attachment
• Mary Ainsworth – Strange situation– Unfamiliar playroom– Mother and unfamilar woman– Women play with baby – leave briefly
• How to the babies respond?
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Social Development: Parenting Styles
Authoritarian parents impose rules and expect obedience “Don’t interrupt.” “Why? Because I said so.”
Permissive submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use
little punishment Authoritative
both demanding and responsive set rules, but explain reasons and encourage open
discussion Rejecting-Neglecting
completely uninvolved; disengaged. Expect little and invest little
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Developing Morality
Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as “Should a person
steal medicine to save a loved one’s life?” He found stages of moral development.
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Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Approximateage Stage Description of Task
Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants(1st year) develop a sense of basic trust.
Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and (2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they
doubt their abilities.
Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks(3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel
guilty about efforts to be independent.
Elementary Competence vs. Children learn the pleasure of applying(6 years- inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel puberty) inferior.
Mnemonic
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Aging and Intelligence
It is believed today that fluid intelligence (ability to reason speedily) declines with age,
but crystalline intelligence (accumulated knowledge and skills) increases.
We gain vocabulary and knowledge but lose recall memory and process more slowly.
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ThresholdsAbsolute Threshold: Minimum stimulation needed
to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.
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Why Does the “Absolute” Threshold Vary?
- Signal Detection• Sensitivity:
– Intensity of the signal.– Capacity of sensory systems.– Amount of background stimulation, or “noise.”
• Response criterion reflects one’s willingness to respond to a stimulus.– Influenced by motivation and expectancies.
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Judging Differences Between Stimuli
• Difference Threshold or Just-Noticeable Difference (JND)
• JND = Smallest detectable difference in stimulus energy.
• JND determined by two factors:– How much of a stimulus was there to begin
with?– Which sense is being stimulated?
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Sensory Adaptation
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
Put a band aid on your arm and after awhileyou don’t sense it.
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The LensLens: Transparent
structure behind the pupil that changes
shape to focus images on the retina.
Accommodation: The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to help focus
near or far objects on the retina.
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Retina
Retina: The light-sensitive inner
surface of the eye, containing
receptor rods and cones in addition to layers of other neurons (bipolar,
ganglion cells) that process
visual information.
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Optic Nerve, Blind Spot & Fovea
http://www.bergen.org
Optic nerve: Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
Blind Spot: Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye because there are no receptor cells located there.
Fovea: Central point in the retina around which the eye’s cones cluster.
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Retina’s Reaction to Light- Receptors
Rods peripheral retina detect black, white and gray twilight or low light
Cones near center of retina fine detail and color vision daylight or well-lit conditions
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Color Blindness
Ishihara Test
Genetic disorder in which people are blind to green or red colors. This supports the
Trichromatic theory.
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Opponent Process Theory
Hering proposed that we process four primary colors combined in pairs of red-green, blue-
yellow, and black-white.
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The Ear
Dr. Fred H
ossler/ Visuals U
nlimited
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The Ear
Outer Ear/Pinna: Collects and sends sounds to the eardrum.
Middle Ear: Chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.
Inner Ear: Innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
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CochleaCochlea: Coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in
the inner ear that transforms sound vibrations to auditory signals.
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Localization of SoundsBecause we have two ears, sounds that reach one ear faster than the other ear cause us to localize
the sound.
1. Intensity differences2. Time differences
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Taste
Traditionally, taste sensations consisted of sweet, salty, sour, and bitter tastes. Recently, receptors
for a fifth taste have been discovered called “Umami”.
Sweet Sour Salty Bitter Umami(Fresh
Chicken)
Taste link at Nova
Blocking bitter taste at Nova
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Chemical Senses: The Flavors and Aromas of
Life• Olfaction
– Olfactory epithelium – top of nasal cavity – Pheromone detection of sweat and urine
• Vomeronasal organ• Influence human female reproductive cycles• Inhalation of male sex hormone and mood
changes• Males may respond to sex hormones
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Perceptual Organization: Gestalt
Gestalt--an organized whole tendency to integrate pieces of information
into meaningful wholes a school of psychology founded in Germany
in the 1900s that maintained our sensations are processed according to consistent perceptual rules that result in meaningful whole perceptions, or gestalts.
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Perceptual Organization: Gestalt
Grouping Principles proximity--group nearby figures together similarity--group figures that are similar continuity--perceive continuous patterns closure--fill in gaps connectedness--spots, lines, and areas are
seen as unit when connected
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Depth Perception
Visual Cliff
Depth perception enables us to judge distances. Gibson and Walk (1960) suggested that human infants (crawling age) have depth perception. Even newborn animals show depth perception.
Inne
rvis
ions
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Binocular Cues
Retinal disparity: Images from the two eyes differ.
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Monocular Cues
Relative motion: Objects closer to a fixation point move faster and in opposing direction to those objects that are farther away from a fixation
point, moving slower and in the same direction.
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Biological Rhythms and SleepCircadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and
include sleep and wakefulness. Termed our “biological clock,” it can be altered by artificial light.
Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus to decrease(morning) melatonin from the pineal gland
and increase (evening) it at nightfall.
Illu
stra
tion
© C
ynth
ia T
urne
r 20
03
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During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form called theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is daydreaming shows theta activity.
Sleep Stages 1-2
Theta Waves
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Stage 5: REM Sleep
After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the sleep cycle starts moving backward towards stage
1. Although still asleep, the brain engages in low-
amplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps) much like awake-aroused state.
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Hypnosis Hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
Posthypnotic Amnesia supposed inability to recall what one
experienced during hypnosis induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion
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Hypnosis: Pain Relief
Dissociation (divided consciousness) a split in consciousness allows some thoughts and behaviors to
occur simultaneously with others
Hidden Observer Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized
subject’s awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis
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Withdrawal & Dependence
1. Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a drug users may experience undesirable side effects.
2. Dependence: Absence of a drug may lead to a feeling of physical pain, intense cravings (physical dependence), and negative emotions (psychological dependence).
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Depressants1. Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, and
memory…and increases aggressiveness while reducing self awareness.
Daniel H
omm
er, NIA
AA
, NIH
, HH
S
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Depressants
2. Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are some examples.
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76
Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens are psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs
that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the
absence of sensory input.
Housewife on Acid on CNN 5:01
Another person on Acid 8:46
Leary and kids who dropped acid…creepy 1:14
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It was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical
conditioning.
His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson.
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Sov
foto
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Classical Conditioning is Classical Conditioning is learning that takes place when learning that takes place when an originally neutral stimulus an originally neutral stimulus
comes to produce a conditioned comes to produce a conditioned response because of its response because of its
association with an association with an unconditioned stimulus.unconditioned stimulus.
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Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation
(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.
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Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in
salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits
salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
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Acquisition
The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur.
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Extinction
When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to
decrease and eventually causes extinction.
A disappeared CS is called extinguished, not extinct.
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Stimulus Generalization
Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization.
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Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned
stimulus.
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Biological Predispositions• John Garcia
Conditioned taste aversions
• Not all neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli.
• Internal stimuli—associate better with taste
• External stimuli—associate better with pain
• Biological preparedness
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Behaviorism
John B. Watson
viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon
consensus today
recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted by all
schools of thought today
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Mary Cover Jones used an early form of desensitization to prove that fears (phobias) could be unlearned.
Peter, a young boy, had an extreme fear of rabbits. Jones gave Peter his favorite food while slowly bringing the rabbit closer and closer. Eventually Peter no longer panicked around rabbits.
Mary Cover Jones
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Shaping
Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards
the desired target behavior through successive approximations.
A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminateobjects of different shapes, colors and sizes.
Kham
is Ram
adhan/ Panapress/ Getty Im
ages
Fred Bavendam
/ Peter Arnold, Inc.
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Types of Reinforcers
Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the
behavior it follows.
A heat lamp positively
reinforces a meerkat’s behavior
in the cold.
Reuters/ C
orbis
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Punishment
An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.
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Updating Skinner’s Understanding
• Skinner’s emphasis on external control of behavior made him an influential, but controversial figure.
• Many psychologists criticized Skinner for underestimating the importance of cognitive and biological constraints.
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Learning by Observation
Higher animals, especially humans,
learn through observing and
imitating others.
The monkey on the right imitates the
monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to
obtain a reward.
© H
erb Terrace
©H
erb Terrace
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Modeling Violence
Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.
Children modeling after pro wrestlers
Bob
Dae
mm
rich/
The
Imag
e W
orks
Gla
ssm
an/ T
he Im
age
Wor
ks
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Studying Memory: Information Processing
Models
Keyboard(Encoding)
Disk(Storage)
Monitor(Retrieval)
Sequential Process How Memory Works Nova
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Encoding: Serial Position Effect
12
Percentage of
words recalled
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Position of word in list1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
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Chunking
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
You already know the capacity of the working memory may be increased by
“chunking.”
FBI TWA CIA IBMBut you didn’t know that you can handle 4
chunks
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Stress Hormones & MemoryFlashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events.
Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Scott Barbour/ G
etty Images
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No New Memories
Amnesias
AnterogradeAmnesia
(HM)
Retrograde amnesia
Surgery
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered
everything before the operation but could not make new memories. We call this
anterograde amnesia.
Memory Intact
How memory works at Nova 10:15
Memory intact
Surgery
No old memories
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Implicit & Explicit Memory
HM is unable to make new memories that aredeclarative (explicit), but he can form newmemories that are procedural (implicit).
CBA
Towers of Hanoi Link
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Forgetting as Interference
Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive (forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information
Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference disruptive effect of new learning on recall of
old information
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Thinking
Concept mental grouping of similar objects, events,
ideas, or people
Prototype mental image or best example of a category
matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
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Algorithms
Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a
solution. Computers use algorithms.
S P L O Y O C H Y G
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,200 possibilities.
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Heuristics
Heuristics are simple, thinking
strategies that allow us to make
judgments and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less
time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms.
B2M
Productions/D
igital Version/G
etty Images
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Thought Puzzle #1
What got in the way of solving this problem?
Mental Set - Old pattern of problem solving is applied to a new problem.
Functional Fixedness – A tendency to think about familiar objects in familiar ways which may prevent more creative use of those objects to solve the problem.
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Fixation
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes
problem solving. An example of fixation is functional fixedness.
The Matchstick Problem: How would
you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?
From
“Problem
Solving” by M
. Scheerer. C
opyright © 1963 by
Scientific A
merican, Inc. A
ll Rights R
eserved.
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Thinking
Belief Bias the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to
distort logical reasoning sometimes by making invalid conclusions
seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid
Belief Perseverance clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the
basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Magic and the Brain at PBS
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Language Structure
Morpheme: The smallest unit that carries a meaning. It may be a word or part of a word. For example:
Milk = milk
Pumpkin = pump . kin
Unforgettable = un · for · get · table
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Language
Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning
from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language
also, the study of meaning
Syntax the rules for combining words into
grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
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Explaining Language Development cont.
2. Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959, 1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested that the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through learning principles, and thus most of it is inborn.
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Language Influences Thinking
Linguistic Determinism (Whorf hypothesis): language determines the way we think.
For example, he noted that the Hopi people do not have the past tense for verbs. Therefore, the Hopi cannot think readily about the past.Link
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InsightChimpanzees show insightful behavior
when solving problems.
Sultan uses sticks to get food.
Chimp Problem solving: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ySMh1mBi3cI&NR=1&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOrgOW9LnT4&feature=
related&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1
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General Intelligence
Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis.
For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on
paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor,
and a reasoning ability factor.
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Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet practiced a modern form of
intelligence testing by developing questions
that would predict children’s future
progress in the Paris school system.
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Lewis Terman
In the US, Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s
test for American school children and named the test the
Stanford-Binet Test.
The following is the formula of Intelligence
Quotient (IQ)
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Normal Curve
Standardized tests establish a normal distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve.
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Validity
Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of a test refers to what the test is
supposed to measure or predict.
1. Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait.
2. Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait.
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Genetic InfluencesStudies of twins, family members, and adopted
children together support the idea that there is a significant genetic contribution to intelligence.
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Drive Reduction Theory Cont.
• Primary Drives– Unlearned
• Food• Water• Temperature regulation
FoodDrive
Reduction
Organism
Stomach FullEmpty Stomach(Food Deprived)
• Secondary Drives– Learned
• Money• Shelter• Job
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Homeostasis
-tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state
-regulation of any aspect of body chemistry around a particular level
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Hierarchy of Needs
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Body Chemistry & the Brain
Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by
receptors (neurons) in the stomach,
liver, and intestines. They send signals to the hypothalamus in
the brain.
Rat Hypothalamus
Glucose Molecule
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Hypothalamus & Hormones
The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones thatare related to hunger.
Hormone Tissue ResponseOrexin increase
Hypothalamus
Increases hunger
Ghrelin increase
StomachIncreases hunger
Insulin increase
PancreasIncreases hunger
Leptin increase
Fat cellsDecreases hunger
PPY increaseDigestive tract
Decreases hunger
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Motivation-Hunger
Set Point the point at which an individual’s
“weight thermostat” is supposedly set when the body falls below this weight,
an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight
Basal Metabolic Rate body’s base rate of energy expenditure
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Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology Overview
Applies psychological principles to the workplace.
1. Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles of selecting and evaluating workers.
2. Organizational Psychology: Studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.
3. Human Factors Psychology: Explores how machines and environments can be designed to fit our natural perception.
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Sources of Achievement Motivation
Why does one person become more motivated to achieve than another? Parents and teachers have an influence on the roots of motivation.
Emotional roots: learning to associate achievement with positive emotions.
Cognitive roots: learning to attribute achievements to one’s own competence, thus raising expectations of oneself.
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Setting Specific, Challenging Goals
Specific challenging goals motivate people to reach higher achievement levels, especially
if there is feedback such as progress reports.
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James-Lange Theory
James-Lange Theory proposes that physiological activity precedes the emotional experience.
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Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory
Our physiology and cognitions create emotions.
Emotions have two factors–physical arousal and cognitive label.
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Culture and Emotional Expression
When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did
fairly well at recognizing them (Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989).
Elkm
an & M
atsumoto, Japanese and
Caucasian F
acial Expression of E
motion
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Venting anger through action or fantasy ----achieves an emotional release or “catharsis.”
Opposing Theory-- Expressing anger breeds more anger, and
through reinforcement it is habit-forming.
Catharsis Hypothesis
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General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
According to Selye, a stress response to any kind ofstimulation is similar. The stressed individual goes
through three phases.
EPA
/ Yur
i Koc
hetk
ov/ L
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Stress and the Heart
Stress that leads to elevated blood pressure may result in coronary heart disease, a clogging of
the vessels that nourish the heart muscle.
Plaque incoronary
artery
Arteryclogged
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Stress and Colds
People with the highest life stress scores were also the most vulnerable when
exposed to an experimental cold virus.
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Dream AnalysisAnother method to analyze the
unconscious mind is through interpreting manifest and latent contents of dreams.
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Humanistic PerspectiveFocuses on mental capabilities that set
humans apart; self awareness, creativity, planning, decision making, responsibility.
Abraham Maslow(1908-1970)
Carl Rogers(1902-1987)
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Self-Actualizing PersonMaslow proposed
that we as individuals are motivated by a
hierarchy of needs. Beginning
with physiological
needs, we try to reach the state of self-actualization
—fulfilling our potential.
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Person-Centered Perspective
Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's self-actualization tendencies. He said that
Unconditional Positive Regard is an attitude of acceptance of others despite their failings.
Michael R
ougier/ Life Magazine ©
Tim
e Warner, Inc.
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Evaluating the Trait Perspective
The Person-Situation Controversy
Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the
resulting behavior in various situations is different.
Therefore, traits are not good predictors of behavior.
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Personal Control
External locus of control refers to the perception that chance or outside forces
beyond our personal control determine our fate.
Internal locus of control refers to the perception that we can control our own fate.
Self efficacy: learned expectations about probability of success
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Learned HelplessnessWhen unable/unwilling to avoid repeated
adverse events an animal or human learns helplessness.
Low self efficacy
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Deviant, Distressful & Dysfunctional
1.Deviant behavior in one culture may be considered normal, while in others it may lead to arrest.
2.Deviant behavior must accompany distress.
3. If a behavior is dysfunctional it is clearly a disorder.
Carol B
eckwith
Woodabe clip at youtube
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Goals of DSM
1. Describe (400) disorders.2. Determine how prevalent the
disorder is.
Disorders outlined by DSM-IV are reliable. Therefore, diagnoses by different professionals are similar.
Others criticize DSM-IV for “putting any kind of behavior within the compass of psychiatry.”
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Anxiety Disorders
Feelings of excessive apprehension and anxiety.
1. Generalized anxiety disorder2. Panic disorder3. Phobias4. Obsessive-compulsive disorder5. Post-traumatic stress disorder
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Panic Disorder
Minutes-long episodes of intense dread which may include feelings of terror, chest
pains, choking, or other frightening sensations.
Anxiety is a component of both disorders. It occurs more in the panic disorder, making
people avoid situations that cause it.
Symptoms
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Kinds of Phobias
Phobia of blood.Hemophobia
Phobia of closed spaces Link .
Claustrophobia
Phobia of heights link.
Acrophobia
Phobia of open places.Agoraphobia
Arachnophobia at National Geographic Link
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Obsessive-Compulsive DisorderPersistence of repetitive thoughts (obsessions)
and urges to engage in repetitive behaviors (compulsions) that cause distress.
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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Four or more weeks of the following symptoms constitute post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD):
1. Haunting memories
2. Nightmares3. Social withdrawal
4. Jumpy anxiety
5. Sleep problems
Bettmann/ Corbis
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Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
A disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities,
formerly called multiple personality disorder.
Chris Sizemore (DID)Lois Bernstein/ Gamma Liason
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Personality DisordersPersonality disorders are characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns
that impair social functioning.
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Antisocial Personality DisorderA disorder in which the person (usually men) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends
and family members.
Formerly, this person was called a sociopath or psychopath.
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Major Depressive Disorder
Major depressive disorder occurs when signs of depression last two weeks or more and are
not caused by drugs or medical conditions.
1. Lethargy and fatigue2. Feelings of worthlessness3. Loss of interest in family &
friends4. Loss of interest in activities
Signs include:
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Bipolar Disorder
Many great writers, poets, and composers suffered from bipolar disorder. During their
manic phase creativity surged, but not during their depressed phase.
Whitman Wolfe Clemens Hemingway
Bettm
ann/ Corbis
George C
. Beresford/ H
ulton Getty Pictures L
ibrary
The G
ranger Collection
Earl T
heissen/ Hulton G
etty Pictures L
ibrary
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Social-Cognitive Perspective
The social-cognitive perspective suggests that depression arises partly from self-defeating
beliefs and negative explanatory styles.
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Schizophrenia
The literal translation is “split mind” which refers to a split from reality. A group of severe
disorders characterized by the following:
1. Disorganized and delusional thinking.
2. Disturbed perceptions. 3. Inappropriate emotions
and actions.
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Disturbed Perceptions
A schizophrenic person may perceive things that are not there (hallucinations). Most such hallucinations are auditory and lesser visual,
somatosensory, olfactory, or gustatory.
L. B
erthold, Untitled. T
he Prinzhorn Collection, U
niversity of Heidelberg
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Photos of paintings by K
rannert Museum
, University of Illinois at U
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Understanding Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a disease of the brain exhibited by the symptoms of the mind.
Dopamine Overactivity: Researchers found that schizophrenic patients express higher levels of dopamine
D4 receptors in the brain.
Drugs that block these sites help schizophrenic patients.
Brain Abnormalities
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Abnormal Brain MorphologySchizophrenia patients may exhibit
morphological changes in the brain like enlargement of fluid-filled ventricles.
Both Photos: C
ourtesy of Daniel R
. Weinberger, M
.D., N
IH-N
IMH
/ NSC
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The Psychological Therapies
Module 40
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Psychoanalysis: Methods
During free association, the patient edits his thoughts, resisting his or her feelings to express emotions. Such resistance becomes important
in the analysis of conflict-driven anxiety.
Eventually the patient opens up and reveals his or her innermost private
thoughts. Developing positive or negative feelings may be transference towards the
therapist.
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Behavior Therapy
Therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors.
To treat phobias or sexual disorders, behavior therapists do not delve deeply
below the surface looking for inner causes.
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Classical Conditioning Techniques
Counterconditioning is a procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that
trigger unwanted behaviors.
It is based on classical conditioning and includes exposure therapy and aversive
conditioning.
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Exposure Therapy
Expose patients to things they fear and
avoid.
Through repeated exposures, anxiety
lessens because they habituate to the things feared.
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Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning procedures enable therapists to use behavior modification,
in which desired behaviors are rewarded and undesired behaviors are either
unrewarded or punished.
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Drug Therapies
Psychopharmacology is the study of drug effects on mind and behavior.
With the advent of drugs, hospitalization in mental institutions has rapidly declined.
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Brain Stimulation
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
ECT is used for severely depressed patients who
do not respond to drugs.
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Focuses in Social Psychology
Social psychology scientifically studies how we think about, influence, and relate
to one another.
“We cannot live for ourselves alone.”
Herman Melville
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Attributing Behavior to Persons or to Situations
Attribution Theory: Fritz Heider (1958) suggested that we have a tendency to
give causal explanations for
someone’s behavior, often by crediting
either the situation or the person’s disposition.
http://ww
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Fritz Heider
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Fundamental Attribution Error
Fundamental Attribution Error. The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate the impact of the situations in analyzing
the behaviors of others.
We see Joe as quiet, shy, and introverted most of the time, but with friends he is very talkative, loud, and extroverted.
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Actions Can Affect Attitudes
Why do actions affect attitudes? One explanation is that when our attitudes and
actions are opposed, we experience tension. This is called cognitive dissonance.
To relieve ourselves of this tension we bring our attitudes closer to our actions (Festinger, 1957).
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Social Influence
Module 44
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Group Pressure & Conformity
Suggestibility is a subtle type of conformity, adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group standard.
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Group Pressure & Conformity
Informational Social Influence: An influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.
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Milgram’s Study: Results
Milgram on Youtube
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Lessons from the Conformity and Obedience Studies
In both Asch's and Milgram's studies, participants were pressured to choose between following their standards and
being responsive to others.
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Individual Behavior in the Presence of Others
Social facilitation: Refers to improved
performance on tasks in the presence of
others.
Triplett (1898) noticed cyclists’ race
times were faster when they competed against others than
when they just raced against the clock.
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Social LoafingThe tendency of an individual in a group
to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when tested
individually (Latané, 1981).
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Deindividuation
The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster
arousal and anonymity.
Mob behavior
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Psychology of Attraction
4. Similarity: Similar views among individuals causes the bond of attraction to strengthen.
Similarity breeds content! The more people are alike the more their liking
endures. (Byrne 1971)