Project-Based Writing

Author: Sarah Coutts

Lesson Objective: At the end of this lesson, trainees will have a framework

within which to teach project-based writing. They will also have completed a

portfolio of their own writing.

Teaching the writing process does not make writers.

Experiencing the writing process makes writers.1

Next to speaking, writing is perhaps the most intimidating part of learning a

language. The idea of trying to express oneself in a foreign language while

anticipating a bloodbath of corrections on the writing can discourage many

students before they even begin.

Writing is the only productive skill in which native and non-native speakers

generally have a shared learning experience since it is a skill, like reading, that

must be formally taught. It is possible for second language English speakers to

become good writers. However, it’s essential for both teachers and students to

remember that writing is a process and it is through this process that we truly

become writers. This is why Project-Based Learning (PBL) is an excellent

approach for developing writing skills – particularly in EFL students.

Project-Based Learning (PBL)

1 Mascle, D. (2011). “You Can’t Teach the Writing Process.” www. metawriting.deannamascle.com/you-cant- teach-the-writing-process-how-to-make-writers-by-showing-not-telling/#sthash.Gy3S3jAQ.dpuf Date Accessed: 4 December 2014.

Confucius and Aristotle were early proponents of learning through doing.

Socrates modeled how to learn through questioning, inquiry and critical

thinking – all strategies that remain very relevant in today’s PBL classrooms.

Now, PBL has evolved as a method of instruction that addresses core content

through rigorous, relevant, hands-on learning. Projects tend to be more open-

ended than problem-based learning, giving students more choice when it

comes to demonstrating what they know.2 

In PBL, students don’t just memorize facts and recall information. The basic

premise in PBL is that students learn more deeply and thoroughly by doing

rather than just studying. In other words, the goal is for students to learn by

experiencing, which, in turn, allows students to develop academically and

intellectually. PBL also provides students with an opportunity to demonstrate

what they know and are able to do through the projects, which they may not

always be able to do in traditional assessment tests.

However, in order for them to do so, careful planning is required to ensure that

tasks are authentic. For example, in one task, students may take on the role of

scientists, historians, screenwriters, or other such professionals in the course of

a project. Authentic products naturally reflect the learning goals and content

standards that you have identified during project planning. As a result, they

should never feel fake or forced.

One of the biggest advantages of PBL is that it makes school more relevant to

real life beyond the classroom. Students are not passive recipients of

2 Boss, S. (2011). Project-Based Learning: A Short History. www.edutopia.org/project-based-learning-history. Date Accessed: 4 December 2014.

knowledge and the teacher is not a transmitter of a static body of facts.

Through active experiences, students are better prepared for ongoing learning

in the world. Research also shows that students remember content for much

longer periods when experienced through PBL.

The major tenets of project-based learning are3:

to give students the chance to collaborate with instructors and peers.

to place students in decision-making roles, thereby reinforcing the skills

and techniques learned, as they are forced to employ them

independently.

to design assignments with more than one right answer leaving room for

creativity and critical thinking.

to take advantage of an authentic audience of readers outside the

classroom setting, bolstering students’ pride in their work.

to show students that school activities have value beyond the classroom.

Challenges students face throughout the process coincide with real-life

problems, motivating them to perform at a higher level.

to engage students in a project that is meaningful to them at the

moment.

that culmination in a final, finished product makes the learning

experience more meaningful.

New Challenges for Teachers

Of course, PBL is not without its challenges. It is demanding of both students

and of teachers. Projects require planning and management that may be

3 http://www.826national.org/about/186/project-based-learning. Date Accessed: 4 December 2014.

unfamiliar to teachers – particularly teachers who have never experienced PBL.

Moreover, PBL puts teachers in the role of facilitator rather than classroom

expert, which may seem intimidating to many teachers.4 However, it’s

important that teachers not allow themselves to be deterred from using PBL.

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Most teachers are familiar

with Bloom’s Taxonomy,

which focused on three

major domains of learning

(cognitive, affective and

psychomotor) that were

further divided into six

categories: Knowledge,

comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. However, it’s

important to remember that this original taxonomy was originally created in

1948.

4 Boss, S. (2011). Project-Based Learning: A Short History. www.edutopia.org/project-based-learning-history. Date Accessed: 4 December 2014.

Many researchers

and academics

understand the need

for a revised

taxonomy as

education needs

have changed and

technology

advancements have

altered the

classroom. Lorin Anderson5, former student of Bloom, and David

Krathwohl revisited the cognitive domain in the mid-nineties and made

some changes. Perhaps the most prominent change is that of the names

and the rearrangement of the six categories as indicated on the right.

This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking and is perhaps more

accurate than the original one that Bloom proposed. Further revisions of

Bloom’s Taxonomy show that the initial framework has been inverted. This

significant revision indicates the modern approach to education. That is, it

reflects the shift in focus from memorization to student-centered learning

where creation and learning through doing is heavily emphasized.

5 Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D.R., Airasian, P.W., Cruikshank, K.A., Mayer, R.E., Pintrich, P.R., Raths, J., Wittrock, M.C. (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives . New York: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon.

So how does all of this apply to writing? It’s quite simple: Through the

myriad of writing activities that can be done at every level of language

proficiency, PBL is the most logical choice in developing and enhancing

the language proficiency of EFL students. In writing, students need to do

minor memorization in that they need to know, and then understand

and apply, the taught knowledge of grammar and vocabulary. However,

the focus of most writing tasks is creating.

Ten Reasons to Use Project-Based Writing

1. It is an organic way to integrate all of the core subjects: Math, history, and

language.

2. It proves to students that imagination and creativity are connected to

research and expository writing.

3. It hits all the major elements of the higher level of Bloom's Taxonomy:

analysis, evaluation, and creation.

4. By allowing a student to choose their format of showing what they know,

the buy-in for the quality of the final project is tremendous.

5. Students develop projects individualized, unique, and specific from each

other.

6. It is a powerful way to incorporate all multiple intelligences: visual, audio,

kinesthetic, musical, linguistic, logical, etc.

7. It desegregates non-fiction and fiction, blending the two.

8. It integrates the CORE subjects with non-core subjects, potentially using

technology, art, music, etc.

9. It is a rigorous assessment requiring high-levels of thought and

communication.

10.It requires use of the entire writing process from brainstorm through

revision, editing, and final draft regardless of the genres picked and the

topic chosen.

The Writing Portfolio

What happens when the students receive their written work back? Do they

take some time to have a look at mistakes and slips? Do they make sure that

they understand the teacher’s comments? Not always. The writing portfolio is a

compilation of all the work they produce plus their own reflection and self-

assessment for further reference and future work.

Portfolios are a great way to implement PBL in writing because they allow for

continuous assessment rather than once-off high stakes assessments like a

formal exam. In addition, they provide students with a record of their own

progress, which can help them significantly in developing confidence in their

language skills as they have visual evidence of how they improve over a specific

period of time while also showing students just how much language they know.

The idea behind this meta-communicative task is to encourage the students to

monitor their own progress and their linguistic-strategic development over

time. Towards the end of the course, the file will contain edited exponents of

many different types of writing (narrations, descriptions, essays, etc.) and

varied formats (letters, diary pages, reports, etc.) with comments, memory aids

and notes that represent the student’s academic life. Going through their own

material from time to time will allow the students to evaluate their learning

process and eradicate errors.6

Peer Editing and Feedback6 Palmira Massi, M. (2001) “Interactive Writing in the EFL Class: A Repertoire of Tasks.” The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VII, No. 6, June 2001. http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Massi-WritingTasks.html Date Accessed: 2 December 2014.

Before you start panicking about having to grade and provide feedback on

student writing, consider making use of peer editing and peer feedback. Many

teachers make the mistake of thinking that all editing, feedback and

assessments can only be done by the teacher. Not only does this approach

create a lot of work for the teacher, which puts them off implementing writing

activities in lessons, but it also removes the opportunity for students to learn

from their peers.

How it Works

Assign a partner to each student and ask them to look for specific issues in the

essay. Encourage each student to look for any breakdown in meaning,

confusion in organization or topics that are not fully addressed in the writing

task. However, students should NEVER be asked to correct grammar errors.

What Peer Editing is NOT

Peer editing is not a total substitute for teacher feedback. It should be used to

support the teacher feedback – not replace it. Peer editing should focus on

organization and meaning rather than grammar and accuracy of language. It is

the teacher’s job to correct students’ language errors.

Why Peer Edit?

The more opportunities students have to share their writing, the more

motivated they become in writing. In addition, students can learn from the

writing styles, creativity, ideas and errors of other students than they can from

a teacher in a year. However, there are mixed responses to peer editing.

Some people love it because:

they learn a great deal about their writing.

they get good feedback.

they are able to improve their writing dramatically.

Some people hate it because:

the reviewer doesn’t offer constructive criticism and just makes

comments like “Great job!”

they want only the instructor’s opinion.

they don’t want other people to see their work before it’s “finished.”

However, peer editing is as beneficial for the student reviewing the work as it is

for the student whose work is being reviewed. After all, editing someone else’s

work is one of the best ways to learn how to edit your own work. Emphasize

this to students as it will encourage them to peer edit the writing of others. The

students who are less cooperative are, in fact, missing out far more than the

students whose work is not peer edited.

How to Do Peer Editing With Students

Create a list of specific items that students can correct in the writing of

their classmates. Start with rubric items and personal pet peeves.

Assign one role to each student. This helps students to adjust to

looking for a specific error, which can make the peer feedback more

beneficial. Make sure that each student understands their role in the

peer editing process.

Set a timer for 2-5 minutes depending on your class level, number of

students and time available. Then have students pass their papers to

the left, checking only for the specific assigned items. When the timer

goes off, students again pass to the left.

Repeat the process until all of the writing has been reviewed by each

student.

Exit Cards

Exit cards (a.k.a. exit slips or exit passes) “are a quick assessment tool for

teachers to use as part of their daily classroom routine. They can be used at

any grade level and for virtually every subject area.” 7

7 Regina Public Schools & Saskatchewan Public Learning. http://www.saskschools.ca/curr_content/bestpractice/exit/index.html on

http://www.kgcs.k12.va.us/kges/Vocabulary%20pdf/Exit%20Card%20strategy.pdf Date Accessed: 4 December 2014

Exit cards are written student responses

to questions you pose at the end of a

lesson, class period or learning activity.

They take no more than five minutes for

students to complete, but give you a

good indication of the students’

understanding of the material. To exit

the room, the students must respond to

the question on a pre-printed prompt

slip such as these examples.

“The type question posed by the teacher

depends on what kind of response they

are looking for from their students. The question could ask for a skill to be

demonstrated, a concept explained, an objective understood, or even a

perception check of students’ feelings.”8 You can also provide sentence stems

that require use and analysis of the target vocabulary. For example:

Two words that have the opposite meaning are __________ and

__________.

Two words that relate to today’s learning goal are __________ and

__________ because ________________.

I am still confused about __________ because __________.

8 ibid.

Exit SlipName: _____________________ Today I learned that... ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________I have questions about; or, I am confused about..._______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Writing Effective Emails

The objective of all emails is to communicate. The writer needs the recipient to

understand and should therefore make the message as easy as possible for the

recipient to understand. In order to do so, there are a few key points to

remember:

Always fill in the Subject line.

Keep the message short.

Do not write everything in CAPITAL LETTERS. In English, writing

everything in capital letters and/or with several exclamation marks is

like yelling.

Avoid using acronyms that are not commonly known.

It’s not necessary to write your name at the beginning of an email.

Sign your email with your name at the end.

Always spell-check your email.

The structure of an email is, of course, also dependent on the recipient and

purpose of the email. As a guideline, here is a basic guideline for both personal

and professional emails.

Writing to a Friend

Start: Use the person’s first nameEnding: “Best wishes,” “Yours” or “Take care”Signature: Your first name

Writing to Someone in Your Company

Writing to someone in another organization or someone in a formal position

of responsibility

Start: Use “Dear” followed by the person’s first name. It’s rare to have to use their full name.

Ending: “Regards”Signature: Your first name and last name, and below this your job title,

department and phone number (or extension)

Start: Use “Dear” followed by the person’s title (e.g. Mr, Mrs, Ms, Dr) and last name (e.g. Smith) or just “Sir/Madam” if you don’t know the person’s name.

Ending: “Sincerely” or “Yours Sincerely”Signature: Your first name and last name (you might add your title after

this in brackets if you want to make it clear if you are a man or woman. Below this, write your job title (if appropriate) and contact details (you may want to include your telephone number or address).

Common Acronyms in Emails

AFAIK as far as I knowASAP as soon as possibleBFN bye for nowBRB be right backBTW by the way

ETA estimated time of arrivalFYI for your informationHTH hope this helpsIMHO in my humble/honest opinionLOL laugh out loud

Exercise

Would you write a formal or an informal e-mail in each situation below? Check

one box for each situation.

You want to:

Formal Informal

a. thank a friend for a gift.

b. apply for a job.

c. ask a language school about a course.

d. ask a friend about his or her new job.

e. write to a company to complain about a product

f. e-mail a teacher about an assignment.

g. make plans for the weekend with a friend.

h. inquire about an online purchase you’ve ordered.

ExerciseA salutation is the way we address somebody in an e-mail (ex. Dear Mrs. Lee), while a closing is how we end an e-mail (ex. See you, John). Draw a line to the appropriate box for each of these salutations and closings.

Dear Sir/Madam

Dear SarahHi

Miss BlackMr. Kim

Hello DuncanDr. Mitchell

Sincerely yoursSee you

ByeSincerelyTake care

Regards / Kind Regards

Exercise

Look at some differences between formal and informal correspondence.

Formal Informal complete sentences no contractions regular punctuation no text messaging abbreviations or emoticons

incomplete sentences e.g. no verb subject (I, you)

No auxiliary verb (am, have) use of contractions (I’m, you’re) expressive punctuation text messaging abbreviations &

emoticons

Formal Informal

USEFUL PHRASES FOR EMAILSOpening the Email (Reason for Writing)

I am writing to apply for a position in your firm as…. (seeking employment)I am writing to complain about… (complain about services received)I am sorry I was not available to take your call yesterday.I am sorry for the delay in replying to your email.

Clarifying an Email or Message

I am writing to confirm arrangements.I would like to check some details with you.I am sorry to inform you that we have to cancel this order.Could you please send me information on your products and services?

Remind the Reader of the First Contact or Previous Meeting

It was good to meet you at the seminar in Paris.Do you remember we met at the Expo presentation?We spoke at the recent conference.In reply to your request I can confirm that…Thank you for sending me you catalogue…Thank you for your interest in our products/company.Thank you for your e-mail of the (date)…Further to our phone call (if you have spoken to the person on the phone)….Following our (telephone) conversation on (date)…

Attached Documents Please find attached/enclosed the report as requested.The report is attached.I’ve attached a copy of the documents….

Saying Sorry and Giving Bad News

I’m sorry I did not send this earlierI’m sorry I could not contact you earlier.Please accept our/my apologies for…We/I regret to inform you that…

Request for Action Could you please call me later today?Please confirm that the arrangements are OK.Could you let me know as soon as possible?

Could you call me?Please reply as soon as possible.

Useful Phrases to End an Email

Please do not hesitate to contact us if you have any queries.Please let me know if you have any queries.

Re-write the following e-mail in a more formal style.

Hi Joe,

How’s it going? Thanx 4 checking my paper.

C U soon, OK?

Love, Judy

Re-write the following e-mail in an informal style.

Dear Mr Choi,

I am writing to thank you for the delicious lunch of 5 June. I was honoured to receive an invitation to visit your home. The spaghetti was marvelous.

I hope you are well, and I look forward to seeing you in class next week.

Sincerely,Anna Vargas

Topic Sentences

Topic sentences consist of two parts: the topic (general) and the controlling

idea (specific focus within the general topic).

For example, Cell phones have advanced rapidly in the last decade.

A good topic sentence identifies and clarifies the focus of your paragraph for

your reader. It makes it easier for the reader to follow your ideas in your

writing. Having a good topic sentence is also much easier for you, the writer,

because it will help you to focus your writing clearly.

The topic sentence is best, and most easily, positioned as the first sentence of a

paragraph. Some experienced writers position their topic sentence in the

middle or even the end of a paragraph. However, for now, concentrate on

placing the topic sentence at the beginning of each paragraph. Try to make the ideas of a topic and controlling idea in a topic sentence as

relatable to the students as possible. For example, consider comparing the

main topic to a cake and the controlling idea to a slice of cake. Just as we eat

only a slice of cake at a time, we only discuss one aspect of a larger topic in a

paragraph at a time.

Elements of a Topic Sentence

There are two parts to a good topic sentence, namely:

The main subject

A controlling idea

The topic contains the main subject of the paragraph, while the controlling

idea guides the main topic in the direction that the writer wants to take. For

example,

There are several important tips for a successful job interview.

You may have noticed that the controlling idea is at the beginning of the

sentence in this example, and the topic is at the end of the sentence. However,

it is still clear that the writer will be talking about tips for a successful job

interview.

Let’s look at another example:

Cars have become more technologically advanced in the past 30

years.

It is clear that ‘cars’ is the main subject. The controlling idea is the

‘technological advancements in cars’ over a certain period of time. Thus, in this

paragraph, we know that the writer is going to explain how technology in cars

has changed over time.

Normally, the topic sentence comes first and the controlling idea comes second

in the topic sentence. However, the controlling idea may come first. In the first

two sentences below, the topic is first. In the next two examples, the

controlling idea is first. The topics have been indicated in bold font for you.

a. Living in a foreign country has four main benefits.

b. There are four main benefits to living in a foreign country.

c. English borrows words from other languages.

d. Many different jobs require English.

Exercise

Circle the main topic and underline the controlling idea for each of the

following sentences.

1. Good friends have four special qualities.

2. Small cars have several advantages.

3. University students have to take many papers to get a degree.

4. A soccer player must master several important skills.

5. Living alone has several important advantages.

6. Living with your parents has several disadvantages.

7. Talent and dedication are two characteristics of Olympic athletes.

8. Ease of use and reliability has made Apple computers popular.

9. One of the most expensive cities in the world is London.

10.Big cars are safer than small cars for two reasons.

The Five Features of a Good Topic Sentence

1. It should control or guide the whole paragraph: It should be

easy for your reader to know what the rest of your paragraph

will be about.

2. It should not be a well-known fact: If your topic sentence is a

well-known fact, it will make it difficult for you to write about

the topic using examples. If you chose a topic like Cars cause

pollution, there is not much to say about this topic.

3. It should be specific: Think of a camera zooming in to take a

photo. The photographer knows what he wants to include in his

photograph. Similarly, your topic sentence cannot be too

general. Computers are useful is not a good topic sentence

because the reader is not sure what to expect in the paragraph.

“Computers are useful for modern families for several reasons”

is much clearer.

4. Do not make it too specific: Although a topic sentence must be

specific, be careful not to make it too specific. For example,

“Computers have hard drives” is too specific because it limits

the topic too much.

5. There must be a controlling idea: The controlling idea is a

phrase that helps to direct the flow of ideas and focus in your

paragraph. e.g. An iPad is the best computer for those who

travel a lot.

Exercise

Use an ‘X’ to indicate the better topic sentence in each of the following pairs of

sentences. Be prepared to explain the reasons for your choices to the rest of

your class.

1. Cell phones should not be used in the classroom for several reasons.

_____

Cell phones are annoying. _____

2. There are five skills that a person must learn in order to play the guitar.

_____

An electric guitar needs a lead plugged into an amplifier. _____

3. Fossils are the remains of plants or living creatures that died a long time

ago. _____

There are several techniques that scientists use to discover the true age

of a fossil. _____

4. When going on dates, there are three important things to do in making

a good first impression. _____

Dating has become much easier these days because of the internet.

_____

5. The accused person must do three important things for a successful

trial. _____

The accused person has to appear in court as part of a successful trial

process. _____

Exercise

Add two different controlling ideas to the topics below in order to make

complete topic sentences. The first one has been done as an example.

International Students

International students make campus life more vibrant.

International students start clubs and associations.

Sports

Restaurants

Living alone

Exercise

Read each paragraph and choose the best topic sentence for each passage.

1. _______. Firstly, living in a foreign country helps you learn another

language more quickly than studying it at school. Secondly, you can

learn directly about the geography, culture and history of the country.

Thirdly, you become a more open-minded person because you

experience different ways of living. Fourthly, living in a foreign country

helps you appreciate your own country better.

A. Living in a foreign country helps you learn.

B. Everyone should live in a foreign country for at least a few years.

C. Living in a foreign country has four benefits.

2. _______. Some colleges and universities in the United States are private.

Private colleges and universities do not receive money from taxes,

therefore they are usually more expensive. Other colleges and

universities are public; that is, the people of each state pay some of the

costs through their taxes. As a result, public colleges are less expensive

to attend. It doesn’t matter which type of college you attend, public or

private, you can get a good quality education.

A. There are presently two main types of colleges and universities in

the United States.

B. Public colleges and universities get a lot of money from taxes.

C. There are many colleges and universities in the United States.

3. _________. One reason why students choose a small college is because

the classes are small. The average class in a small college has twenty

students. Another reason is that it is not difficult to see your professor

when you need to. Professors in small colleges often have more time to

help students and are usually happy to do so. Furthermore, small

colleges tend to be friendlier, so new students make friends easily. For

these three reasons, small colleges are better than large universities.

A. Small colleges are friendlier than large universities.

B. There are several reasons why should consider attending a small

college instead of a large university.

C. It is possible to get an excellent education at a small college.

4. __________. First of all, employers want workers who are dependable.

For example, they want workers who come to work every day. Secondly,

employers want workers who are responsible. Can the boss give the

worker a task or project to do and know that it will be done properly?

Thirdly, employers look for workers who can work well with others. The

ability to get along with co-workers is very important to the success of a

business. To sum up, employers look for dependable and responsible

team players.

A. It is difficult to find responsible employees these days.

B. Employers tend to read job applications very carefully.

C. Employers look for three important qualities in their employees.

Exercise

Write a suitable topic sentence for each of the following paragraphs.

1. ___________________________________________________________

_________________________________________. Green curry is

definitely the hottest Thai curry. If you like spicy food you will almost

certainly like green curry. Red curry on the other hand is medium hot. It

is flavorful, but it doesn’t burn your mouth. Yellow curry is the mildest of

all. It is often the best choice for people who eat Thai food for the first

time. In short, when you order a Thai curry, three delicious choices await

you.

2. ___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________. The first type of

shopper doesn’t like to waste her time. She knows exactly what she

wants to buy and how much she wants to pay. If the store has what she

wants, she simply buys it and leaves. She is a great type of customer

because she doesn’t take up too much of a salesperson’s time. A second

type of shopper comes into a shop with a general idea of what she

wants, listens to the salesperson’s suggestions, tries on a few items, then

makes a decision. She is also a great type of customer. The third type of

customer has no idea what she wants. She spends hours trying on one

top or another. She takes up a lot of a salesperson’s time and sometimes

doesn’t buy anything. In conclusion, the first two types of shoppers are a

salesperson’s dream; however, the third type is a salesperson’s worst

nightmare.

Topic and Supporting Sentences in Paragraphs

Think of a paragraph as a hamburger. Just as a tasty hamburger has two pieces

of bread and a delicious filling, so must a good paragraph be made up of

different parts. Every part of your paragraph has a specific function; every part

is important. Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence followed by

supporting sentences and, finally, a concluding sentence.

Topic Sentence containing a topic and a controlling ideaSupporting DetailsSupporting DetailsSupporting DetailsConcluding sentence that links with the topic sentence

Just as every hamburger needs a filling, every essay needs content and details.

These are your supporting sentences. The supporting sentences make your

essay more substantial and convincing. For example, in a narrative essay, the

supporting sentences will help to paint a picture for the reader; in an

argumentative essay, the supporting sentences provide evidence to support

your argument just as a lawyer would do in a trial. Evidence can be from your

own experience or preferably facts, quotes and statistics as in the example

below.

Be careful to distinguish between facts and opinion in an academic essay. A fact

is something that can be proven by independent research. An opinion is just

your own view. Consider the example below:

Example: Knowing How to Live Alone

In the United States, circumstances often force people to live

alone. For example, many high school and college graduates move

away from their hometowns to continue their education or take

jobs. Most schools assign roommates, but employers usually

expect people to take care of their own arrangements. Also,

married people might feel they will always be together, but

currently one out of two marriages ends in divorce. An even sadder

statistic concerns the death of a spouse. Estimates are that in the

next twenty years, two out of eight married woman will become

widows, usually late in life. These facts show that most people

have to live by themselves at least once in their lives whether

they want to or not.

1. How many examples or what supporting details does the writer use to

support their topic sentence?

2. Are there enough supporting details for the paragraph to be convincing in

your opinion?

Exercise

With a partner, or in a small group, read each topic sentence. Next, fill in the

blanks with your supporting sentences. Add as many supporting sentences as

you can.

1. To keep your figure and to stay in shape, do the following things.

A.

B.

C.

D.

2. A good friend has four important qualities.

A.

B.

C.

D.

Paragraph Unity

Make sure all of your supporting sentences are relevant. Unnecessary

information, or information that does not relate to your topic sentence, simply

distracts your reader. Also, be careful of moving too quickly from one idea to

the next – show your reader, clearly, how all of your sentences link to and

reinforce your topic sentence. Get into the habit of using an editing checklist

(such as the one provided in Appendix D) to go over your own work thoroughly,

and then get a partner to check it.

Exercise

Read the following paragraphs.

1. Find the topic sentence in each paragraph. Circle the topic and

underline the controlling idea.

2. There are two sentences in each paragraph that break the unity and

flow of the paragraph. Find these unnecessary sentences and cross

them out. Be prepared to explain why you think they are unnecessary.

Paragraph One

Nurses

A nurse should have at least five personal qualities. First, he or she must be a caring person. He or she should be genuinely concerned about helping injured, sick or scared people. Second, a nurse must be well-organized. If a nurse forgets to administer medicine on time, the consequences could be very serious indeed. Third, a nurse must be calm. He or she may have to make an important life or death decision in an emergency, and a calm person generally makes better decisions in a crisis than an excitable person. Doctors need to stay calm in emergency situations too. In addition, a nurse needs to be physically strong because nursing involves hard physical work. Finally, a nurse must be intelligent because she needs to learn subjects ranging from chemistry to psychology and be able to operate the complex machinery of today’s hospitals. There is currently a shortage of nurses around the world; therefore they are able to earn good salaries. In brief, nursing is a profession for those who are caring, organized, calm, strong and smart.

Paragraph Two

California

California is a state with every type of geography. It has mountains that enable you to enjoy winter sports such as skiing, snowboarding and snowshoeing. It also has deserts where temperatures can reach 11OF (43C) in summer. It has beaches where you can surf, swim and fish. It has forests with some of the tallest trees in the world. Finally, it has farmland where a lot of the nation’s fruits and vegetables grow. California is also famous for Hollywood and Disneyland, which are world-famous places for entertainment. California is very popular as a place to live, so many people move there every year. In summary, California has everything: mountains, deserts, beaches and farms.

Moving Forward to Paragraphs

At this point of the lessons, students should be ready to move onto writing

their own paragraphs. This is when you need to introduce and reinforce that

writing is a process and one that will require a lot of revision, self-editing, and

peer review.

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, compare the structure of a paragraph to

that of a hamburger. No one wants to eat a hamburger made of ingredients

that do not complement each other because it’s unappetizing and confusing.

Similarly, no one wants to read a paragraph that contains ideas that are not

clearly linked or even related to each other because it is confusing and difficult

to read. To guide students in this format, consider giving them the “Hamburger

Writing” template on the next page.

Writing an Introduction

There are many ways to write an introduction. Some writers begin with a

question; others give background information about the topic. The type of

introduction that you choose depends on the type of essay that you are writing

and how you want to present the specific topic. However, what all

introductions have in common is a thesis statement.

Thesis Statements

The thesis statement is the sentence that:

1. tells your reader the subject of your paper;

2. states the controlling idea of your paper, i.e. it makes an assertion about

the subject; and

3. predicts the logical order of discussion you will follow in your paper

In other words, the thesis statement is the anchor of your essay: With a good

thesis statement your reader does not have to wait until the end of your essay

to learn what claim you are making, what your position is or how you are going

to prove your viewpoint.

1. An effective thesis should be a declarative sentence and never an open-

ended question. If you just ask a question, the reader will have no idea

what you are trying to illustrate. For example:

Not a thesis statement: What are the disadvantages of living in a

big city?

2. A good thesis statement should be restricted and focused. It should not

be too general or too comprehensive. If it is too comprehensive, you

may not be able to prove it all in one essay. For example:

Too general: Computers have advantages and disadvantages.

3. This thesis is too general. How are you going to discuss all of the

advantages and disadvantages of computers in one essay? There are

technical and economic issues, social effects, time and financial

considerations, etc.

4. A thesis statement should not make an announcement. It should make a

claim. For example:

Announcement: In this essay I will discuss the advantages and

disadvantages of living on your own.

Revised thesis statement: When considered generally, living on

your own is much better than living with your family.

5. A thesis statement should not make a claim that cannot be proved by

logical analysis. For example:

Moral judgment of the writer: Only evil and wicked young people

choose to live on their own.

Such a statement expresses the moral judgment of the writer and

cannot be proved in any factual or logical way.

Why is the Introduction Important?

Your introduction is the part that invites your reader to read your essay:

it tells your reader what your essay is about;

it sets the tone for your essay. In other words, it tells the reader whether

your essay will be light, humorous, serious, controversial and so on;

it shows your reader how your essay will develop. That is to say, there

must not be big surprises in the development of your essay;

it helps the reader to make a transition from the condition (s)he is in to

the content of your essay; and

it is where the reader decides whether to read your essay or not. In

other words, the reader may put down your essay if (s)he feels that it is

going to be boring.

Some Tips for Writing Good Introductions

Think about the topic: Think about the topic; your answer to the topic

will be your thesis, and how you prove it will be your development.

Pay attention to your first sentence. This is the sentence your reader

reads first. You should make a good impression and be careful not to

make mistakes. If you start your essay with a sentence full of grammar,

spelling or vocabulary mistakes, you cannot expect to make a good first

impression.

Avoid making announcements: Do not start with opening sentences

such as, "In this essay I will discuss ...."

Avoid making "Dawn of man" introductions: Whatever topic you are

assigned, you should not start with sentences such as, "Since the

beginning of humanity" or "Since the Industrial Revolution." It indicates

that you do not really have much to say about the topic.

Avoid using clichés: Clichés are overused statements such as, “in the

good old days” and “the tip of the iceberg.”

How to Write a Good Introduction

There are a number of

strategies for starting

your essays. The most

common and easiest

of these to implement

is the “Funnel

Method,” which we

will focus on.

The first sentence is

broad and general. It introduces your topic. Each following sentence is

narrower and more focused. Eventually, it narrows down to your thesis

statement and becomes more specific. Your funnel should not be too large

because otherwise you never will be able to narrow down your topic. For

example, if you are writing about young people living on their own and you

start from the beginning of human history, it will take too long to narrow down

your topic sufficiently. Therefore, your funnel must be appropriately narrow at

the beginning.

Consider the following introductory paragraph. The thesis statement has

clearly been indicated in bold font.

Animals have been used in medical research for a long time. In recent years animal rights organizations have started a controversy whether it is ethical or not to use animals for the benefits of medical progress. They believe that animals are equal to humans and that they have equal rights with human beings. In my opinion, animals as things, have some rights, but humans with their more developed brains are superior to them. Therefore, if there is no other alternative, animals may be used in medical research.

Basic Structure of an Introduction

The structure of an introduction can broadly be broken down into three parts:

1. A general statement that indicates the topic to be discussed;

2. A specific (thesis) statement of the focus of the essay; and

3. An overview of what will be discussed in the essay.

Try to avoid using questions that only have yes or no answers. If you use a

question, it needs to be a question that makes the reader think about what

you are going to say next. Yes/No answers do not make the reader think.

Exercise

Imagine you are writing an essay listing the advantages and disadvantages of

something. Write a thesis statement for two of the following topics:

Living in school dormitories

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Pets

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Watching TV

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Cell Phones in School

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Writing a Conclusion

If you have written an effective introduction, and logically developed your

essay, the flow of ideas naturally leads to your conclusion. A good conclusion

should round up your arguments and reach a final concluding point. A

conclusion should never leave your reader wondering about the point of your

essay. Like the introduction, a conclusion consists of three basic parts:

1. A re-statement of your thesis statement;

2. A summary of the main points made in your argument; and

3. A final concluding point.

It’s important to remember that the conclusion is the final thing your reader

reads; it is the last opportunity to convince your reader of your particular

argument. Therefore, it is important that the conclusion be strong and

definitive. To do this, it is essential that you do not ask questions that lead to

unanswered questions in your essay or provide new information that cannot be

found in your argument.

1. Re-state the Thesis

Conclusions should re-state the thesis of the essay. This is done using different

words to avoid monotony. In the essay below, the author re-states the thesis

idea in the conclusion paragraph.

Introduction

For a long time there has been a controversy between animal rights supporters and scientists about whether it is right to use animals in experimental research. Also, it is very debatable whether using animals for such research results in finding a cure for diseases. From my point of view, if there are no other alternatives, and if it is possible that this will contribute to science, animals may be used for experimental research.

Conclusion

All in all, it can be said that using animals for medical research is ethical as long as it contributes to scientific development and helps scientists find ways to improve human health. However, this practice is only acceptable on the condition that necessary pains are taken and animals are treated humanely.

2. Review the Major Ideas

This is the simplest way to finish an essay. Read through your essay and

summarize the main ideas in the conclusion. For example:

Music is a great way to relax and be happy in daily life. It is also very useful for musicians and composers to express their feelings. This is one of the things that make s music universal; it has nothing to do with age, race or religion. Anyone who wants to listen to music listens to music and anyone who wants to do music does music. As you can see, music makes our lives better. It increases the things we share both with ourselves and others. It helps our loneliness to get smaller and smaller because sharing is the only way to get rid of our loneliness. That is why music is so important in our lives.

Never raise new ideas or start new discussions in the conclusion.

Do not end your essay with a weak conclusion. A good essay deserves a good conclusion.

Make sure that your conclusion is consistent with the arguments in your essay. Sometimes you may get carried away and end up concluding the opposite of your thesis - especially if you do not plan well. Do not let such inconsistency happen.

Closing Your Essay

Exercise 1

Read the following paragraphs and decide which of the concluding sentences is

the most effective in each example.

1. There are two reasons why I dislike big cities. Firstly, big cities are full of

noise twenty-four hours a day. You can hear horns honking, traffic

whizzing by, music blaring and people talking and even shouting late at

night. It is never quiet in a big city. Secondly, I can’t stand big cities

because of their anonymity. No one knows each other or cares about

you. You could die in your apartment and nobody would know.

Neighbors who have lived next door to each other for many years don’t

even know each others’ names. You can feel very lonely living in a big

city.

A To sum up, large cities are noisy, lonely places to live.

B In conclusion, I would rather live in a small town, close to

nature, where it is quiet and people are friendly.

C Also, big cities are filled with criminals.

2. There are two reasons why I adore big cities. Firstly, big cities are full of

life twenty-four hours a day. You can go to the movies, go shopping and

get something to eat or go to karaoke any time of the day or night.

Secondly, I adore big cities because of their anonymity. You can be

totally invisible in big cities. Nobody watches your daily comings and

goings. Neighbours don’t annoy you as long as you don’t annoy them.

You can stay out all night long or stay home all day, and no one cares at

all.

A In brief, I adore big cities because you can be

independent.

B In short, big cities attract me because there are many

things to do.

C To sum up, I love big cities because of their energy, vitality

and anonymity.

Writing the Body of an Essay

There are several different types of essays: Descriptive, narrative, personal,

argumentative, cause and effect, comparison, expository, explorative, etc. Of

these, the argumentative essay is the most common in academic writing.

In an argumentative essay, the writer’s purpose is to persuade the audience to

agree with their opinion about a controversial topic. In an argumentative essay,

sometimes referred to as a persuasive essay, the writer states their opinion,

gives reasons to support it and tries to convince the audience that they are

right.

Arguing Pro or Con

Choosing a topic that is appropriate for an argumentative essay is especially

important because some things cannot be argued. For example, you cannot

argue that a rose is more beautiful than a daisy – this is an opinion that cannot

be supported by facts. However, you can argue that roses are more popular

than daisies and support the argument with facts about florists’ sales of the

two kinds of flowers.

Here are a few effective topics and thesis statements for an argumentative

essay:

Marriage before the age of eighteen: People under the age of eighteen

should not be allowed to marry.

Standardized testing: Standardized testing should not be required as part

of the application process for a university.

Fast food restaurants: Communities should decide if fast food restaurants

are right for their neighborhood.

You can argue either for or against all of these statements. If your topic does

not have two viewpoints, your essay will not be effective.

Convincing Your Reader

Your job as the writer of an argumentative essay is to convince your readers

that your opinion about a topic (your thesis statement) is the most valid

viewpoint. To do this, your essay needs to be balanced – it must include an

opposing viewpoint or counterargument. Although you are arguing one side of

an issue (either for or against) you must think about what someone on the

other side of the issue would argue.

Format of an Argumentative Essay

There are two formats to an argumentative essay: Pro/Con and Block format.

The Pro/Con format

deals with the pros and

cons of one point in

each paragraph of the

body. This means that if

the body of your essay

consists of three

paragraphs, each

paragraph will have a

main idea (that

reinforces the thesis statement), which will discuss the pro statement (in favor

of the writer’s thesis statement) followed by the counterargument.

In the block format, the writer first argues for his/her thesis statement and

combines all of the evidence and examples that support his/her argument into

one paragraph (compared to three paragraphs in the Pro/Con format). The next

paragraph contains the counterarguments to all of the arguments presented in

the previous paragraph.

Examples of an Argumentative Essay on Pets

Example 1

Owning a Pet (Pro/Con Format)Sarah Coutts

Today, many people own pets. Some people find it unnecessary and expensive to own a pet. However, there are three main advantages to owning a pet: They help children to learn responsibility, they are good companions and are good for our overall well-being.

First, pets are an excellent way to teach children responsibility. Interacting with a pet is also good for a child’s social skills and creative development. The responsibility of caring for a pet on a daily basis is a task that teaches children the value of consistency and caring for others which are two valuable life skills. While many would argue that caring for a pet almost always ends up being the parents’ responsibility, there is equal argument that it is up to the parents to reinforce the value of looking after pets to their children. After all, pets are also friends to children; so, encouraging a child to look after a pet teaches the same value of looking after one’s friends.

Second, pets are good companions as they do not discriminate against people. Animals are naturally affectionate towards people regardless of a person’s age, race or beliefs. This fact also makes pets loyal companions – particularly for children and the elderly. Many people argue that although pets are loyal companions, they are a poor substitute for human relationships. While there is some merit to this argument, some people prefer to be surrounded by pets rather than people. Thus, satisfying companionship from a pet is far better than unfulfilling or no relationships with people.

Finally, our overall well-being can be significantly improved by owning a pet. Since pets are good companions, interacting with them can help to relieve stress, help us to relax and keep us active. Engaging with pets has many of the same benefits as engaging with friends. An argument can be made that pets sometimes aggravate allergies such as asthma, but there are just as many people who report significant improvement in their allergies after constantly being exposed to a pet. Furthermore, there are numerous examples of pets being the first to help in the diagnosis of serious medical conditions.

To sum up, although some people feel that pets are unnecessary, owning a pet has three distinct advantages. Having pets can teach children responsibility and other valuable life skills. In addition, pets can be good companions and good for our overall well-being. Therefore, the advantages of owning a pet outweigh the disadvantages.

Example 2

Owning a Pet (Block Format)Sarah Coutts

Today, many people own pets. Some people find it unnecessary and expensive to own a pet. However, there are three main advantages to owning a pet: They help children to learn responsibility, they are good companions and are good for our overall well-being.

First, pets are an excellent way to teach children responsibility. Interacting with a pet is also good for a child’s social skills and creative development. The responsibility of caring for a pet on a daily basis is a task that teaches children the value of consistency and caring for others which are two valuable life skills.

Second, pets are good companions as they do not discriminate against people. Animals are naturally affectionate towards people regardless of a person’s age, race or beliefs. This fact also makes pets loyal companions – particularly for children and the elderly. Furthermore, our overall well-being can be significantly improved by owning a pet. Since pets are good companions, interacting with them can help to relieve stress, help us to relax and keep us active. Engaging with pets has many of the same benefits of engaging with friends.

Many people argue that owning a pet is an unnecessary expense and that the benefits of having a pet can also be achieved in other ways. For example, children can learn responsibility and social skills from interacting with other children and through various activities. Similarly, adults can seek companionship from other people, thereby making pets unnecessary. While these arguments may hold some merit on the surface, the daily routine of caring for a pet is a responsibility that is not easily matched by other activities. Caring for a pet allows a child to learn responsibility, and social skills, in an active and healthy manner while forming the first of many friendships. In

addition, some people prefer the company of animals as pets are loyal companions. Furthermore, there are many health benefits associated with owning a pet. There are many examples of pets being the first to ‘diagnose’ serious medical conditions, and studies show that owning a pet can actually improve one’s overall resistance to certain allergies.

To sum up, although some people feel that pets are unnecessary, owning a pet has three distinct advantages. Having pets can teach children responsibility and other valuable life skills. In addition, pets can be good companions and good for our overall well-being. Therefore, the advantages of owning a pet outweigh the disadvantages.

Examples of Student Argumentative Essays

Example 1

Overemphasis On Physical AttractivenessChoi Ga In

Everybody wants to be pretty and handsome. These days, more and more people are making efforts to be physically attractive. Clearly, outward appearance can be a way to express one’s personality and give a good impression. However, society places too much emphasis on physical attractiveness and beauty. As a result, this has caused mainly two harmful effects that prove external beauty is over-emphasized.

The notion of physical attractiveness and beauty is fixed by typical viewpoints in society. It does not include internal beauty or individual attractiveness and personality. For instance, in Korean society, the definition of ‘beauty’ has been fixed by certain viewpoints such as big eyes and pale skin. In addition, public media plays an important role by showing typical styles of celebrities and defining ‘beauty’ with very specific features. As we place too much importance on this fixed attractiveness, mainly two kinds of problems are emerging: Psychological and social problems.

First, people face the feeling of lack of confidence and relative deprivation as

they compare themselves with others. Some of them suffer from serious mental diseases like depression or Body Dismorphic Disorder (BDD), which leads to hatred toward themselves due to their appearance with no notable defects in their external features. In fact, according to research done by the Belgium National Research Institute, 43 percent of patients who underwent plastic surgery have this disorder. Some insist they can have more confidence after improving their physical attractiveness. However, although they may feel more confident at first, they again start to compare themselves with another person immediately. Consequently, they end up with an endless desire to be prettier, and an obsession with physical attractiveness.

Second, it also makes fair competition impossible in society. These days, many companies consider candidates’ appearances as one of the important evaluation criteria. Sometimes, people who are more competent are rejected just because of their outward appearance. This blocks fair competition for our ability and causes social discrimination. An argument can be made that it is essential for a few companies to evaluate applicants’ external features. While this argument is right in case of some limited occupations such as actors and models, it can still not be justified to discriminate people by their physical attractiveness in other fields that require competency rather than external beauty. Unfortunately, under these circumstances, many people choose extreme methods like excessive dieting and plastic surgery or even suicide.

To sum up, physical attractiveness is being over emphasized in society. It is fixed by certain viewpoints resulting from public media. Since we value outward appearance above many other things, many other people face a lack of confidence and unfair competition. As a result, they are resorting to extreme methods that can even result in death. Therefore, obsession with physical attractiveness and external beauty should be regarded as serious.

Example 2

UntitledKim Sung Jin

Many students work to reach their dreams. Studying is important and valuable for students to invest in their future. Although studying a lot can be good for students, many Korean students are known for being tired from too many hours of studying. Some people think they are studying for an appropriate amount of time and after classes and self-study are elective, which means that they are dependent on students’ desire. However, there are two reasons that show many Korean students are overworking themselves.

First, most Korean schools have more classes than most other countries. Research done by the Ministry of Education compared timetables of schools in each country. Mostly, Korean schools have 15 classes a day; among these classes, six of them are regular classes, two of them are extra classes and the rest are all self-study. Moreover, schools make students do self-study on weekends too. However, countries such as the U.S., China and Japan have, at most, seven classes per day. Some of them don’t open on weekends either.

Second, private education is prevailing in Korea. Tutoring at home or other places and an academy outside of school are all private education. In other words, private education and extra lessons students get after school to improve their grades and to be outstanding students in school. Mostly, private education focuses on school entrance exams. A number of people turn to private education because they believe receiving only public education is not enough and because of the competitive atmosphere in schools. Since they receive two kinds of education equally, the work they need to finish increases significantly.

Some people think that Korean students study for an appropriate amount of time so they still have time to rest, play and sleep. However, a survey done by Korea Juvenile Policy Researchers asked students from Korea, the U.S. and Finland to indicate their amount of sleeping time per day and their satisfaction with their life. According to the results, Korean students sleep seven and a half hours per day on average, which is one hour less than those from the U.S. and Finland. Additionally, Korean students’ average extent of satisfaction is only 45% while the other countries’ are almost 80%. This remarkably low result of Korean students can imply that they don’t have enough time to rest, play and sleep. In addition, some people argue that most of the extra classes and self-

studying are elective. However, in reality, unless students have a very urgent or unique reason such as a funeral or don’t want to for a bad impression at school, these are compulsory.

In conclusion, some people argue that Korean students are studying for an appropriate amount of time and after-classes and self-studying time are mostly selective. However, many Korean students are overworking themselves for two reasons: most Korean schools have more classes than those in other countries, and private education is prevailing in Korea. Therefore, for a better environment and health for students, this issue should be regarded as serious.

Things to Avoid in Argumentative Essays

There are six common errors to avoid when writing an argumentative essay.

We will look at three of them:

1. Sweeping generalizations;

2. Events related only by sequence;

3. Inappropriate authority figures;

4. Hasty generalizations;

5. Loaded words; and

6. Either/or arguments

Sweeping Generalizations

Words such as all, always and never are too broad and cannot be supported.

Example All Americans eat fast food.

Problem Maybe every American you know eats fast food, but the

statement that all Americans eat it cannot be proven.

Inappropriate Authority Figures

Using famous names may often help you prove or disprove your point.

However, be sure to use the name logically and in the proper context.

Example Madonna is a good singer. As a result, she would make a

good orchestra conductor.

Problem While Madonna may be a good singer, this quality will not

necessarily make her a good orchestra conductor.

Hasty Generalizations

Hasty generalizations are quick judgments based on inadequate information.

Example Joe did not want to study at a university. Instead, he

decided to go to a technical school. He is now making an

excellent salary repairing computers. Bill does not want to

study at a university. Therefore, he should go to a

technical school to become financially successful.

Problem While Joe and Bill have something in common (they do

not want to study at a university), this fact alone does not

mean that Bill would be successful doing the same thing

that Joe has done. Other information may be important

as well, such as the fact that Joe has lots of experience

with computers or that Bill has problems with manual

dexterity.

Picture Prompts

There are several ways in which pictures can be used to prompt both creative

and more serious writing in the language classroom. For example:

1. Print out about 30 pieces of clip art or gather a number of images

together. The number will vary depending on the number of students.

2. The students select three images each.

3. The students write a story that connects the images together.

4. You can modify this recipe by adding rules – the story must be about

you or the story must be circular (the last picture must be connected

back to the first picture), etc.

5. To mix things up you can set a time limit of perhaps 10 minutes. After 10

minutes, the students trade pictures to the left and write a new story

with a new set of pictures.

You can also tell students to bring in a photograph or pictures of their own

from which to write a short descriptive paragraph or story. Alternatively, place

pictures around the classroom and tell students to choose their favorite picture

on which to base their writing. Here are some possibilities:

Haikus

A haiku is a Japanese poem of 17 syllables that are divided into three lines of

five, seven, and five. Traditionally, they evoke images of the natural world, but

anything can be used as the topic of a haiku. They’re more challenging to write

than they may seem (because of the syllable count), but they can produce

some interesting work from students.

The 5-7-5 rule is no longer strictly as strictly followed in haiku writing as it

previously was although this is still commonly the rule taught in English lesson.

Here are some examples of student haikus9:

The last winter leaves

Clinging to the black branches

Explode into birds.

(Taken from:www.poemhunter.com)

Summaries

9 Mrs Warner’s 4th Grade Classroom. “Learning About Poetry.” http://mrswarnerarlington.weebly.com/poetry.html Date Accessed: 4 November 2014.

Every time we report a conversation to other people, make notes on anything,

or describe a movie or a story to someone, we are making a summary.

Summaries can be done in point form or in paragraphs. Both formats,

however, require the use of full sentences.

The aim of a summary is to present the essential information without

explaining or adding to it. Only information that is contained in the original

text may be used in a summary – do not add your own information. A good

summary presents all of the information in such a way that the reader can

understand it without having to refer to the original text.

Tips for summarizing:

1. Write down the main ideas in point form; you may use incomplete

sentences.

2. Try to summarize each paragraph in no more than five (5) words.

3. Write a short paragraph summary using only your keywords; you should not

need to refer to the original text in order to do your paragraph summary.

4. You should never copy entire sentences from the original text – use your

own words.

Think of brief headlines to summarize the following:

Mr George Norris (41) and Mr David Harris (39), both from Somerset

West, were injured when their truck collided with a stationary bus on

Sir Lowry’s Pass last night.

Fire-fighters from California were still desperately struggling to control

the fire in the Cascade Mountains today. The blaze, which has

destroyed hundreds of hectares of plants and wildlife, was first

noticed yesterday morning.

Thick fog caused major traffic jams during rush hour on all roads

leading into the city this morning. Several minor accidents were

reported. Suburban trains were running up to half an hour late.

Extract only the essential information from the following sentences:

The reason we cannot walk in a straight line without our eyes to guide us

is that our bodies are not equally balanced on both sides. For instance,

the major organs are on different sides and our spines are not

perfectly straight.

The prince of all writers of children’s stories, Hans Christian Andersen,

was born in a one-roomed house in the Danish city of Odense in 1805.

Primitive people could not write, so when they wanted to remember

something or leave a message for someone else, they learned to draw

pictures on the rock walls of their caves, or on small slabs of wet clay.

Summarizing Longer Passages

Read the following extract carefully.

Write down the essential information in point form, then use these

notes to summarize the passage in your own words.

Your summary should be approximately one-third the length of the

original text.

Provide a suitable title for the extract.

Most of us are superstitious in one way or another. If we want something good to continue, we touch wood and we usually say, “Bless you!” if someone sneezes. Some people do the most extraordinary things to avoid bad luck or to bring good fortune.

They turn over the money in their pockets when they see a new moon, refuse to allow whistling in the house and if they spill salt on the table, they throw a pinch of it over their shoulders. Why do people do such strange things? Can touching wood or turning over the money in our pockets really bring good luck? We may laugh at such superstitions, but most of them are so ancient that their origins have been forgotten. Even today, hostesses go to great lengths to avoid having thirteen people at a dinner table.

Why has thirteen become such a feared and disliked number? In Christian countries, the origin of this belief is connected with the Last Supper that Jesus ate with His twelve disciples. This

took place on the evening before His trial and execution and it was one of the thirteen at the table who betrayed Him. However, the unlucky number has a history that goes back even further in time than the beginnings of the Christian religion.

In the old Norse tales, for example, we find the story that tells how Baldur was killed after the god Loki had attended a banquet in Valhalla as an uninvited guest. The number of invited guests was twelve and Loki’s unexpected presence meant that the number of guests at the table was thirteen.

Alternative Assessment Ideas for Individuals and Groups

TESTS

Essays Matching Multiple ChoiceShort Answer True/False

PROCESS SKILLSAnecdotal Records Interactional Analyses Observations

ChecklistObservations for Processes

Interviews Oral Questioning

Concept Mapping Invented Dialogues Process-folios

Conferences Journal Entries Regarding Processes

Question Production

Debriefing Interviews Learning Logs Responses to Reading

Experiences Checklists

Metaphor Analyses Retelling in Own words

PRODUCTS/PROJECTSAds Games PhotographsAdvice Graphs, Charts,

DiagramsPicture Dictionaries

Columns Graphic Organizers PortfoliosArtifacts Handbooks PostersAutobiographies How-to Books Product DescriptionsBanners In-class Group Essays ProjectsBlueprints Job Applications ProposalsBook Reviews Job Descriptions Protest LettersBooks Journals QuestionnairesBrochures Lab Reports Research CentersBulletin Boards Learning Centers Research PapersCartoons Learning Logs Results of SurveysCase Studies Letters to Parents,

editor, TV Station, Business

Resumes

Collages Maps Reviews of TV Programs

Computer Creations Mobiles ScrapbooksCostumes of Characters

Models Short Stories

Crossword Puzzles Movie Reviews Simulation GamesDatabases Newspapers for

Historical PeriodsSlide Presentations

Diaries of Historical Periods

Pamphlets Soap Opera Parodies

Directories Parenting Job Descriptions

Story Illustrations

Displays Patterns Travel FoldersDrawings Peer Editing Critiques Want Ads

Foods of a Country or Time Period

Pen-pal Letters Writing Portfolios

PERFORMANCESActivities Exercise Routines ReportsAnnouncements Experiments Role PlaysAnthems Explanations Sales PitchesApologies Fashion Shows Simulations

Ballads Field Trips Singing of Songs from Historical Periods

Beauty Tips Interactive Book Reviews SkitsCampaign Speeches Interviews SociogramsCharacter Sketches Introductions Song Writing to Fit a

TopicCharades Jingles SpeechesClassroom Maps Job Interviews SpoofsCommercials Laboratory Experiences StorytellingConferences News Reports SurveysCooperative Learning Activities

Oral Histories of Events Tongue Twisters

Dances Pantomimes TV Talk ShowsDebates Person-on-the-street

InterviewsVerbal Comparisons

Demonstrations Plays WarningsDiscussions Presentations Weather ReportsDramas Puppet Shows

Strategies to Inspire Students to Write Well Despite an Uninspiring

Curriculum10

1. Emphasize Writing is an Act of Communication Foremost

People write for a particular purpose in mind, for the most part, and to

communicate a specific point — not to show they know how to write a

compare-contrast paper. Discuss types of writing we might do to communicate

a specific message: the kind of writing I’d use to a business to inform the

management of how unhappy I am with the service I received, for ex- ample, is

very different than the type of writing done to get out of at parking ticket, or

express my love to my significant other. Teachers should discuss the power of

writing: writing has inspired love, righted social ills, and moved people

10 n.d. The Art of Teaching Writing. www.busyteacher.org. Date Accessed: 9 October 2014

revolution. While we won’t necessarily adopt these as our goals, a discussion

on the power of writing demonstrates that it is much more than an empty

exercise to show bureaucrats I should graduate.

2. Give Out Inspiring Topics

People write for a particular purpose in the “real world”: see above. They write

to express outrage at the carnage that gun ownership causes, to show how the

education system in the U.S. differs from their first country and the problems

that might cause, to right a social ill such as the treatment of undocumented

im- migrants. In writing toward a topic and with a purpose, students generally

must develop some mastery of several rhetorical modes, such as

exemplification and persuasion, and the language that goes with them, if they

want their message to be communicated.

3. Develop a Sense of Audience

Few things cause more a sense of futility than talking to oneself — there’s a

reason that most people in solitary confinement lose their minds in a short

period of time. Students should work in a community to share their ideas and

their work. Working with a peer group, reading aloud their work, and

responding holistically to each other, such as “I understand your main point,

but I’m not sure if the tone is going to help you achieve your purpose,” helps

students develop a sense of audience. And once they have worked together a

few times, this sense of audience becomes internalized: as they compose the

essays at home, students are likely to consider if their peer group will

understand and react favorably to their message.

4. Emphasize Grammar and Punctuation as Convention: Important But

Not the Highest Importance

Something else that discourages student writers is for them to labor over a

paper and communicate what they see as an important message, and which is

in fact an important issue — students pay too much for textbooks, we are too

addicted to social media — and then have the teacher focus on their comma

splices or nonstandard capitalization before even addressing the main point.

Do we worry about our grammar and punctuation when we write a letter to

our congressmen or to a business because we think the rules of formal writing

are more important than our message? No. We worry about using correct

5. Recognize Student Work

Writers need to feel their writing does not occur in a vacuum, that some- one

is reading it and responding to it. Otherwise, why do it? In order to give

students this recognition, consider developing a class newsletter that is

student- driven, composed of student writing on student concerns, and put

together by classmates in a desktop publishing pro- gram. In addition, reading

bits of student essays in front of the class, with permission, to exemplify a

good thesis statement or example, is a simple way to give recognition to

student work.

6. Recognize Progress

Writing is developmental. People don’t generally “cram” for a writing exam

and then improve exponentially over- night. It takes continue practice over

time, much like mastering an instrument or foreign language or sport —

analogies I like to emphasize to students. This nature of writing can be

discouraging as it is slow and often seems as if no progress is taking place.

Therefore, calling students’ attention to the progress they’ve made and

rewarding it becomes important. Implementing the portfolio method, in which

each student’s exemplary work is placed in a separate folder is a great method

to use as students can actually see the progress they’ve made, from first essay

to last, over a term. They teacher may also choose to reward such progress.

12 Tips to Make Writing Fun

1. Use Stickers

You don’t have to limit your sticker use to marking a job well done. Use stickers

to inspire your students to write while they have fun decorating the page.

Gather a variety of stickers – people, animals, places, props, etc. – and cut

them into individual pieces. Then throw all the stickers in a bag and shake it

up. Let your students choose between three and five stickers (depending on

their language level – more stickers for more advanced writers) and then have

them incorporate those people or objects into a story of their own creation.

2. Do it as a Class

Do write communal stories with your ESL students? If not, you should. Working

together gets individual creativity flowing, and what we create with others is

often far more than we could do ourselves. There are lots of ways to write with

other people. Put several notebooks in a writing center. Have one person start

a story or start it yourself, and then allow your students to add to a story of

their choosing during free learning periods. Have one student choose the

characters and another student the conflict, and then have them work

together to write the final piece. Have one student write a sentence on a piece

of paper and pass it to the person next to him. Then that person adds a

sentence. Continue until everyone in class has had a chance to add their own

line to the story.

3. Read

Reading is one of the greatest way to inspire writers in your class. Choose a

poem or a short piece of literature to read as a class. Then have students use

that selection as a model for their own compositions. They can either follow

the structure and style of what you read or just write about the same content.

Either way, the great writers will come out among you when you give them

great things to read.

4. Give Creative Inspiration

When you take time and effort to in- spire your writers, it is sure to show in

their writing. Create a scene, draw a picture, collect interesting photos, or

teach them appealing vocabulary. Then ask your students to use what you

have prepared as inspiration for their own compositions. If you have never

tried setting up a classroom crime scene to inspire your students, you might

want to give it a try. Then let your students write and see how the creativity

flows.

5. Let Mistakes Go

Letting students make mistakes and not correcting them may go against the

nature of the ESL teacher, but sometimes not saying something is the best

policy. When students are overcorrected, they can become discouraged or

fearful of writing. Try some freewriting or give your students permission to

write freely in a journal. Make sure they know you won’t be correcting for

grammar or spelling. Then have students use what they wrote as a starting

point for a more formal piece of writing which you will then correct.

6. Show Them Off

Recognize good writing in your students in front of their peers to in- spire the

writers among you. You might want to read particularly good writing to the

rest of the class (with the author’s permission, of course). Try “publishing”

books of your students’ writing and then putting them on dis- play in your

classroom. Your bragging might be something as simple as stapling what your

students have writ- ten to a bulletin board in your class, or displaying them in

the hallway of your school. When your students feel proud of what they have

written, it will inspire and encourage them to write more.

7. Give Them Inspiring Tools

Did you ever have a pen that wrote in four different colors? If you had one as a

kid, you might have done what just about every other kid did. Write one line

with each of the colors and rotate through the page. You can give your

students creative inspiration in a writing center of your classroom even if you

don’t have four-colored pens for the entire class. On a spare desk, set out

several different colors and types of paper with colored pens and pencils.

Include pencils and markers that are scented as well. You may find that your

students write just so they can use a different type of paper or color pen.

8. Illustrate

Some students become discouraged when they write because they just can’t

get their ideas across. Give them another avenue to communicate by asking

them to illustrate their story or nonfiction piece. When students know they can

include a picture to share their thoughts, their inability to express exactly what

they want in writing becomes less of an obstacle. Your struggling writers know

that they can include important information in their picture, and it won’t be a

total loss if they can’t find the right words to put their ideas into writing.

9. Make it Real Life

Some students get frustrated when they are writing for writing’s sake. Help

these students by giving them a purpose for what they are writing. Have them

write letters, thank you cards, e-mails, or other pieces they will have a use for

in real life. If you like, let them “mail” the letters and cards to their classmates

in a class- room mail center or through the U.S. mail.

10. Be a Model

If you want your students to have fun while writing, be sure to model your own

writing for them. Let them see you write while they do, and share what you

have written with them. Students who write well usually have teachers who

write well, also.

11. Keep a Writer’s Notebook

A writer’s notebook is a great place for your students to collect ideas and get

creative. You can direct students to particular exercises in their writer’s

notebook or let them come up with the ideas on their own. Then, when it’s

time to write, students will have a notebook full of ideas from which they can

draw ideas and inspiration.

12. Have Fun Teaching Writing

The most effective tool you have for bringing fun to writing for your students is

to have fun while teaching it. If you appreciate the value of what you are

teaching and are enthusiastic about it, your students will be, too.

6 Writing Activities for Beginning Students11

1. The Simple Paragraph

One of the first writing assignments any student receives is writing a composed

paragraph. Just about any topic you are teaching in class can be the subject of

a paragraph. When you break the paragraph into smaller elements, your

students will see that four to six sentences do not have to be overwhelming.

The first element of a paragraph is the topic sentence. This sentence gives the

reader the main point of the paragraph. The last sentence of a paragraph,

when it stands alone, is a concluding sentence. It gives some final thoughts

about the topic. In between are two to four sentences that expand the idea,

give examples, or argue a point. For example, a simple paragraph about fall

might look like this. Note the use of color words and fall vocabulary.11 n.d. The Art of Teaching Writing. www.busyteacher.org. Date Accessed: 9 October 2014

Fall is a beautiful season. (introductory sentence) Green leaves change to red,

orange and yellow. People use brightly colored pumpkins and gourds as

decorations. The sky is blue, and the wind is soft. (supporting sentences) I

enjoy fall in the U.S. (concluding sentence).

2. Postcards

For so many students, studying English means travelling overseas. For these

students, every day is a chance to experience something new. They can share

their experiences with others with a simple postcard written in English.

Postcards follow a standard format that can give your students practice with

the simple past or present progressive tenses. They are also a great way to

apply vocabulary about vacation or geography. Standard postcards have five

simple parts.

1.The greeting

2.A sentence about where you are

3.One or two sentences about what you are doing or have done

4.A closing

5.A signature

When students follow this formula, their postcard will look like the following.

Dear _____,

I am in _________. We are having a great time.

Yesterday we __________.

Monday we ___________. Wish you were here.

Love, _________

3. Memo

Many students study English to further their business careers, but not all

business English students have advanced language skills. To keep their writing

practical but still keep its goals attainable, have your students write a memo.

Memos follow a certain format: they must include lines for to, from, date and

subject. Memo bodies are often very short -- even two or three sentences is

enough for a memo. Review the standard memo format with your students,

and if you like show them how to use a template via their word processing

program. Then have students write a memo announcing a team meeting,

alerting their coworkers of an audit, describing a new product or any other

subject that could be related to their business. When your students have

completed this assignment, they will find that even beginning language studies

can have practical applications in the workplace.

4. Emails

Today we live in a world filled with technology, and no technology is more

popular than email. In the past, people wrote letters to each other, but email

has almost entirely replaced written correspondence. What makes emails

easier to write than letters and therefore less intimidating for ESL students?

They are shorter and more informal than writing personal letters. If your

students have email ad- dresses either through the school or personal ones,

have them write you a short email for homework or to ask questions before

the next test. You can also email your students a simple question and have

them answer it as part of their homework. The topic doesn’t have to be special

or complicated. Just getting a few sentences on the screen will be enough for

many beginning students.

5. Personal Ads

Whether your students are interested in the dating game or not, a personal ad

is a simple and practical way to practice writing in English. Show your students

some personal ads either from the paper or on a website like Craig’s List. Have

them notice what type of information these ads contain. Then have your

students write an ad of their own. Using the simple present, your students

should be able to communicate enough in- formation about themselves to

attract the right person. They might include a sentence about how they look, a

sentence on what they like to do, and a sentence on what they want in a

match. If your students are up to it, have them submit their personal ad for

publication or just post them in your classroom and have the class try to match

each ad to a classmate.

6. A Thank You Note

Hand written notes are few and far between in today’s culture, but almost

everyone appreciates receiving one. And if we think for just a few minutes,

most of us can name something and someone we are thankful for. Your

beginning students should be able to write a simple thank you note, and you

can teach them this pattern to do it. It only takes familiarity with the simple

present and the simple future to write this type of note.

Dear _______,

Thank you for the __________. Insert a sentence saying what you like about it.

Insert a saying how you will use it. I appreciate your thoughtfulness (or

generosity).

Sincerely,_________

Writing Portfolio

Over the course of the workshop, you are going to write 6 short pieces of

writing that will comprise your writing portfolio. These include:

1. Culture Editing

2. Speed Writing (3 minutes – idioms)

3. Advice Memos

4. Job Applications/Ads

5. Haikus

6. Emails

7. Paragraphs

References

1. Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D.R., Airasian, P.W., Cruikshank, K.A., Mayer,

R.E., Pintrich, P.R., Raths, J., Wittrock, M.C. (2001). A Taxonomy for

Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of

Educational Objectives. New York: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon.

2. Boss, S. (2011). Project-Based Learning: A Short History.

www.edutopia.org/project-based-learning-history. Date Accessed: 4

December 2014.

3. Mascle, D. (2011). “You Can’t Teach the Writing Process.”

www.metawriting.deannamascle.com/you-cant-teach-the-writing-

process-how-to-make-writers-by-showing-not-telling/

#sthash.Gy3S3jAQ.dpuf Date Accessed: 4 December 2014.

4. Mrs Warner’s 4th Grade Classroom. “Learning About Poetry.”

http://mrswarnerarlington.weebly.com/poetry.html Date Accessed: 4

November 2014

5. n.d. The Art of Teaching Writing. www.busyteacher.org. Date Accessed: 9

October 2014

6. Palmira Massi, M. (2001) “Interactive Writing in the EFL Class: A

Repertoire of Tasks.” The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VII, No. 6, June

2001. http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Massi-WritingTasks.html Date

Accessed: 2 December 2014.

7. Regina Public Schools & Saskatchewan Public Learning.

http://www.saskschools.ca/curr_content/bestpractice/exit/index.html

on

8. http://www.kgcs.k12.va.us/kges/Vocabulary%20pdf/Exit%20Card

%20strategy.pdf Date Accessed: 4 December 2014

9. http://www.826national.org/about/186/project-based-learning. Date

Accessed: 4 December 2014.