PROGRAM KAEDAH PENYELIDIKAN BIL 1/2013

MODUL MRW101

The Philosophy of Science Research: Epistemology and

Research Paradigms

AP Dr Haji Abdullah Haji Abdul Ghani

IBS COB

EDC

04 March 2013

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What is a PhD/DBA? A PhD/DBA is not merely a vague title but

actually means what it implies: it is an award to an expert who has proven their scientific worth and not to someone who stayed in a tolerant group for long enough

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Philosophy • Philosophy derives from a combination of the

Greek words philos meaning love and sophia meaning wisdom. What philosophy is, or should be, is itself a philosophical question that philosophers have understood and treated differently through the ages.

• Philosophy can mean the academic exploration of various questions raised by philosophers; or to the collective works of major philosophers; it can also mean a certain critical, creative way of thinking.

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Science • Knowledge; knowledge of principles and

causes; ascertained truth of facts.

• Accumulated and established knowledge, which has been systematized and formulated with reference to the discovery of general truths or the operation of general laws; knowledge classified and made available in work, life, or the search for truth; comprehensive, profound, or philosophical knowledge.

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What is research ? • Re-search: The art of dis-covery

• organized study: methodical investigation into a subject in order to discover facts, to establish or revise a theory, or to develop a plan of action based on the facts discovered

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Qualitative Research vs. Quantitative Research

"The word qualitative implies an emphasis on the qualities of entities and on

processes and meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured (if measured at all) in terms of quantity, amount, intensity, or frequency. Qualitative researchers stress the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied, and the situational constraints that shape inquiry. Such researchers emphasize the value-laden nature of inquiry. They seek answers to questions that stress how social experience is created and given meaning. In contrast, quantitative studies emphasize the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables, not processes. Proponents of such studies claim that their work is done from within a value-free framework" (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000, p. 8).

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Qualitative Research vs. Quantitative Research

Said of variables or research that can be handled numerically. Usually contrasted (too

sharply) with qualitative variables and research. Many research designs lend themselves well to collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, and many variables can be handled either qualitatively or quantitatively. For example, naturalistic observations can give rise to either or both kinds of data. Interactions can be counted and timed with a stopwatch or they can be interpreted more holistically.

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When speaking of kinds of research,

qualitative refers to studies of

subjects that are hard to quantify,

such as art history. The term

qualitative research tends to be a

residual category for almost any

kind of non-quantitative research.

[…]

The qualitative-quantitative distinction is

often overdrawn. It is difficult to

avoid quantitative elements in the

most qualitative subject matter. For

examples, "The painter entered his

'blue period' in the 1890s." And

qualitative components are crucial

to most good quantitative research,

which begins with theories,

concepts, and constructs.

Epistemology • Theories of knowledge or studies of

knowledge • Branch of philosophy that asks whether we

know things and, if so, how • The study of source, nature, varieties and

limitations of knowledge • It attempts to answer the basic question

– True (adequate) vs false (inadequate) knowledge

• The above Q lead to sc.fic methodology: to improve existing theories or models

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Some typical problemss classical epistemology addresses

• What can we know • How do we know • What, if anything, does the subject contribute

to his knowledge • What is truth • How can we recognize truth • What is probable knowledge as opposed to

certain knowledge • Is there a priori knowledge, and if so what • How action and language are related to

knowledge • What is the status of concepts and propositions

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Knowledge

The act or state of knowing; clear perception of fact, truth, or duty; certain apprehension; familiar cognizance; cognition.

That which is or may be known; the object of an act of knowing; a cognition; -- chiefly used in the plural.

That which is gained and preserved by knowing; instruction; acquaintance; enlightenment; learning; scholarship; erudition.

That familiarity which is gained by actual experience; practical skill; as, a knowledge of life.

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Postulation

Selfevident truth

Method of authority Scienctific method

Literary

Untested opinion

Rationalism (Formal structural proof)

Empiricism

(observable

concrete data)

Idealism

(highly

interpretive

ideas)

Existentialism (informal

process)

Epistemology of knowledge

• Ontology-root and division

• Epistemology-method of getting knowledge

– Inductive, deductive, falsification & hypothetical-deductive method.

• Axiology

– value & responsibility

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KEY MANAGEMENT THEORIES

• CLASSICAL (output) – Scientific Mgt. (Taylor, Gantt, Gilbreth)

– Classical Mgt. (Fayol, Weber, Follett & Bernard)

• BEHAVIORAL (human) – (Hawthorne)

• QUANTITATIVE (tools)

• SYSTEM APPROACH

• CONTINGENCY APPROACH

• CHIPS MOORES’ THEORIES

– MBO, JIT, TQM….E-mgt, K-mgt

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PROBLEMS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

• CORRECT BUT NOT NECESSARRY TRUE

• WHY ?

– SUBJECTIVITIES

– LIMITATION S

– ASSUMPTIONS

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KNOWLEDGE TRADITION

•The history of knowledge and science not begins from West but from

East.

•The most important area are Egypt and Mesopotamia (Babylon)

which located at Nil Valley and Tigris-Euphrates River Valley

•These area are so special because of the knowledge heritage and

development of science and technology

Estern Tradition • Egypt & Mesapotamia

– Archeology, mathematic, geometry, medicine, architecture

• India

– mathematic, medicine, astronomy

• China

– natural science

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WHAT ARE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF KNOWLEDGE CIVILIZATION IN

EGYPT AND BABYLON?

1. Knowledge tradition or civilization begins from East not West

2. Holistic knowledge activities was parallel with religious activities. In

other word, knowledge scholar at the same time also religious scholar.

3. The founder of knowledge in Egypt and Babylon were the prophet and

messenger of God.

4. In Islamic tradition, Adam not only the first man, but also pioneer of all

knowledge. He taught his children with technical knowledge, especially

Syith.

5. Syith was the teacher of Idris, who born in Babylon. He was the

founder of geometry, astronomy, medicine, and continued by Daniel.

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INTEGRATED KNOWLEDGE CIVILIZATION

1. The development of knowledge that started from East had flow to

West. But the development was just for a few decades, before

conquered back by East.

2. Along the middle age (10 centuries), Islamic world was in the

knowledge brightness, but in the West was in the Dark Ages.

3. Islamic knowledge civilization are Ilmu Naqliah or Syar’iyyah

(revealed science) and Ilmu Aqliyah (rational science).

4. Ilmu Naqliah : Ulum Quran, Ulum Hadith, Ilmu Tauhid, Ilmu Fiqh and

Ilmu Akhlak, the history of prophet, and Arabic Language.

5. Ilmu Aqliyah: philosophy, history, geography, science, mathematic,

and astronomy.

6. Famous scholars: al-Khindi, al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ibn Tufail Ibn

Rusyd, al Khawarizmi, al Ghazali.

ONTOLOGY DEFINITIONS

• Concerned with the study of being, of reality in its most fundamental and comprehensive forms.

• The theory of objects and their ties. The unfolding of ontology provides criteria for distinguishing various types of objects (concrete and abstract, existent and non-existent, real and ideal, independent and dependent) and their ties (relations, dependences and predication).

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Ref: www.formalontology.it/

Ref: www.atf.org.au/papers/glossary.asp

REALITY OF KNOWLEDGE (continued)

• At least 3 well established paradigms in the development of science: – Classical paradigm: knowledge-curiosity-driven.

– 2nd paradigm: Technology-military-power-driven.

– 3rd paradigm: Market-wealth-driven paradigm.

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(Shaharir Mohd Zin, 1998, Towards A Quantum Leap in the Development Of Islamic Science in Malaysia)

Types Of Ontology

• There four different types of ontology. There are: Domain ontologies, representing a target domain, as

engineering, medicine etc.

Generic or Common Sense ontologies, capturing general knowledge about time. Space, events, etc.

Method ontologies, describing specifiec task, as diagnosis.

Metadata ontologies, describing the content of on-line information sources.

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Epistemology THEORY & SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE

• In epistemology a common definition of knowledge is that it consist of justified true belief. For most philosophical history, knowledge was taken to mean a belief that was justified as true to an absolute certainty. Any less justified beliefs were called mere “probable opinion”. To be a knowledge, a belief has to have some positive epistemic feature; it can’t be arbitrary or random or irrational.

• (source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/knowledge) 23

RATIONALISM

• The human reason, or understanding, is the sole source and final test of all truth.

• Renes Descartes (1596-1650) using mathematical and geometrical analytical method.

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EMPIRICISM

• Is the philosophical doctrine that all human knowledge comes at first from sense and experience. Empiricism denies that human have innate ideas that anything is knowable prior to any experience.

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EMPIRICISM

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• Classical Empiricism : Aristotle argued that all form of knowing come from induction.

• Modern Empiricism : All knowledge must be attained by our consciousness through internal and external sensations. (David Hume, John Locke and George Berkeley)

• Radical Empiricism : All human knowledge is purely empirical. (William James) • Naïve Empiricism : Our ideas and theories need to be tested against reality and

not be affected by preconseived notions. • Constructive Empiricism : According to this view of science coined by Bas Van

Fraassen (The Scientific Image, 1980), we should only ask that theories accurately describe observable parts of the world. Theories that meet these requirements are considered “empirically adequate”. If a theory become established, it should be accepted. What that means is the theory is believed to be empirically accurate, use to solve further problem, and use to extend or refine the theory.

CONFORMISM

• Term used to describe a state of orthodoxy, the suspension of actions or opinions in favor of obedience to the mandate or conventions of one’s peer group. The old saying expresses this well : When in Rome, do as the Roman do. By definition, conformism present the antithesis both of creativity and of innovative leadership and hence oppose change or progress

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INTUITISM

• Immediate apprehension by mind without reasoning. The belief that primary truths and principles especially of ethics and metaphysics are known directly by intuition.

• The knowing of something without prior knowledge or the use of reason. All stands revealed the hearts, the motives, the causes all events. Able to sense the invisible and the impalatable. Prophets are often intuitive. Acquire through Spiritual Intelligence (SQ)

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REVELATION

• The kind of knowledge that is given by God to man through direct revelation. Unveils the mystery of Being and Existence and reveals the true relationship between man’s self and his Lord, and since for man such knowledge pertains to the ultimate purpose of knowing, it follows that knowledge of its prerequisites become the basis and essential foundation for the knowledge of the second kind (knowledge of science).

• (source : Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas)

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Types of Methodology

Logical Thinking -- The Source of Methodology

Logical Knowledge

Validation

Conceptual

(Tasdiq)

(Tasawur)

Argumentation

Proposition (Al-Qadiayah)

(Muhajjah)

Comparison/ Deduction

Conclusion/ Induction

(Al-Qias)

(Al-Istiqra’)

Conditional

Unconditional

Complete Induction

Limited Induction

(Al-syartiah)

(Al-hamliah)

(Al-Istiqra’ al-Tamn)

(Al-Istiqra’ Naqis)

Overview of Logical Knowledge

(Al-Istiqra’

Riyadi)

(Al-Istiqra’ ilmii)

Precise Definition (Ta’rif bil hadd)

Connotative Definition (Ta’rif bil

Rasm)

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Types of Methodology

Overview of Methodology

Types of Methodology

• Deductive

• Inductive

• Hypothetical Deductive

• Rabbani

Observations

General Understanding/ Conclusion

Observed

phenomenon

Conclusion/ Understanding

from specific observation

Conclusion/ Understanding

Based on general rules/ understanding

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Deductive Methodology – What is it?

Types of Methodology

Definition:

Make an inference to explain specific observed phenomenon based

on existing general understanding, rules or knowledge

Originated from the Latin words “de” ( From) and

“decere” (Lead towards)

Syllogism (Al-qias) – Introduced by Aristotle (384~322BC)

Classic logical Knowledge

General Understanding/ Conclusion

Observed

phenomenon

Conclusion/ Understanding

Based on general rules/ understanding

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Types of Methodology

Deductive Methodology – Process

Move from General understanding (postulate & Axiom) as

Premise Specifics phenomenon

Postulate – Something that believe to be true but not proven

(without empirical study or observation)

Axiom – Formal rule or principle that generally to be true, dominated in Mathematics

Minor Premise + Major Premise Conclusion

Example:

(Muqaddimah al-Sughra) (Muqaddimah al Kubra) (Natijah)

All vegetables is nutritious

Nutrition is good for health

All Vegetables is good for health

(Muqaddimah al-Sughra

(Muqaddimah al Kubra)

(Natijah)

+

=

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Inductive Methodology - Definition

Types of Methodology

Definition:

Generalizing a knowledge, understanding, conclusion from the

understanding of specifics observation to a general rules or

knowledge with the elements of probability

Modern Logical Knowledge based on empirical study

Types of Induction: Completed(al-istiqra’ tamn)& Limited (al-Istiqra’ Naqis)

Observations

General Understanding/ Conclusion

Conclusion/ Understanding

from specific observation

Falsifiability as a criterion for theories

• Theories shown to be false through observation and experiment. Example: Proton cars never breakdown or Ice will not melt if room temperature is 0 Celcius

• To be part of science, any hypothesis must be falsifiable; logically possible observation of any hypothesis

• Thus statements which is vaguely form and is not falsifiable is not scientific. Example: Proton Savvy may be better than MyVI but it may not be as good.

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Degree of falsifiability, clarity and precision

• Any theories which can be proven in terms of falsifiability is a good scientific law. Example, Newton’s theory proven to be more resistant to falsifying than Kepler’s theory.

• Science progresses by trial and error; theories which were not falsified yet meant they are the currently most accurate ones and not guaranteed to be true forever

• Thus, any theories should be clearly stated and not vague

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Falsificationism and progress

• Science starts from problems. Hypotheses are formed as solution to problems.

• Falsificationist seeks ways to continue rigorous tests to falsify a certain theory after which a stronger theory emerges.

• Aristotle’s theory being taken over by Newton’s theory. Newton’s theory was able to account for more issues which Aristotle’s theories did not mention. This was followed by Einstein’s theory which proved to be a challenge to falsify for current modern physicists.

• There is no truth, only the current most correct answer.

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Limitations of falsificationism

• Theory-dependence of observation and the fallibility of falsifications

• Theory acceptance is always tentative (for now)

• Theory rejection is decisive (forever)

• Note that observation might be wrong!

• Thus many instances whereby rejections of observation statements and the retention of the theories they clash

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Falsificationism inadequate on historial grounds

• Theories may have been rejected due to historical grounds. Example: Newton’s gravitational theory was falsified by observation of the moon’s orbit. Only after 50 years that this is deflected to other causes than Newton’s theory.

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HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE

1. Philosopher Karl Popper suggested that it is impossible to prove a

scientific theory true by means of induction, because no amount of

evidence assures us that contrary evidence will not be found.

2. Instead, Karl Popper proposed that proper science is accomplished by

deduction. Deduction involves the process of falsification.

3. Falsification is a particular specialized aspect of hypothesis testing. It

involves stating some output from theory in specific and then finding

contrary cases using experiments or observations.

4. The methodology proposed by Popper is commonly known as the

hypothetico -deductive method.

5. Popper's version of scientific method first begins with the postulation of a

hypothesis.

6. A hypothesis is an educated guess or a theory that explains some

phenomenon. The researcher then tries to prove or test this scientific

theory false through prediction or experimentation

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SCOPE OF KNOWLEDGE

RATIONAL EMPIRICAL GOD KNOWLEDGE

INTUITION REVELATION

RABBANI METHOD

Axiology- The value of TRUTH

• In everyday life, people distinguish between truth and falsehood as a matter of survival. People who are unable to recognize lies, mistakes or inaccuracies, at least most of the time, suffer greatly.

• The philosophical problem of truth has been described as the search for the nature of truth. It applied to a statement or belief.

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THEORIES ABOUT TRUTH

• Correspondence Theory Of Truth : Truth is correspondence with objective reality. Thus, a sentence is said to be true just in case it express a state of affair in the world. Eg. “Snow is white is true”.

• The Coherence Theory : Truth is coherence with some specified set of sentences or, more often, of beliefs. For example, one of a person’s belief is true just in case it is coherent with all or most of her other beliefs.

• Pragmatic Theory Of Truth : Based on the foundation of the principle of evolutionism. An idea can only be considered true if posses practical value or vital benefits. Pragmatism believed “absolute truth do not exist” (Charles Sanders Pierce, William James). Nature of truth statement by working hypothesis, focus on similarities and differences.

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TYPE OF TRUTH

• Subjective vs Objective • Subjective truth are those with which we are most intimately

acquainted. Metaphysical subjectivism holds that all we have are such truths. That is, that all we can know about are one way or another, our own subjective experiences. This view does not reject realism. But at least it claim that we cannot have direct knowledge of the real world.

• Objective truth are suppose to be one way to be independent of our subjective beliefs and tastes. Such truth would subsist not in the mind but in the external object.

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Relative vs Absolute

• Relative truths are statements or propositions that are true only relative to some standard or convention or point-of-view. Everyone agrees that the truth or falsify of some statements is relative: The fork is to the left of the spoon depends on where one stands. Relativism entails that what is true varies across cultures and eras.

• Absolute truths are statement or propositions that are taken to be true for all cultures and eras. Example: for Muslim, Allah is great expression an absolute truth; for economist, that the law of supply and demand determine the value of any consumable in the market economy is true in all situations.

• Absolutism in particular domain of thought is the view that all statements in that domain are either absolute true or absolute false: none is true for some cultures or eras while false for other cultures or eras. Example “Abortion is wrong” or “Charity is good”.

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THE CONCEPT OF DOUBT FROM ISLAM VIEWPOINT

• The doubt (shakk), conjecture and guess disputation and contention, inclination of mind or soul towards natural desire (hawa), are all generally considered blameworthy-the more so when applied to an masquerading as knowledge. We must take note of the significance that, in the case of Western culture and civilisation, and with reference to sociology of knowledge, the West defined knowledge in terms of the effort of science as control of nature and society. (Syed Naquib Al-Attas)

• There are situations and issues which do not require thinking. One does not need to conduct lengthy experiment and engage in extensive study to prove something that is plainly obvious from every day experience.

• According to Al-Ghazali, doubt is the first stage of certainty (yaqin). His concept of doubt is not based on scepticism but more on methodological. When the doubt is clear, certainty will emerge.

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