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Transcript of Process Modifications for Industrial Pollution …infohouse.p2ric.org/ref/28/27928.pdfFOR INDUSTRIAL...

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PROCESS MODIFICATIONS FOR INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION SOURCE REDUCTION By Lawrence L. Tavlarides, Ph.D. Pritzker Department of Environmental Engineering Illinois Institute of Technology Chicago, Illinois

INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT SERIES James W. Patterson, Executive Editor

LEWIS PUBLISHERS, INC. 121 SOUTH MAIN STREET0 P.O. DRAWER 5190CHELSEA, MICHIGAN 48118

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Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

Tavlarides, Lawrence L., 1942-

Source Reduction. Process Modification for Industrial Pollution

(Industrial Waste Management Series ) Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Factory and trade waste - Environmental

aspects. 2. Pollutants -Environmental aspects. I. Title. 11. Series TD897.T333 1985 604.6 84-21257 ISBN 0-87371-003-7

COPYRIGHT 0 1985 by LEWIS PUBLISHERS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

LEWIS PUBLISHERS, INC. 121 South Main Street, Chelsea, Michigan 48118

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

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P R E F A C E

T h i s v o l u m e , P r o c e s s M o d i f i c a t i o n s f o r I n d u s t r i a l P o l l u t i o n S o u r c e R e d u c t i o n , d e s c r i b e s o n e o f t h e m o s t i n n o v a t i v e and p o t e n t i a l l y a d v a n t a - g e o u s modern c o n c e p t s f o r i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e manage- m e n t . I t was p r e p a r e d p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r c h e m i c a l and o t h e r e n g i n e e r s who work i n i n d u s t r y a n d s e e k d i r e c t i o n i n p r o c e s s m o d i f i c a t i o n a p p r o a c h e s f o r p o l l u t i o n a b a t e m e n t . The vo lume w i l l a l s o b e ex - t r e m e l y u s e f u l t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l e n g i n e e r s , who i n c r e a s i n g l y m u s t d e a l w i t h p o l l u t i o n g e n e r a t i o n a t t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p o i n t s o u r c e . T h i s vo lume w i l l a l s o a s s i s t t h e s t u d e n t s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e l i n k a g e b e t w e e n m a n u f a c t u r i n g t e c h n o l o g y a n d i n d u s - t r i a l p o l l u t i o n , and d e m o n s t r a t e how p r o c e s s modi - f i c a t i o n s c a n e f f e c t i v e l y r e d u c e o r e l i m i n a t e p o l - l u t a n t s .

P r o c e s s m o d i f i c a t i o n c a n b e q u i t e s i t e s p e c i - f i c , d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e c a t e g o r y o f i n d u s t r y , p a r - t i c u l a r raw m a t e r i a l s a n d p r o d u c t s , a n d t h e mode o f m a n u f a c t u r e . To a c c o m p l i s h t h i s s t u d y , D r . T a v l a r i d e s h a s s e l e c t e d a s p e c t r u m o f t y p e s o f i n d u s t r y and p r o d u c t s , d i s s e c t e d e a c h m a n u f a c t u r i n g s t e p , a n d i d e n t i f i e d n u m e r o u s p r o c e s s mod i f i c a - t i o n s . I n many i n s t a n c e s t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h s i m p l e , p r o v e n t e c h n o l o g y , a n d w i t h m e t a l l u r g i c a l and c h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r s , p r o f e s - s o r s a n d t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n t c o s t a d v a n t a g e o v e r c o n v e n t i o n a l p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l m e t h o d s . Where m o d i f i c a t i o n s a r e l e s s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d , d i r e c t i o n s f o r r e s e a r c h , d e v e l o p m e n t a n d d e m o n s t r a t i o n h a v e b e e n s u g g e s t e d . T h i s vo lume c o n v i n c i n g l y demon- s t r a t e s t h a t i n many i n d u s t r i e s p r o c e s s m o d i f i c a - t i o n i s a t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e a p p r o a c h t o i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e managemen t .

. . . . . .

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R e v i e w o f t h i s work b y t h e U S E P A d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e a p p r o v a l o f i t s c o n t e n t s . S p e c i a l a p p r e c i a t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d t o Mr. W i l l i a m A . Cawley , Deputy D i r e c t o r , U S E P A I n d u s t r i a l L a b o r a t o r y , and Chairman o f t h e I W E R C P o l i c y Board.

James W . P a t t e r s o n , Ph .D. S e r i e s E x e c u t i v e E d i t o r and D i r e c t o r o f The I n d u s t r i a l Waste E l i m i n a t i o n R e s e a r c h C e n t e r

iv

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S E R I E S PREFACE

The p h i l o s o p h y o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e managemen t h a s c h a n g e d r a p i d l y i n r e c e n t y e a r s , d u e t o r e g u l a - t o r y and e c o n o m i c i n c e n t i v e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m i n - c r e a s i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s o n a i r , w a t e r a n d h a z a r d o u s w a s t e s p o l l u t i o n , and f r o m e s c a l a t i n g c o s t s o f p o l l u t i o n a b a t e m e n t . T r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d s o f i n d u s - t r i a l p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l o f t e n i g n o r e a l t e r n a t i v e managemen t s t r a t e g i e s w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t e c o n o m i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l b e n e f i t s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , o p p o r t u n i - t i e s f o r s o u r c e r e d u c t i o n , b y - p r o d u c t r e c o v e r y , a n d r e c y c l e a n d r e c o v e r y f o r r e u s e h a v e h i s t o r i c a l l y r e c e i v e d s c a n t a t t e n t i o n . T o d a y , i n d u s t r y i s i n - c r e a s i n g l y c o n s i d e r i n g s u c h a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s , a n d f i n d i n g many o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t h e i r c o s t e f - f e c t i v e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .

The I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e E l i m i n a t i o n R e s e a r c h C e n t e r (IWERC) i s a c o n s o r t i u m o f I l l i n o i s I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e Dame, e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency (USEPA), O f f i c e o f E x p l o r a t o r y R e s e a r c h . I t o p e r a t e s u n d e r t h e s u p e r - v i s i o n o f a P o l i c y B o a r d , a n d w i t h a d v i c e f r o m i t s S c i e n t i f i c A d v i s o r y C o m m i t t e e a n d I n d u s t r y A d v i s o r y C o u n c i l . I W E R C h a s t h e m i s s i o n t o i d e n t i f y manage- men t s t r a t e g i e s , a n d t o p e r f o r m t e c h n o l o g y e v a l u a - t i o n , r e s e a r c h , a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o n i n n o v a t i v e a l - t e r n a t i v e t e c h n o l o g i e s f o r i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e manage- m e n t . A s p a r t o f i t s p r o g r a m , t h e C e n t e r commis- s i o n e d c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d i e s i n t h r e e a r e a s :

1. R e c o v e r y , r e c y c l e a n d r e u s e o f i n d u s t r i a l p o l l u t a n t s ;

2 . Management o f i n d u s t r i a l P O 1 l u t a n t s b y a n a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s ; and

3 . P r o c e s s m o d i f i c a t i o n s f o r P O 1 l u t i o n s o u r c e r e d u c t i o n i n c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s i n g i n d u s t r i e s .

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T h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e y i e l d e d s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t i n f o r - m a t i o n o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s o f a l t e r - n a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s f o r i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e managemen t . I n v i e w o f t h e c u r r e n t w i d e s p r e a d a n d g r o w i n g i n - t e r e s t i n s u c h a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s , t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s e s t u d i e s a r e b e i n g made a v a i l a b l e , a s p a r t o f t h i s I n d u s t r i a l Waste Management S e r i e s .

James W . P a t t e r s o n , Ph.D.

vi

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T a b l e

1.1

1 . 2

1 .3

1 . 4

2 . 1

3.1

3 .2

3 . 3

3.4

3 . 5

3 .6

3.7

3 . 8

LIST OF TABLES

P a g e

F low R a t e s o f M e t a l s i n P r o c e s s S t r e a m s

C o n c e n t r a t i o n R a n g e s i n E f f l u e n t S t r e a m s From E l e c t r o r e f i n i n g P r o c e s s . . P o l l u t a n t s a n d S u g g e s t e d C o n t r o l S t r a t e g y f o r C o p p e r P r o d u c t i o n b y P y r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l P r o c e s s e s . . . . . . 11 P o l l u t a n t s a n d S u g g e s t e d C o n t r o l S t r a t e g y f o r C o p p e r P r o d u c t i o n by H y d r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l P r o c e s s e s . . . . . 14

C o m p o s i t i o n o f R a w Waste S t r e a m s From Common M e t a l s P l a t i n g . . . . . . . . . 27 A p p r o x i m a t e T r a c e E l e m e n t A n a l y s i s o f C o a l P r e t r e a t m e n t D u s t A f t e r Wet S c r u b b i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

E s t i m a t e d T r a c e E l e m e n t s C o m p o s i t i o n o f

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

t h e SRC L i q u e f a c t i o n R e s i d u e . . . . . 35

L i q u e f a c t i o n P r o c e s s . . . . . . . . . 38 P o l l u t a n t s a n d C o n t r o l O p t i o n s i n SRC

L a b o r a t o r y L e a c h i n g R e s u l t s o f Chem- F i x e d R e f i n e r y Wastes . . . . . . . . . 4 2

S p e n t B a r s h a w N i c k e l C a t a l y s t A n a l y s i s . 4 3

D i s t r i b u t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r V a r i o u s P h e n o l s i n B u t y l A c e t a t e a t 300°K . . . 44

C o n t r o l O p t i o n s f o r t h e C o n c e n t r a t i o n A c i d Gas S t r e a m . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

P o l l u t a n t s a n d C o n t r o l O p t i o n s i n L u r g i SNG P r o c e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

v i i

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Tab l e P a g e

4 . 1

4 . 2

4 . 3

5 . 1

5 .2

5.3

5 . 4

5 .5

5.6

6 . 1

6 . 2

6 . 3

6 . 4

6 . 5

6 .6

6 .7

6 . 8

7 . 1

P o l l u t a n t s a n d C o n t r o l O p t i o n s i n N i t r i c A c i d P r o d u c t i o n P r o c e s s . . . . 57

P o l l u t a n t s a n d C o n t r o l O p t i o n s i n TNT P r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

P o l l u t a n t s a n d C o n t r o l O p t i o n s i n N C P r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

A v e r a g e A n a l y s i s o f Quench Water S a m p l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Coke Oven Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

A n a l y s i s o f B l a s t F u r n a c e S c r u b b e r Was tewa te r s F l o w R a t e . . . . . . . . 80

Wastewater T h i c k e n e r U n d e r f l o w . . . 81

R a w Was tewa te r s From S t e e l Making O p e r a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

P o l l u t a n t s a n d S u g g e s t e d C o n t r o l S t r a t e g y , I r o n a n d S t e e l I n d u s t r y . . . 9 1

T y p i c a l E m i s s i o n s Rates From B a t c h D i g e s t e r I n k g S u l f u r / T o n o f ADP* . . . 1 0 2

E m i s s i o n Ra te s From Vacuum Wash ing I n k g S u l f u r / T o n ADP . . . . . . . . . . -103 E m i s s i o n R a t e s From MEE I n k g S u l f u r f Ton ADP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 1 0 4

E m i s s i o n R a t e s From R e c o v e r y F u r n a c e . - 1 0 6

P a r t i c u l a t e E m i s s i o n R a t e s From t h e R e c o v e r y F u r n a c e . . . . . . . . . . . 106

E m i s s i o n R a t e s From S m e l t D i s s o l v e Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e 1 0 9

L i m e K i l n E m i s s i o n R a t e s . . . . . . .111 P o l l u t a n t s a n d C o n t r o l O p t i o n s i n K r a f t P u l p i n g P r o c e s s . . . . . . . . . . . .112 C h e m i c a l A n a l y s i s of Red Muds . . . . .119

v i i i

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Tab l e Page

7 . 2 E m i s s i o n s From S o l d e r b e r g C e l l . . . . 124

7 . 3 E f f e c t o f C e l l O p e r a t i n g Parameters a s F l o u r i d e E f f l u e n t . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 6

7.4 S u g g e s t e d P r o c e s s M o d i f i c a t i o n s f o r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l i n t h e Primary Aluminium I n d u s t r y . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

8 . 1 P o l l u t a n t s and S u g g e s t e d S t r a t e g y f o r S e l e c t e d Phosphate Rock F e r t i l i z e r . . 144

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LIST OF FIGURES

F i g u r e

1.1

1 . 2

1 .3

1 .4

1 . 5

2 . 1

3 . 1

3 . 2

4 . 1

4 . 2

4 . 3

4 . 4

5 . 1

5 .2

5.3

Flow C h a r t Showing t h e P r i n c i p a l P r o c e s s S t e p s F o r E x t r a c t i n g C o p p e r From S u l p h i d e Ores . . . . . . . . Comminu t ion a n d F r o t h F l o t a t i o n . . F l o w C h a r t F o r E l e c t r o r e f i n i n g P r o c e s s . . . . . . . . Flow C h a r t F o r S o l v e n t E x t r a c t i o n P r o c e s s . . . . . . . . . . . P r o c e s s S c h e m a t i c F o r U r a n i u m R e c o v e r y . . . . . . . . . . . . Flow C h a r t F o r Water F l o w i n Chromium P l a t i n g Z i n c Die C a s t i n g s , D e c o r a t i v e . . . . . . . . . . . F l o w S h e e t F o r An I n t e g r a t e d L i q u e f a c t i o n P r o c e s s . . . . . . L u r g i SNG P r o c e s s . . . . . . . P r o c e s s e s I n The E x p l o s i v e I n d u s t r y .

F l o w C h a r t F o r N i t r i c A c i d P r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . F l o w C h a r t F o r TNT P r o d u c t i o n . . . F l o w C h a r t F o r N i t r o c e l l u l o s P r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . O v e r v i e w o f I r o n a n d S t e e l M a n u f a c t u r i n g P r o c e s s . . . . Coke Making . . . . . . . Coke B y - p r o d u c t s R e c o v e r y . . .

X

P a g e

4

6

8

15

17

26

3 3

40

52

53

59

6 4

7 2

7 4

7 8

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F i g u r e Page

6 . 1 Flow Chart o f K r a f t P u l p i n g P r o c e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

7 . 1 B a u x i t e P r o c e s s i n g . . . . . . . . . 118

7 . 2 Primary Aluminium P r o d u c t i o n . . . . 122

8 . 1 Wet P r o c e s s P h o s p h o r i c A c i d P r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

8 . 2 Flow Chart o f Normal Superphosphate Product i o n P r o c e s s . . . . . . . . . 139

a . 3 Flow Diagram For TVA Ammonium P h o s p h a t e P r o c e s s . . . . . . . . . 1 4 2

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C OBTEBTS

1 . REFINING OF HOBFERROUS METALS . . . . . . . 3

I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 C o p p e r P r o d u c t i o n By P y r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l

P r o c e s s e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 C o p p e r P r o d u c t i o n By H y d r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l

P r o c e s s e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 U r a n i u m P r o d u c t i o n By H y d r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l

P r o c e s s e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6

2 . ELECTBOPLATIBG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

E l e c t r o p l a t i n g o f Common Metals . . . . . . 25

3 . COAL COBVEBSIOB PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . 31

I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 L i q u e f a c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 G a s i f i c a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4 . EXPLOSIVES IBDUSTBY . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1

I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1

TNT P r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 N i t r o c e l l u l o s e P r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . 6 1

5 . IBOB ABD STEEL IBDUSTBY . . . . . . . . . . 7 1

N i t r i c A c i d P r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . 5 1

I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1 Coke Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3 Coke B y - p r o d u c t R e c o v e r y . . . . . . . . . 7 7 I r o n Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 S t e e l Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 5 A c i d P i c k l i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 9

xii

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6 . PAPER AHD PULP IBDUSTBY . . . . . . . . . . 99 I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 9 K r a f t P u l p i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 9 Recovery Furnace Sys tem . . . . . . . . . . 105 L i m e K i l n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

7 . THE PRIMARY ALUHIBIUH IBDUSTBY . . . . . . 117 I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 B a u x i t e P r o c e s s i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Primary Aluminium S m e l t i n g . . . . . . . . 121

8 . PHOSPEATE FERTILIZER IHDUSTRY . . . . . . . 133 I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Wet P r o c e s s P h o s p h o r i c Ac id P r o d u c t i o n . . 138 Ammonium Phosphate P r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . 140

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I N T R O D U C T I O N

The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s p r o j e c t o n p r o c e s s modi - f i c a t i o n s f o r p o l l u t i o n s o u r c e r e d u c t i o n i n t h e c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s i n g i n d u s t r i e s i s t o i d e n t i f y po- t e n t i a l c h a n g e s i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s e s w h i c h c o u l d h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t o n p o l l u t i o n e l i m i n a - t i o n o r r e d u c t i o n a t i t s s o u r c e . Toward t h i s e n d , e i g h t i n d u s t r i e s w e r e e v a l u a t e d t o d e v e l o p a m a t r i x o f s i g n i f i c a n t p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m s and a t t e n d a n t p r o c e s s m o d i f i c a t i o n s w h i c h w o u l d h a v e i m p a c t o n t h e r e d u c t i o n o r e l i m i n a t i o n o f p o l l u t a n t s i n h e r e n t i n t h e s e p r o c e s s e s . The i n d u s t r i e s e v a l u a t e d a r e a s f o l l o w s :

1. R e f i n i n g o f N o n f e r r o u s M e t a l s 2 . The E l e c t r o p l a t i n g I n d u s t r y 3 . C o a l C o n v e r s i o n P r o c e s s e s 4 . S p e c i a l t y C h e m i c a l s 5 . The I r o n a n d S t e e l I n d u s t r y 6 . The P a p e r and P u l p I n d u s t r y 7 . The P r i m a r y Aluminum I n d u s t r y 8 . P h o s p h a t e F e r t i l i z e r I n d u s t r y

A l t h o u g h t h e s e i n d u s t r i e s a r e d i v e r s e , i t h a s become a p p a r e n t t h r o u g h t h i s s t u d y t h a t g e n e r i c p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m s c u t a c r o s s m o s t o f t h e s e a n d o t h e r i n d u s t r i e s n o t c o v e r e d i n t h e s t u d y . A c c o r d - i n g l y , v a r i o u s p r o c e s s m o d i f i c a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s and a t t e n d a n t r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m s w h i c h w o u l d m i n i m i z e t h e s e p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m s and a r e g e n e r i c i n n a t u r e , a r e i d e n t i f i e d .

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CHAPTER 1

REFINING OF NONFERROUS METALS

I N T R O D U C T I ON

T h i s c h a p t e r i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e r e f i n i n g o f n o n f e r r o u s m e t a l s f r o m m i n e r a l o r e . C o p p e r a n d u r a n i u m p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y i s u s e d t o demon- s t r a t e t h e i n d u s t r i a l c a t e g o r y o f n o n f e r r o u s m e t a l r e f i n i n g . The c h a p t e r i s d i v i d e d as f o l l o w s :

1. C o p p e r P r o d u c t i o n b y P y r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l

2 . C o p p e r P r o d u c t i o n b y H y d r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l

3. Uran ium P r o d u c t i o n b y H y d r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l

P r o c e s s e s

P r o c e s s e s

P r o c e s s e s .

COPPER P R O D U C T I O N BY PYROMETALLURGICAL PROCESSES

N i n e t y p e r c e n t o f t h e w o r l d ' s p r i m a r y c o p p e r o r i g i n a t e s i n t h e s u l f i d e o r e fo rm. A v a s t m a j o r i - t y o f t h i s c o p p e r i s e x t r a c t e d b y p y r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l t e c h n i q u e s , b e c a u s e s u l f i d e o r e s a r e n o t e a s i l y l e a c h e d . T y p i c a l c o p p e r d e p o s i t s c o n t a i n o n l y 1 t o 2 p e r c e n t c o p p e r , a n d t h e r e f o r e , t h e o r e m u s t un- d e r g o s e v e r a l p r o c e s s s t e p s t o c o n c e n t r a t e t h e c o p p e r b e f o r e s m e l t i n g . T h i s me thod o f c o p p e r e x t r a c t i o n i n c l u d e s t h e f o l l o w i n g s t e p s [ B i s w a s a n d D a v e n p o r t , 1 9 8 0 1 :

1. C o n c e n t r a t i o n b y f r o t h f l o t a t i o n 2 . R o a s t i n g 3 . Ma t t e s m e l t i n g 4. C o n v e r t i n g t o b l i s t e r c o p p e r 5 . E l e c t r o r e f i n i n g

The p o l l u t a n t s o f p r i m a r y c o n c e r n i n c l u d e S 0 2 , p a r t i c u l a t e s , s l a g , and d i s s o l v e d m e t a l s a l t s i n v a r i o u s e f f l u e n t s t reams [ B a r b o u r , 1 9 8 0 1 . F i g u r e 1.1 i s a f l o w c h a r t o f t h i s p r o c e s s , i n d i c a t i n g t h e n u m e r o u s ways i n w h i c h c o p p e r c o n c e n t r a t e c a n b e s m e l t e d t o p r o d u c e b l i s t e r c o p p e r .

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ORE

DRYING

COMMINUTION n

R O A S T I N G DRYING S I N T E R I N G

i

Z L E C T R O R E F I N I N G

C O P P E R METAL

F i g u r e 1.1. F l o w C h a r t S h o w i n g the P r i n c i p a l Process S t e p s For E x t r a c t i n g C o p p e r f r o m S u l p h i d e Ores. ( B i s w a s and D a v e n p o r t , 1980).

S L I M E

1

S P E N T ELECTROLYTE

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NONFERROUS METALS 5

O t h e r s o u r c e s o f w a s t e w a t e r i n c l u d e a c i d p l a n t b lowdown, s l a g g r a n u l a t i o n , and c o o l i n g o f t h e h o t m e t a l a n o d e s . E l e c t r o r e f i n i n g a l s o g e n e r a t e s w a s t e t h r o u g h s p e n t e l e c t r o l y t e , w a s h i n g c a t h o d e s , and t h e r e c o v e r y o f s l i m e [U .S . EPA, 19751 .

Comminu t ion and F r o t h F l o t a t i o n

A c o p p e r c o n c e n t r a t e i s p r o d u c e d b y a s e r i e s o f f l o t a t i o n c e l l s w h i c h s e l e c t i v e l y f l o a t c o p p e r s u l f i d e t o t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e b a t h , s o t h e c o n c e n - t r a t e c a n b e skimmed. T h i s p r o c e s s i s d e p i c t e d i n F i g u r e 1.2. The t a i l i n g s t a k e n f r o m t h e t a n k a r e s e n t t o e v a p o r a t i o n p o n d s , w h e r e t h e w a t e r i s c l a r - i f i e d and r e c y c l e d [ B i s w a s and D a v e n p o r t , 19801 .

The t a i l i n g s r e q u i r e pH a d j u s t m e n t s and ex - t r a c t i o n o f a r s e n i c , c y a n i d e , and some m e t a l s . The amount o f w a t e r consumed f o r t h i s p r o c e s s s t e p c a n b e r e d u c e d i f i m p r o v e m e n t s ' a r e made t o t h e g r i n d i n g e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e d r y o r e .

R o a s t i n g o f C o p p e r C o n c e n t r a t e

The c o p p e r c o n c e n t r a t e c a n b e r e f i n e d b y s e v - e r a l d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s o f r o a s t i n g a n d / o r s m e l t i n g , a s shown i n F i g u r e 1.1. R o a s t i n g o f s u l f i d e c o n - c e n t r a t e s p r o d u c e c a l c i n e s f o r l e a c h i n g , o r f o r r e v e r b a t o r y ( o r e l e c t r i c ) f u r n a c e s m e l t i n g . The f l u i d - b e d r o a s t e r i s t h e b e s t d e v i c e f o r s u l f i d e r o a s t i n g , s i n c e it h a s a h i g h p r o d , u c t i o n r a t e and p r o d u c e s 5-15 p e r c e n t b y v o l u m e S O 2 i n t h e f l u e g a s e s , w h i c h c a n e a s i l y b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o u s a b l e f o r m s o f s u l f u r [ G i l l , 19801 .

S m e l t i n g

The p r o c e s s o f s m e l t i n g and c o n v e r t i n g v a r i e s w i d e l y i n e q u i p m e n t d e s i g n , b u t t h e p o l l u t a n t s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same: S 0 2 , p a r t i c u l a t e s , and s l a g . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s f o r c l e a n i n g g a s e s f r o m m e t a l l u r g i c a l p r o c e s s i n g ; t h e mos t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e a r e [ G i l l , 19801 :

1. To r e c o v e r v a l u a b l e p a r t i c u l a t e m a t e r i a l w h i c h c a n b e r e t u r n e d t o t h e p l a n t f o r r e p r o c e s s i n g .

2 . E n v i r o n m e n t a l p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l , f r o m t h e v i e w p o i n t o f e m p l o y e e s e x p o s e d t o h a r m f u l g a s e s a n d , SO2 c o m b i n i n g w i t h

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Figure 1.2. Comminution and Froth Flotation (Biswas and Davenport, 1980).

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NONFERROUS METALS 7

a t m o s p h e r i c w a t e r v a p o r t o f o r m a c i d r a i n , d a m a g i n g p l a n t s and i n j u r i n g a n i m a l s .

3 . To r e c o v e r v a l u a b l e g a s e o u s b y - p r o d u c t s s u c h a s S O 2 , w h i c h c a n b e u s e d a s t h e f e e d m a t e r i a l f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f m a r k e t a b l e s u l f u r i c a c i d o r e l e m e n t a l s u l f u r .

4 . To r e c o v e r f u e l v a l u e o f g a s e o u s by - p r o d u c t s ( e . g . c o m b u s t i b l e C O . )

5. To r e c l a i m t h e s e n s i b l e h e a t t o t h e f l u e g a s e s i n was t e h e a t b o i l e r s .

O p t i m i z a t i o n o f t h e s m e l t e r d e s i g n c a n r e d u c e t h e q u a n t i t y o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l p o l l u t a n t s , o r a l t e r t h e e f f l u e n t s t r e a m s s o t h a t t h e p o l l u t a n t s c a n b e more e a s i l y r e m o v e d . I f t h e S O 2 c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s g r e a t e r t h a n 4 p e r c e n t b y v o l u m e , i t c a n b e c o n - v e r t e d i n t o s u f l u r i c a c i d w i t h o u t d i f f i c u l t y . T y p i c a l l y , S O 2 i s c o n v e r t e d i n t o s u l f u r i c a c i d , s u l f u r , o r ammonium s u l f a t e .

A s u r v e y o f m e t a l s i n v a r i o u s p r o c e s s s t r e a m s was p e r f o r m e d a t o n e s m e l t i n g p l a n t . T a b l e 1.1 i s a c o m p i l a t i o n o f f l o w r a t e s [ S c h w i t z e b e l , e t a l . 1 9 7 8 1 . Some o f t h e s t r e a m s were n o t m e a s u r e d o r r e c o r d e d , b u t t h e T a b l e d o e s i l l u s t r a t e t h e number o f d i f f e r e n t e l e m e n t s p r e s e n t i n t h e e f f l u e n t s t reams.

To r e c o v e r t h e m e t a l s f r o m t h e c a p t u r e d p a r t i - c u l a t e s , i t may b e p o s s i b l e t o u s e a c i d l e a c h i n g , a n d s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n t o s e l e c t i v e l y r e m o v e m e t a l s f r o m l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n l e a c h s o l u t i o n s .

E l e c t r o r e f i n i n g

E l e c t r o r e f i n i n g i s t h e f i n a l s t e p o f p u r i f y i n g b l i s t e r c o p p e r t o 99.99 p e r c e n t c o p p e r , w h i c h c a n b e u s e d f o r m o s t i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . The s p e n t e l e c t r o l y t e i s r e c y c l e d , b u t some o f t h e a c i d m u s t b e t r e a t e d t o r e m o v e e x c e s s n i c k e l a n d un - c l a i m e d c o p p e r , a s w e l l a s t r a c e m e t a l s . S l i m e d e v e l o p s f r o m t h e p a r t i c u l a t e s a n d p r e c i p i t a t e s , a n d c a n b e t r e a t e d t o r e c o v e r c o p p e r a n d / o r p r e - c i o u s m e t a l s . F i g u r e 1.3 i s a f l o w c h a r t i l l u s t r a - t i n g t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e e l e c t r o r e f i n i n g p r o c e s s [ U . S . E P A , 1 9 7 5 1 .

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NONFERROUS METALS 3

TABLE 1.1 FLOW RATES OF METALS IN PROCESS STREAMS

F low R a t e l b / h r

F l u e ESP E l e m e n t F e e d Matte S l a g O u t l e t C a t c h

A 1 400 1 7 700 0.10 1.1 A S 1 9 0 48 48 76 3 0 Ba 31 3 3 -3 43 0.64 0.023 B e 0 .072 4 x 1 ~ 1 0 0 . 0 3 2 0 . 0 0 3 4 0 . 0 0 0 4 Ca 770 1 2 1 9 0 0 0 .011 2.1 Cd 5 9 37 0 .33 0 .076 0 .74 C r 0 .076 0 . 6 4 3 .8 0 . 0 4 4 0 . 0 1 8 Cu 1 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 0 0 220 1 .8 6 2 F 3 . 4 0 . 0 1 2 2 .2 9 . 4 0 .032 F e 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 . 5 5 42 .6 Hg 0.018 0.020 0.0091 0.033 0.00015 Mo 79 8 . 5 8 9 0 .17 6.6 N i 0 .70 2.0 0 .76 0 . 0 1 1 0 .059 Pb 49 84 13 0 . 3 8 5 . 3 Sb 6 . O 4.6 3 . 4 0 . 0 3 0 1 .3 S e 1 0 0 .17 5 . 5 0 . 6 5 0 . 1 6 S i 1 1 0 0 4 2 4800 1 .7 1 . 7 V 0 .92 0 . 3 3 0 .86 0 .027 0 .011 Zn 42 3 1 3 0 0 . 2 2 4 .6

ESP = e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n

T a b l e 1.2 l i s t s t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n r a n g e s o f s e v e r a l p r i o r i t y p o l l u t a n t s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e d e s i g n a t e d p r o c e s s s t r e a m s . S l i m e i s e i t h e r d i s c a r d e d , o r u n d e r g o e s f u r t h e r t r e a t m e n t f o r r e c o v e r y o f m e t a l s . A b l e e d f r o m t h e e l e c t r o l y t e , water u s e d t o wash t h e a n o d e s d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n , a n d s l i m e a r e t h e t h r e e p r i m a r y s o u r c e s o f wa te r c o n t a m i n a t i o n f r o m t h e e l e c t r o r e f i n i n g p r o c e s s .

Tab l e 1.3 s u m m a r i z e s t h e po 1 l u t a n t s a n d s u g - g e s t e d c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s f o r c o p p e r p r o d u c t i o n b y p y r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l p r o c e s s e s .

Recommended Areas f o r P r o c e s s M o d i f i c a t i o n

A f t e r e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y , t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s a r e recommended f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t :

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1 0 P R O C E S S M O D I F I C A T I O N S

T a b l e 1 . 2 C o n c e n t r a t i o n R a n g e s i n E f f l u e n t S t r e a m s f r o m E l e c t r o r e f i n i n g P r o c e s s [ U . S . EPA, 1 9 7 5 1

P OLLUTA NT ELECTROLYTE ( g / L ) SLIME ( % )

A n t i m o n y 0 . 2 t o 0 .7 0 .5 t o 5 .0 A r s e n i c 0 . 5 t o 1 2 . 0 0 . 5 t o 4.0 C o p p e r 45.0 t o 50 .0 20.0 t o 40.0 Lead - 2 . 0 t o 1 5 . 0 N i c k e l 2.0 t o 20.0 0 . 1 t o 2.0 §e l e n ium - 1 . 0 t o 20 .0 S i l v e r - 3.4 t o 27.4

O p t i m i z a t i o n o f t h e c o m m u n i t i o n o f d r y m i n e r a l o r e , t o r e d u c e t h e amoun t o f w a t e r u s e d i n f r o t h f l o t a t i o n .

R e c o v e r v a l u a b l e p r o d u c t s b y d i s s o l v i n g t h e m e t a l s f r o m p a r t i c u l a t e s c o l l e c t e d i n t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s , a n d u s e s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s t o e x t r a c t t h e d e s i r e d p r o d u c t s .

Use s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n t o r e c o v e r c o p p e r o r o t h e r m e t a l s f r o m e f f l u e n t s t r e a m s , b e f o r e t h e w a t e r i s s e n t t o t h e t a i l i n g p o n d s .

I m p r o v e s m e l t e r d e s i g n t o c o n t a i n a n d e l i m i n a t e t h e r e l e a s e o f S O 2 a n d o t h e r h a z a r d o u s f l u e g a s e s i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e .

C OPP ER P R O D U C T 1 O N BY HY DROM ETA LLURG I C A L P R O C E S S E S

H y d r o m e t a l l u r g y h a s t h r e e a d v a n t a g e s o v e r t h e s m e l t i n g a n d c o n v e r t i n g p r o c e s s e s t h a t a r e t r a d i - t i o n a l l y u s e d f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f c o p p e r . F i r s t , l e a c h i n g i s a more e c o n o m i c a l m e t h o d o f e x t r a c t i o n when t h e o r e h a s a l o w c o p p e r c o n c e n t r a - t i o n . S e c o n d , i n c r e a s i n g e n e r g y c o s t s o f t h e f u r - n a c e s is m a k i n g p y r o m e t a l l u r g y l e s s e c o n o m i c a l . T h i r d , i t i s b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t f o r sme 1 t e r s t o meet s t r i n g e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a 1 r e g u 1 a - t i o n s [ B a r b o u r , 1 9 8 0 1 .

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12 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

The h y d r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l p r o c e s s e n t a i l s t h r e e m a j o r s t e p s ; l e a c h i n g , c e m e n t a t i o n ( o r a l t e r n a t e l y , s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n ) , a n d e l e c t r o w i n n i n g . T h i s me thod o f e x t r a c t i n g c o p p e r f r o m m i n e r a l o r e h a s n o t b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y a p p l i e d t o s u l f i d e o r e s , w h i c h a r e n o t r e a d i l y l e a c h e d . Due t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h S O 2 , h y d r o m e t a l l u r g y i s b e c o m i n g a more a c c e p t a b l e me thod o f p r o d u c i n g c o p p e r [ B i s w a s and D a n v e n p o r t , 19801.

L e a c h i n g

T h e r e a r e numerous m e t h o d s o f l e a c h i n g , and s e v e r a l t y p e s o f l e a c h i n g s o l u t i o n s . S u l f u r i c a c i d i s c o m m o n l y u s e d a s a l e a c h i n g m e d i u m , b u t new t e c h n o l o g y h a s i n t r o d u c e d o t h e r f o r m s o f l e a c h i n g s o l u t i o n s s u c h as a m m o n i a c a l and f e r r i c c h l o r i d e s o l u t i o n s . L e a c h i n g o f s u l f i d e o r e s c a n b e i m p r o v e d b y b a c t e r i a l e n h a n c e m e n t a s w e l l . The p r e g n a n t l e a c h s o l u t i o n c a n u n d e r g o e i t h e r s o l v e n t e x t r a c - t i o n , i o n e x c h a n g e o r c e m e n t a t i o n t o r e c o v e r t h e c o p p e r , w h i l e l e a v i n g t h e r e m a i n i n g t r a c e m e t a l s i n t h e l e a c h s o l u t i o n [ W a d s w o r t h , 19801 . T h e r e a r e f o u r m e t h o d s o f l e a c h i n g [Wadswor th , 19791 :

1. I n s i t u l e a c h i n g 2 . Dump a n d h e a p l e a c h i n g 3. V a t l e a c h i n g 4. A g i t a t e d l e a c h i n g

I n s i t u a n d dump l e a c h i n g a r e l o n g t e r m p r o - c e s s e s w h i c h c a n l e a c h t h e o r e w i t h a c i d s o l u t i o n f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s . Due t o t h i s l o n g p e r i o d o f e x p o s u r e , s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e s u l f i d e m i n e r a l s w i l l d i s s o l v e i n t o t h e l e a c h s o l u t i o n . C o n t a m i n a t i o n o f g r o u n d w a t e r may o c c u r and c o u l d p r o d u c e s e r i o u s d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s t o t h e s u r - r o u n d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t .

V a t l e a c h i n g a n d a g i t a t e d l e a c h i n g a r e p e r - f o r m e d w i t h much s m a l l e r v o l u m e s o f c r u s h e d o r e , a t much s h o r t e r p e r i o d s o f e x p o s u r e . T h e s e s h o r t t e r m p r o c e s s e s a r e u s e f u l f o r o r e s c o n t a i n i n g o c p p e r i n t h e o x i d e f o r m , w h i c h d i s s o l v e e a s i l y i n a c i d s o l u - t i o n s . The p r e g n a n t l e a c h s o l u t i o n i s t a k e n t o r e f i n i n g , w h i l e t h e r e m a i n i n g s l u d g e i s e i t h e r d i s p o s e d o r r e c y c l e d f o r a d d i t i o n a l p r o c e s s i n g t o r e c o v e r o t h e r m e t a l s n o t i n i t i a l l y e x t r a c t e d .

I f t h e l e a c h s o l u t i o n h a s a h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c o p p e r (40 t o 6 0 g / l ) , i t c a n b e s e n t d i r e c t l y

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NONFERROUS METALS 13

t o t h e e l e c t r o w i n n i n g c i r c u i t [ F l e t t , 19741 . When t h e s o l u t i o n h a s a l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n , mak ing d i r e c t e l e c t r o w i n n i n g u n e c o n o m i c a l , t h e n a p r o c e s s s t e p m u s t b e t a k e n t o p r e c i p i t a t e t h e c o p p e r f r o m t h e r e s t o f t h e l e a c h s o l u t i o n , a n d r e d i s s o l v e t h e c o p p e r a t a h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t o a n e l e c t r o - l y t e . T h r e e c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e p r o c e s s e s t h a t a c c o m p l i s h t h i s t a s k a r e c e m e n t a t i o n , s o l v e n t e x - t r a c t i o n , a n d i o n e x c h a n g e .

Cementation

C e m e n t a t i o n i s a r e a c t i o n w h e r e c o p p e r d e p o - s i t s d i r e c t l y o n t o t h e s u r f a c e o f s a c r i f i c i a l s c r a p i r o n . The e f f l u e n t s c o n t a i n v e r y l a r g e quan- t i t i e s o f i r o n s a l t s , a n d a r e g e n e r a l l y s e n t t o t h e t a i l i n g s pond f o r w a s t e t r e a t m e n t .

SoZvent Extraction

S o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n i s a p r o c e s s h a v i n g s e v e r a l c i r c u l a t i o n l o o p s , w h e r e c o p p e r i o n s a r e s e l e c t i v e - l y e x t r a c t e d f r o m a l e a c h s o l u t i o n b y a s p e c i f i c s o l v e n t . The e x t r a c t e d c o p p e r i s s t r i p p e d f r o m t h e s o l v e n t w h i c h i s t h e n r e c i r c u l a t e d i n t o t h e e x t r a c - t i o n c i r c u i t . The f l o w c h a r t shown i n F i g u r e 1.4 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e m u l t i p l e c i r c u i t s o f t h e s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n p r o c e s s .

Some o f t h e p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m s t h a t e x i s t i n t h i s p r o c e s s a r e t h e b u i l d u p o f t r a c e m e t a l s i n t h e l e a c h s o l u t i o n , and e n t r a i n e d s o l v e n t i n t h e e x t r a c t i o n and s t r i p p i n g s e c t i o n s . P r o b l e m s a s s o - c i a t e d w i t h e n t r a i n m e n t a r e c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e u n a v o i d a b l e d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e s o l v e n t . T h i s re- d u c e s t h e e x t r a c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e o r g a n i c s o l v e n t , a n d s o m e make u p m u s t b e a d d e d t o t h e r e c y c l e .

T a b l e 1.4 s u m m a r i z e s t h e p o l l u t a n t s and s u g - g e s t e d c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s f o r c o p p e r p r o d u c t i o n by t h e h y d r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l p r o c e s s .

Recommended A r e a s o f P r o c e s s M o d i f i c a t i o n

A f t e r e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s a r e recommended f o r f u r t h e r re- s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t :

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Table 1 . b Pollutants and Suggented Control Strategy for Copper Product ion bv Hydranetallurgical Processes

Process I Pollutant Lcoriaing in nissoived situ. heap. metal E31tfi. vat. sulfuric acid aR 1 t a ted orpanlr additives

(vetting agents)

Solvent I Dissolved

mrtnls. acid, cyanide I wi nn iny:

Pollutant Control Strategy Nature of Source in

Leach Inorganic , Recycle leach solution E O ~ U L ion

of excess metals, vetch Err seepage of metal3 into the ground water

Iron la from Inorganic Solvent extraction of scrap iron e f fluents

Excess from Inorsanic metals Improve mixer-settlers, process streams. end organic study methods for repeneration solvent depra- of solvents solvents

I dnt ion

Olcesa from prorcss streams. cathode wash and cooling

~ ~~~~

InorRonlc metals Solvent rxLrnction and acid of effluent?

w

n m VI 111

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LEACHING -

1 - - SOLVENT

EXTRACTION

Loaded Solvent

RAFFINATE

STRIPPING

SPENT Regenerated ELECTROLYTE

Organic

Figure 1.4 . Flow Chart of Solvent Extract ion Process. ( G i l l , 1980).

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16 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

R e c o v e r t r a c e m e t a l s i n t h e e f f l u e n t s t r e a m s b y s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n . C o n d u c t r e s e a r c h i n t h e a r e a o f s i m u l t a n e o u s e x t r a c t i o n o f s e v e r a l m e t a l s .

R e c o v e r e n t r a i n e d s o l v e n t s b y f i l t r a t i o n , f l o t a t i o n , c e n t r i f u g a l s e p a r a t i o n , e t c . E v a l u a t e m e t h o d s of s e p a r a t i n g l i q u i d - l i q u i d m i x t u r e s .

E v a l u a t e new t e c h n i q u e s f o r l e a c h i n g s u l p h i d e o r e s o r d e v e l o p new t e c h n i q u e s t o i m p r o v e s e l e c t i v i t y i n l e a c h i n g m i n e r a l o r e s .

U R A N I U M P R O D U C T I O N BY H Y D R O M E T A L L U R G Y PROCESSES

Uran ium i s b e c o m i n g a n i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t

F o r t h i s e n e r g y s o u r c e . Uran ium c o n t e n t o f a t y p i c a l o r e i s i n t h e o r d e r o f 0 . 2 t o 0.3 p e r c e n t U3Q8. r e a s o n , l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f m a t e r i a l mus t b e h a n d l e d t o m i n e and e x t r a c t u r a n i u m . The c o n v e n - t i o n a l r e c o v e r y p r o c e s s e s i n c l u d e a c i d o r a l k a l i n e l e a c h i n g , s o l u t i o n p u r i f i c a t i o n , and p r o d u c t p r e c i - p i t a t i o n i n t o y e 1 l o w c a k e (U3 08). S o l v e n t e x t r a c - t i o n and i o n e x c h a n g e h a v e become t h e p r i m a r y me th - o d s f o r s o l u t i o n p u r i f i c a t i o n and c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f u r a n i u m [ R e e d , e t a l . 1 9 7 9 1 . F i g u r e 1 .5 i s a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a p r o c e s s f l o w c h a r t f o r t h e r e f i n - i n g o f u r a n i u m o r e .

L e a c h i n g

A s m e n t i o n e d i n S e c t i o n 1.3, t h e r e a r e numer- o u s m e t h o d s o f l e a c h i n g w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f o r e p r e p a r a t i o n . I n t e r e s t h a s i n c r e a s e d i n t h e u s e o f i n - s i t u l e a c h i n g o f u n d e r g r o u n d d e p o s i t s f o r u r a n i u m m i n i n g . The a d v a n t a g e s o f i n - s i t u l e a c h i n g a r e t h e s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n o f p r o c e s s i n g c o s t s , and t h e m i n i m a l d i s t u r b a n c e t o t h e s u r f a c e c o n d i - t i o n s . The s u b s u r f a c e d e p o s i t i s f l o o d e d w i t h l e a c h s o l u t i o n , w h i c h i s t h e n pumped t o t h e s u r f a c e f o r u r a n i u m r e c o v e r y . Wi th i n - s i t u l e a c h i n g , t h e o r e b o d y r e m a i n s i n t a c t a n d o n l y t h e m e t a l i s r e m o v e d . T h e r e f o r e , a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l v o l u m e o f w a s t e r e q u i r e s d i s p o s a l .

T h i s me thod o f l e a c h i n g c a n o n l y b e d o n e when t h e o r e b o d y i s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n a r o c k f o r m a t i o n w h i c h i s r e l a t i v e l y i m p e r m e a b l e ; o t h e r w i s e t h e g r o u n d w a t e r may become c o n t a m i n a t e d . The

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L I X N I A N T

LEACH F I E L D

MAKE-UP

REAGENT

PRETREATMENT

REAGENTS FOR L I X I V I A N T t- REGENERATION

EVAPORATION

t - I -

D I S P O S A L INVENTORY

CONTROL

P R E C I P I T A T I O N STEAM AND/OR REAGENTS

DEWATERING

YELLOW CAKE SLURRY

DRYING AND * PACKIN

t BLEED

FOR IMPURITY CONTROL

YELLOW CAKE PRODUCT

-ytt\'itth ELUTION C I R C U I T

F i g u r e 1 .5 . Process S c h e m a t i c f a r U r a n i u m R e c o v e r y

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p o s s i b i l i t y o f p o l l u t i n g f r e s h - w a t e r a q u i f e r s i s p r e s e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y when a d e p o s i t i s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n a n a q u i f e r . W i t h p r o p e r d e s i g n , o p e r a t i o n , m o n i t o r i n g , a n d c l e a n u p , i n - s i t u l e a c h i n g c a n b e a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y a c c e p t a b l e me thod o f e x t r a c t i n g m e t a l s f r o m s u b s u r f a c e d e p o s i t s .

O t h e r m e t h o d s o f l e a c h i n g c a n b e u s e d , b u t t h e damage t o t h e s u r f a c e , t h e amoun t o f w a s t e p r o - d u c e d , a n d t h e c o s t s f o r p r o c e s s i n g t h e o r e i n - c r e a s e .

Uran ium c a n a l s o b e r e c o v e r e d f r o m l e a c h s o l u - t i o s u s e d f o r t h e e x t r a c t i o n o f o t h e r n o n - f e r r o u s m e t a l s l i k e c o p p e r , z i n c , a n d n i c k e l . Once t h e u r a n i u m i s r e c l a i m e d f r o m t h e l e a c h s o l u t i o n i t c a n b e r e c y c l e d i n t o t h e l e a c h i n g p r o c e s s a f t e r some "make-up" i s a d d e d . A t a i l i n g s pond i s u s e d t o s t o r e t h e s p e n t s o l u t i o n s o t h a t s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s s e t t l e , and t h e e f f l u e n t s c a n b e c o n t a i n e d w i t h o u t a f f e c t i n g t h e s u r r o u n d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t .

S o l u t i o n P u r i f i c a t i o n and C o n c e n t r a t i o n

L e a c h s o l u t i o n s g e n e r a l l y c o n t a i n a l a r g e a m o u n t o f i m p u r i t i e s s u c h a s molybdenum, v a n a d i u m , s e l e n i u m , i r o n , a n d c o p p e r . The c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p r e g n a n t s o l u t i o n s may r a n g e b e t w e e n 0.6 a n d 2.0 g / l U3O8. S o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s a n d , i n some c a s e s , i o n e x c h a n g e a r e u s e d t o p u r i f y and c o n c e n t r a t e t h e U 3 0 8 i n t h e s o l u t i o n . The f i n a l s o l u t i o n , a f t e r s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n , c a n b e made t o b e 30 t o 50 g / l . I o n e x c h a n g e o f c l a r i f i e d l e a c h s o l u t i o n u s u a l l y r e s u l t s i n a n e l l u a n t c o n t a i n i n g 10 t o 1 2 g / l u308 [ R e e d , e t a l . 1 9 7 9 1 .

By u s i n g a n i o n e x c h a n g e u n i t f i r s t a n d t h e n a s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n p r o c e s s , t h e amount o f s o l v e n t r e q u i r e d t o r e c o v e r t h e u r a n i u m may b e g r e a t l y r e d u c e d . T h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n h a s a n e c o n o m i c a d v a n - t a g e , b y r e d u c i n g s o l v e n t i n v e n t o r y , b u t may a l s o l e s s e n t h e p o l l u t i o n e f f e c t s d u e t o s o l v e n t en - t r a i n m e n t and d e g r a d a t i o n .

Recommended A r e a s o f P r o c e s s M o d i f i c a t i o n

A f t e r e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s t e c h n o l o g y , t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s a r e recommended f o r f u r t h e r r e - s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t :

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NONFERROUS METALS 19

E v a l u a t e new l e a c h i n g s o l u t i o n s t h a t may o f f e r i m p r o v e m e n t i n l e a c h i n g s e l e c t i v i t y a n d / o r e f f i c i e n c y .

E v a l u a t e s o l v e n t s f o r i m p r o v e d s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n o f u r a n i u m s a l t s w i t h m i n i m a l s o l v e n t d e g r a d a t i o n .

D i v e r t r e c y c l e s t r e a m s i n t o a d d i t i o n a l p r o c e s s c i r c u i t s t o r e m o v e a n d r e c o v e r t r a c e m e t a l s .

REFERENCES

B a r b o u r , A.K. "The E n v i r o n m e n t a 1 P r e s s u r e s o n N o n f e r r o u s M e t a l s P r o d u c t i o n " , M e t a l s a n d M a t e r i a l s , Vo l . No. 1 9 8 0 , p p . 42-46 .

B i s w a s , A.K. a n d D a v e n p o r t , W.G. E x t r a c t i v e M e t a l l u r n v of C o p p e r , 2nd e d i t i o n , Pe rgamon P r e s s 1 9 8 0 .

"Cyprus Bagdad: ' S t a t e o f t h e A r t ' C o p p e r - Mo 1 ybdenum P r o d u c t ion ' ' , En0 i n e e r i n g and M i n i n g J o u r n a l , V o l . 181, No. 8 , 1 9 8 0 , pp. 56- 6 3 .

F l e t t , D.S. " S o l v e n t E x t r a c t i o n i n C o p p e r H y d r o m e t a l l u r g y " T r a n s . I n s t n . Min. M e t a l l . , S e c t i o n C , V o l . 8 3 , M a r c h , 1 9 7 4 , p p . 30-3.

G i l l , C.B. N o n f e r r o u s E x t r a c t i v e M e t a l l u r g y , J o h n W i l e y & Sons, IDC., 1 9 8 0 .

R e e d , A.K. , M e e k s , H.C. , P o m e r o y , S.E., a n d H a l e , V.Q. A s s e s s m e n t of E n v i r o n m e n t a l A s p e c t s of Uran ium M i n i n g a n d M i l l i n g , EPA-60017-761036, Dec . 1 9 7 9 .

S c h w i t z e b e l , K., e t a l . T race E l e m e n t s S t u d v a t a P r i m a r y C o p p e r S m e l t e r . Volume L., EPA/600/2- 7 8 / 0 6 5 a , M a r c h , 1 9 7 8 .

U.S. EPA. D e v e l o p m e n t Document for I n t e r i m F i n a l E f f l u e n t L i m i t a t i o n s G u i d e l i n e s and P r o p o s e d - N e w S o u r c e P e r f o r m a n c e S t a n d a r d s f o r t h e P r i m a r y C o p p e r S m e l t i n g S u b c a t e n o r y a n d t h e P r i m a r y C o p p e r R e f i n i n g S u b c a t e n o r y o f t h e C o p p e r Sepmen t o f t h e N o n f e r r o u s Me ta l s M a n u f a c t u r i n g P o i n t S o u r c e C a t e g o r y , E P A 44011-751032-b , F e b r u a r y , 1 9 7 5 .

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20 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

Wadswor th , M.E. " R e v i e w o f D e v e l o p m e n t s i n H y d r o m e t a l l u r g y i n 1978" , J o u r n a l of M e t a l s , Vo l . 31, n o . 5 , 1 9 7 9 , p p . 1 2 .

Wadswor th , M.E. "Rev iew o f D e v e l o p m e n t s i n H y d r o m e t a l l u r g y i n 1979", J o u r n a l of M e t a l s , V o l . 3 2 , n o . 4 , 1 9 8 0 , p p . 27-31.

SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES

A g e r s , D.W. a n d DeMent , E.R. "The E v a l u a t i o n o f N e w L I X R e a g e n t s f o r t h e E x t r a c t i o n o f C o p p e r a n d S u g g e s t i o n s f o r t h e D e s i g n o f C o m m e r c i a l M i x e r - S e t t l e r P l a n t s . " I n g e n i e u r s b l a d , 41, 1 9 7 2 , p p . 433-4 .

A n d e r s o n , S.O.S. a n d R e i n h a r d t , B. "MAR-Hydrometal l u r g i c a 1 R e c o v e r y P r o c e s s e s . " , P a p e r g i v e n f o r t h e ISEC 7 7 , S e p t . 1 9 7 7 , pp. 798-804 o f t h e C I M S p e c i a l V o l . 2 1 , 1 9 7 9 .

A n s d e n , M . , S w i e t i n , R . , a n d T r e i l h a r d , D . " S e l e c t i o n a n d D e s i g n o f T e x a s G u l f C a n a d i a n C o p p e r S m e l t e r s a n d R e f i n e r y " , J o u r n a l of Meta ls , V o l . 3 0 , No. 7 , 1 9 7 8 , p p . 16 -26 .

"Ar izona ' s C o p p e r P r o d u c e r s R a l l y t o F i g h t t h e E.P.A. S m e l t e r s R e g u l a t i o n s " , E n g i n e e r i n g Minine . J o u r n a l , V o l . 1 7 9 , No. 4 , 1 9 7 8 , p g . 3 3 .

A s h b r o o k , A.W., I t y k o v i c h , I.J., a n d S o w a , W . " L o s s e s o f O r g a n i c Compounds i n S o l v e n t E x t r a c t i o n P r o c e s s e s " P a p e r g i v e n f o r t h e ISEC 7 7 , S e p t . 1 9 7 9 , p p . 7 8 1 - 7 9 0 o f C I M S p e c i a l Vo l . 2 1 , 1 9 7 9 .

B a r n e r , H.E., H u l b r e d , G.L., a n d K i l u m p a r , I . V . " S e n s i t i v i t y o f L I X P l a n t C o s t s t o V a r i a t i o n s o f P r o c e s s P a r a m e t e r s " , P a p e r g i v e n f o r t h e ISEC 7 7 , S e p t . 1 9 7 7 , p p . 5 5 2 - 5 6 0 o f C I M S p e c i a l V o l . 2 1 , 1 9 7 9 .

B a r t h e l , G . " S o l v e n t E x t r a c t i o n R e c o v e r y o f C o p p e r f r o m M i n e a n d S m e l t e r Waters", J o u r n a l of M e t a l s , V o l . 3 0 , No. 7 , 1 9 7 8 , p p . 7-12 .

C l a r k s v i l l e Z i n c P l a n t F i r s t i n t h e U.S. f o r 37 Years", M i n i n g M a g a z i n e , V o l . 1 4 0 , No. 1 2 , 1 9 7 9 , p g . 551 .

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NONFERROUS METALS 2 1

C o g u t , B. " M o r e n c i C l e a r - A i r P r e d i c t i o n S y s t e m Has U n i q u e P o t e n t i a l f o r C o n t r o l l i n g A i r Q u a l i t y " , E n g i n e e r i n @ M i n i n g J o u r n a l , V o l . 1 7 9 , N O . w. 65-70 .

C o l l i n s , G., C o o p e r , J .H . , B r a n d y , M.R. " D e s i g n i n g S o l v e n t E x t r a c t i o n P l a n t s t o C u t t h e R i s k o f F i r e s " , E n g i n e e r i n q M i n i n g J o u r n a l , V o l . 1 7 9 , No. 1 2 , 1 9 7 8 , p p . 58-62 .

C o s t l e , G.M. " E n v i r o n m e n t a l R e g u l a t i o n o f t h e M e t a l s I n d u s t r y " , J o u r n a l of M e t a l s , V o l . 3 0 , No. 1, 1 9 7 8 , pp . 30-32.

D a v i d s o n , D.H. " I n - S i t u L e a c h i n g o f N o n f e r r o u s M e t a l s " M i n i n g C o n n r e s s J o u r n a l , V o l . 6 6 , No. 7 , 1 9 8 0 , p p . 52-57.

F i n n e y , S.A. "A R e v i e w o f P r o g r e s s i n t h e A p p l i c a t i o n o f S o l v e n t E x t r a c t i o n f o r t h e R e c o v e r y o f Uran ium f r o m Ores T r e a t e d b y t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n G o l d M i n i n g Ind." P a p e r g i v e n t o t h e ISEC 7 7 , S e p t . 7 7 , p p . 5 6 7 - 5 7 6 o f t h e C a n a d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f M i n i n g and M e t a l l u r g y , S p e c i a l Volume 2 1 , 1 9 7 9 .

H e n r i e , F. " G e a r i n g u p t o C o n t r o l T r a c e E l e m e n t s D u r i n g M i n e r a l P r o c e s s i n g " , M i n i n g C o n g r e s s J o u r n a l , V o l . 6 6 , No. 4 , 1 9 8 0 , p p . 1 8 - 2 0 ,

H u f f , R.V. , D a v i d s o n , D.A. , B o u g h m a n , D . , a n d A x e n , S. "Techno l o g y f o r I n - S i t u U r a n i u m L e a c h i n g " , M i n i n g E n g i n e e r i n g , Vol. 3 2 , No. 2 , 1 9 8 0 , pp. 163-164 .

" H y d r o m e t a l l u r g y R e v i e w , 1978" , M i n i n g E n g i n e e r i n g , Vo l . 31 , N O . 5 , 1 9 7 9 , p p . 527-529 .

" H y d r o m e t a l l u r g y R e v i e w , 1979" M i n i n g E n g i n e e r i n g , V o l . 3 2 , N O . 5 , 1 9 8 0 , pp,. 540-542.

I s e n b e r g , E. " A l t e r n a t i v e s f o r H a z a r d o u s Waste g a n a g e m e n t i n t h e M e t a l s S m e l t i n g a n d R e f i n i n g I n d u s t r i e s , EPA/530/SW-l53c.

" J e r s e y M i n e s Z i n c : P l a n t D e s i g n a n d S t a r t u p " , E n g i n e e r i n g @ M i n i n g J o u r n a l , V o l . 181, No. 7 , 1 9 8 0 , p p . 65-88 .

J o n e s , H.R. u l u t i o n C o n t r o l i n t h e N o n f e r r o u s Metals I n d u s t r y , 1 9 7 2 , Noyes Da ta C o r p . , 1 9 7 2 .

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22 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

K o r d o s k y , G.A., M a c K a y , K.D., a n d V i r n i g , M . J . "A N e w G e n e r a t i o n o f C o p p e r E x t r a c t a n t " , P a p e r p r e s e n t e d f o r M e t a l l u r g y S o c i e t y o f A I M E ,

976 .

M a c D o n a l d , B.J . a n d Weiss, M . " I m p a c t o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l C o n t r o l E x p e n d i t u r e s o f U.S. Cu, P b , a n d Zn M i n i n g a n d S m e l t i n g " , J o u r n a l of Meta l s , V o l . 3 0 , No. 1, 1 9 7 8 , pp 24-29 .

Mackay , D., a n d M e d i r , M . "The A p p l i c a b i l i t y o f S o l v e n t E x t r a c t i o n t o Wastewater T r e a t m e n t " , P a p e r g i v e n t o t h e ISEC 7 7 , S e p t . 1 9 7 7 , p p . 791-797 o f t h e C I M S p e c i a l Vol. 2 1 , 1 9 7 9 .

Mackiw, V.W. " C u r r e n t T r e n d s i n C h e m i c a l M e t a l l u r g y " , The C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l of C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g , V o l . 4 6 , No. 2 , 1 9 6 8 , p p . 3-15.

McGarr, H. J . " S o l v e n t E x t r a c t i o n S t a r s i n Mak ing U l t r a p u r e Copper" , C h e m i c a l E n n i n e e r i n q , V o l . 7 7 , No. 1 7 , Aug. 1 0 , 1 9 7 0 , p p . 82-84 .

M i z r a h i , J., B a r n e s , E., a n d M e y e r , D. "The D e v e l o p m e n t o f E f f i c i e n t I n d u s t r i a l M i x e r - S e t t l e r s " , P a p e r P r e s e n t e d t o t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a 1 S o l v e n t E x t r a c t i o n C o n f e r e n c e 1 9 7 4 ( ISEC 7 4 1 , S e p t . 1 9 7 4 .

R e n z o n i , L.S . " E x t r a c t i v e M e t a l l u r g y a t I n t e r n a t i o n a l N i c k e l -- A H a l f C e n t u r y o f P r o g r e s s " , The C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l o f Chemical E n g i n e e r i n k , Vo. 4 7 , No. 2 , 1 9 6 9 , p p . 3-11.

S c h u l t z , D.A. " P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l and E n e r g y C o n s u m p t i o n a t U.S. C o p p e r S m e l t e r s " , J o u r n a l of Meta ls , Vo l . 3 0 , No. 1, 1 9 7 8 , p p . 14 -20 .

S t e l l i n g , 111, J.H.E. " S o u r c e C a t e g o r v S u r v e y : Uran ium Ref i n i n n I n d u s t r y " , EPA-450/3-80/010, May 8 0 .

U.S. EPA. S o l u t i o n M i n i n g of Uranium: A d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s G u i d e , PB-301 1 7 3 , May 7 9 .

U.S. EPA. H e a v y M e t a l P o l l u t i o n From S o i l l a n e a t - Ore S m e l t e r s a n d M i l l s , EPA/600/2-771171, Aug. 1 9 7 1 .

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NONFERROUS METALS 23

U.S. EPA. Economic I m p a c t of E n v i r o n m e n t a l R e g u l a t i o n on t h e U.S. C o v v e r I n d u s t r y , EPA/230 /3 -78 /002 , J a n . 1 9 7 8 .

V i r n i g , M . J . " S y n t h e t i c S t r u c t u r e , a n d H y d r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l P r o p e r t i e s of LIX 34", P a p e r g i v e n f o r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l S o l v e n t E x t r a c t i o n C o n f e r e n c e i n 1 9 7 7 ( I S E C 771, S e p t . 1 9 7 7 , p p . 535-541.

W e i s e n b e r g , I. " D e s i g n a n d O p e r a t i n g P a r a m e t e r s f o r E m i s s i o n C o n t r o l S t u d i e s ; K e n n e c o t t , H u r l e y " , EPA/600 /2 -76 /036d , F e b . 1 9 7 6 .

W e i s e n b e r g , I. " D e s i g n a n d O p e r a t i n g P a r a m e t e r s for E m i s s i o n C o n t r o l S t u d i e s ; P h e l p s Dodge , M o r e n c i " , EPA/600 /2 -76 /036g , F e b . 1 9 7 6 .

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C H A P T E R 2

E LEC TR OP LAT I NG

ELECTROPLATING OF C O M M O N METALS

E l e c t r o p l a t i n g i n v o l v e s a s e r i e s o f p r o c e s s s t e p s t h a t i n c l u d e t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e p a r t i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p l a t i n g o p e r a t i o n . F i g u r e 2.1 i s a n e x a m p l e f l o w c h a r t , o f ch romium p l a t i n g o f z i n c d i e c a s t i n g s . The s e q u e n c e a n d / o r t h e p r o c e s s s t e p s may v a r y f r o m p l a n t t o p l a n t b e c a u s e o f t h e many v a r i a b l e s i n v o l v e d w i t h e l e c t r o p l a t i n g . T a b l e 2.1 i s a l i s t o f p o l l u t a n t s t h a t t y p i c a l l y e x i s t i n e l e c t r o p l a t i n g w a s t e s t reams and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n r a n g e s .

T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s m e t h o d s o f t r e a t m e n t f o r d i s s o l v e d m e t a l s i n e f f l u e n t s t r e a m s . They a r e [ U . S . E P A , 1 9 7 4 1 :

Ion e x c h a n g e R e v e r s e o s m o s i s E l e c t r o d i a l y s i s C h e m i c a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n Ion f l o t a t i o n C a r b o n a b s o r b t i o n L i q u i d - L i q u i d e x t r a c t i o n

Each me thod h a s a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s t h a t mus t b e c o n s i d e r e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s p e c i - f i c e l e c t r o p l a t i n g i n d u s t r y , and p r e c i p i t a t i o n c u r r e n t l y h a s t h e w i d e s t a p p l i c a t i o n i n t r e a t m e n t o f e l e c t r o p l a t i n g w a s t e w a t e r s . S i n c e m o s t o f t h e s e t e c h n o l o g i e s a r e w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d , s i m i l a r m e t h o d s c a n b e a d o p t e d a s a d d i t o n a l p r o c e s s s t e p s t o r e m o v e and r e c o v e r t r a c e m e t a l s , w i t h t h e w a t e r r e c y c l e d b a c k i n t o t h e p r o c e s s .

Recommendat i o n s f o r P r o c e s s M o d i f i c a t i o n s

The b e s t way t o r e d u c e t h e amount o f w a t e r n e e d e d in a n e l e c t r o p l a t i n g p r o c e s s i s t o m a i n t a i n good " h o u s e k e e p i n g " p r a c t i c e s t o a v o i d s p i l l a g e o r

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CLEAN n WATER

ALKALINE CLEAN

I- RINSE

h

PRECIPITATE

I ACID DIP

I RINSE

PRECIPITATE RINSE

I I

ACID COPPER

- RINSE A

1

SETTLE

SLUDGE I TREATED WATER

PRECIPITATE NICKEL AND NICKEL

PLATE

- - REDUCE CHROMIUM

- RINSE I t

CHROMILIN - PRECIPITATE P1.ATF

I RINSE AND

DRY A

I Figure 2.1. Flow Chart for Water Flow in Chromium Plating

Zinc Die Castings, Decorative (U.S. EPA, April 1975).

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ELECTROPLATING 2 7

TABLE 2 . 1 COMPOSITION OF RAW WASTE STREAMS FROM C O M M O N METALS P L A T I N G [ U . S . EPA, 1 9 7 9 1

C o p p e r

N i c k e l

Chromium, T o t a l

Chromium H e x a v a l e n t

Z i n c

C y a n i d e , T o t a l

C y a n i d e , Amenab le t o C h l o r i n a t i o n

F l u o r i d e

Cadmium

Lead

I r o n

T i n

P h o s p h o r u s

T o t a l S u s p e n d e d S o l i d s

~

0 . 0 3 2 - 272 .5

0 . 0 1 9 - 2 9 5 4

0.888 - 525 .9

0 . 0 0 5 - 3 3 4 . 5

0 . 1 1 2 - 252 .0

0 . 0 0 5 - 150 .0

0 .003 - 1 3 0 . 0

0 . 0 2 2 - 1 4 1 . 7

0 .007 - 21 .60

0 . 6 6 3 - 25 .39

0 .410 - 1 4 8 2

0 . 0 6 0 - 1 0 3 . 4

0 . 0 2 0 - 1 4 4 . 0

0.100 - 9970

m i n i m i z e " d r a g o u t " o f t r e a t i n g s o l u t i o n s i n t o r i n s e waters . O t h e r r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s i n c l u d e :

S u b s t i t u t e l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o l u t i o n s i n p l a c e o f h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n b a t h s .

Use n o n - c y a n i d e s o l u t i o n s i n p l a c e o f t h e c y a n i d e t r e a t m e n t s .

Use c o u n t e r - f l o w r i n s e s .

Add a w e t t i n g a g e n t t o r i n s e w a t e r s .

I n s t a l l a i r o r u l t r a s o n i c a g i t a t i o n .

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28 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

R e c o v e r f o r r e u s e m e t a l s t h a t a r e i n e f f l u e n t s t r e a m s b y s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n .

R e c y c l e u s e d r i n s e w a t e r s i n t o t h e make- u p s o l u t i o n s o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e t r e a t i n g b a t h s .

REFERENCES

U.S. EPA. D- Document fer I n t e r i m F i n a l g f f l u e n t L i m i t a t i o n s G u i d e l i n e s and P r o D o s e d - N e w S o u r c e P e r f o r m a n c e S t a n d a r d s f o r t h e Common & P r e c i o u s M e t a l s Segment o f t h e E l e c t r o D l a t i n g P o i n t S o u r c e C a t e g o r y , E P A / 4 4 0 / 1 - 7 5 / 0 4 0 , A p r i l 1 9 7 5 .

U.S. EPA. Document for E x i s t i n g S o u r c e P r e t r e a t m e n t S t a n d a r d s f o r t h e E l e c t r o D l a t i n q P o i n t S o u r c e C a t e g o r y , E P A / 4 4 0 / 1 - 7 9 / 0 0 3 , Aug. 1 9 7 9 .

SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES

B e l m o n t , T.V. and C u n n i f f , J.G. " P l a t i n g W a s t e T r e a t m e n t " , I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e s , V o l . 2 6 , No. 6 , 1 9 8 0 , p p . 1 4 & 27.

E l i c k e r , L.N. E v a p o r a t i v e R e c o v e r y of Chromium P l a t i n g , R i n s e W a t e r , EPA/600 /2 -78-127 , J u n e 1 9 7 5 .

H a l l o w e l l , J.B. A s s e s s m e n t of I n d u s t r i a l H a z a r d o u s W a s t e P r a c t i c e s , E l e c t r o ~ l a t i n q and M e t a l F i n i s h i n g , J o b ShoDs, EPA/530/SW-l36C, S e p t . 1 9 7 6 .

L a n d r i g a n , R.B. and H o l l o w e l l , J .B. R e m o v a l of Chromium f r o m P l a t i n g R i n s e W a t e r U s i n % A c t i v a t e d C a r b o n , E P A / 6 7 0 / 2 - 7 5 / 0 5 5 , J u n e 1 9 7 5 .

M c D o n a l d , C.W. R e m o v a l o f T o x i c M e t a l s f r o m F i n i s h i n g W a s t e w a t e r S o l v e n t E x t r a c t i o n . E P A / 6 0 0 / 2 - 7 8 / 0 1 1 , F e b r u a r y , 1 9 7 8 .

P e t e r s e n , R.J . and C o b i a n , K.E. Membranes for T r e a t i n g M a F i n i s h i n g E f f l u e n t s & R e v e r s e O s m o s i s , E P A / 6 0 0 / 2 - 7 6 / 1 9 7 .

P o o n , C . " E l e c t r o c h e m i c a l T r e a t m e n t , o f P l a t i n g R i n s e W a t e r " , E f f l u e n t a n d W a t e r T r e a t m e n t J o u r n a l , J u l y 1 9 7 9 , p p . 351-355.

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ELECTROPLATING 29

R o z i e l l e , L.T., K o p p , J r . , C . V . , a n d G o b i a n , K . E . New Membranes for R e v e r s e O s m o s i s T r e a t m e n t of Meta l F i n i s h i n g E f f l u e n t s , EPA/660 /2 -73 /033 .

U.S. EPA. C o n t r o l of V o l a t i l e O r g a n i c E m i s s i o n s f r o m S o l v e n t M e t a l C l e a n i n g . EPA/450/2- 7 7 1 0 2 2 .

U.S. EPA. C O D D ~ ~ . N i c k e l . Chromium a n d Z i n c Segmen t of U e c t r o D l a t i n g D e v e l o o m e n t Document - f o r E f f l u e n t L i m i t a t i o n s G u i d e l i n e s a n d N e w S o u r c e P e r f o r m a n c e S t a n d a r d s , EPA/440/1-74/ - - 38.

U.S. EPA. I n n o v a t i v e R i n s e - a n d - R e c o v e r y S y s t e m fOb Meta l F i n i s h i n g P r o c e s s , EPA/600/2-77-099.

U . S . EPA. S e c o n d C o n f e r e n c e o n A d v a n c e d P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l f o r M e t a l F i n i s h i n g I n d u s t r y , EPAl8- 7 9 1 0 1 4 .

U.S. EPA. S o u r c e A s s e s s m e n t : S o l v e n t E v a p o r a t i o n - D e g r e a s i n g O o e r a t i o n s , E P A / 6 0 0 / 2 - 7 9 / 0 1 9 f .

U.S. EPA. Waste Water T r e a t m e n t a n d R e u s e i n a Metal F i n i s h i n g J o b S h o o , EPA/670 /2 -74 /042 .

Y o s t , K . J . a n d S c a r f i , A. " F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g Z i n c S o l u b i l i t y i n E l e c t r o p l a t i n g Waste", J o u r n a l ---- o f t h e Water P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n , V o l . 5 1 , NO. 7 , 1 9 7 9 , pp . 1878-1887 .

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C H A P T E R 3

C O A L CONVERSION PROCESSES

I N T R O D U C T I O N

The u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n e r g y m a r k e t and t h e v e r y d a n g e r o f g l o b a l o i l s h o r t a g e s i n t h e n e x t f e w d e c a d e s , h a v e n e c e s s i - t a t e d a r a p i d e x p a n s i o n i n t h e d o m e s t i c e n e r g y b a s e i n t h e U.S. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c - t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c f u e l s f r o m t h e a b u n d a n t r e s e r v e s o f c o a l i s a m a j o r o b j e c t i v e o f t h e n a t i o n ' s e n e r g y r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s . C o a l l i q u e f a c - t i o n a n d c o a l g a s i f i c a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s h a v e re - c e i v e d r e n e w e d i n t e r e s t i n t h i s r e g a r d . Economic v i a b i l i t y a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t w i l l b e t h e l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s i n t h e c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n o f s u c h p r o c e s s e s .

L I Q U EF AC T I O N

A l l c o a l l i q u e f a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s p r o d u c e l i - q u i d s f o r m c o a l , b y y i e l d i n g a m a t e r i a l h a v i n g a h i g h e r h y d r o g e n c o n t e n t t h a n c o a l . F u e l o i l s c o n - t a i n a b o u t 9 p e r c e n t h y d r o g e n a n d g a s o l i n e 1 4 p e r - c e n t a s c o m p a r e d t o r o u g h l y 5 p e r c e n t h y d r o g e n i n raw c o a l . C u r r e n t l y , some t w e n t y - o d d l i q u e f a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s a r e i n v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t b y i n d u s t r y a n d f e d e r a l a g e n c i e s . C o a l l i q u e f a c t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s c a n b e c a t e g o r i z e d u n d e r h y d r o g e n a - t i o n , p y r o l y s i s a n d h y d r o c a r b o n i z a t i o n , a n d c a t l y - t i c s y n t h e s i s . O f t h e s e , h y d r o g e n a t i o n i s t h e m o s t a d v a n c e d [ K o r a d e k a n d P a t e l , 1 9 7 8 1 .

I n t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g f o u r c o a l l i q u e f a c - t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d :

1. S o l v e n t r e f i n e d c o a l , ( S a c ) 2 . S y n t h o i l 3. H-Coal 4 . Exxon d o n o r s o l v e n t

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32 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

S o l v e n t R e f i n e d C o a l L i q u e f a c t i o n

A f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d SRC l i q u e f a c t i o n s y s t e m f l o w s c h e m e [ S h i e l d , e t a&. 1 9 7 9 1 i s shown i n F i g u r e 3.1. Raw c o a l f r o m t h e c o a l s t o r a g e f a c i l i - t i e s i s s e n t t o t h e c o a l p r e t r e a t m e n t o p e r a t i o n w h e r e it i s s i z e d , d r i e d , a n d mixed w i t h r e a c t o r p r o d u c t s l u r r y r e c y c l e d f r o m t h e g a s s e p a r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s . The r e s u 1 t i n g f e e d s l u r r y i s c o m b i n e d w i t h r e c y c l e d h y d r o g e n f r o m t h e h y d r o g e n / h y d r o c a r - b o n r e c o v e r y p r o c e s s a n d makeup h y d r o g e n . T h i s h y d r o g e n - r i c h s l u r r y i s pumped t h r o u g h a p r e h e a t e r t o t h e l i q u e f a c t i o n r e a c t o r o r d i s s o l v e r . E x o t h e r - m i c h y d r o g e n a t i o n r e a c t i o n s i n i t i a t e d i n t h e p r e - h e a t e r c o n t i n u e i n t h e d i s s o l v e r , w h i c h t y p i c a l l y o p e r a t e s b e t w e e n 435’OC - 470oC. The r e a c t o r p r o - d u c t s l u r r y i s s e n t t o t h e g a s s e p a r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s w h e r e t h e g a s e o u s p r o d u c t s a r e r e m o v e d . A u x i l i a r y p r o c e s s e s s e p a r a t e t h e s e g a s e s i n t o c o m p o n e n t s i n c l u d i n g r e c y c l e d h y d r o g e n , S N G , L N G , a n d s u l f u r s a l t s . The s u l f u r s p e c i e s a r e f u r t h e r c o n v e r t e d t o b y - p r o d u c t e l e m e n t a l s u l f u r . P a r t o f t h e s e p a r a t e d s l u r r y f r o m g a s s e p a r a t i o n i s r e c y c l e d t o t h e c o a l p r e t r e a t m e n t o p e r a t i o n . The r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s l u r r y i s s e n t t o t h e f r a c t i o n a t o r . The f r a c t i o n a - t o r g e n e r a t e s t h r e e s t r e a m s ; a l i g h t d i s t i l l a t e w h i c h i s h y d r o t r e a t e d t o f o r m n a p h t h a a n d f u e l o i l p r o d u c t s , l i q u i d SRC, t h e p r i m a r y p r o d u c t , a n d a b o t t o m s t r e a m w h i c h i s s e n t t o s o l i d s / l i q u i d s s e p a - r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s . The vacuum d i s t i l l a t i o n u n i t i n t h e s o l i d s / l i q u i d s s e p a r a t i o n r e c o v e r s a d d i t i o n a l SRC l i q u i d f r o m t h e f r a c t i o n a t o r b o t t o m s , y i e l d i n g a r e s i d u e o f h i g h m i n e r a l m a t t e r c o n t e n t . P a r t o f t h i s r e s i d u e i s g a s i f i e d t o p r o d u c e makeup h y d r o - g e n .

P a r t i c u l a t e E m i s s i o n s

F u g i t i v e e m i s s i o n s ( i . e . , p a r t i c u l a t e s ) w i l l b e e m i t t e d f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g s o u r c e s : c o a l s t o r a g e p i l e s , c o a l r e c l a i m i n g and c r u s h i n g , c o a l r e c e i v - i n g , d r y e r s t a c k g a s , and a s h f r o m s t r e a m g e n e r a - t i o n . Trace e l e m e n t s o f f u g i t i v e e m i s s i o n s f r o m c o a l p r e p a r a t i o n r e p r e s e n t a p o t e n t i a l h e a l t h h a z a r d [ H o p k i n s , & a l . 1 9 7 8 1 . T r a c e e l e m e n t c o n - c e n t r a t i o n s i n p a r t i c u l a t e s e s c a p i n g f r o m t r e a t e d s t a c k g a s a r e e n r i c h e d i n z i n c , c o p p e r , z i r c r o n i u m , molybdenum and s e l e n i u m . T h e t r a c e e l e m e n t c o n c e n - t r a t i o n o f c o a l d u s t i s e x p e c t e d t o b e s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e p a r e n t c o a l , a l t h o u g h c e r t a i n t r a c e e l e m e n t s may c o n c e n t r a t e i n t h e s m a l l e r s i z e r a n g e .

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MAJOR INPUTS R A i COAL RA; WATER

AUXILIARY PROCESS FACILITIES:

FEED SLURRY COAL RECEIVING~STORAGE

STEAMIPOWER GENERATION HYDROGEN GENERATION OXYGEN GENERATION ACID GAS RWOVAL HYDROGEN~HYDROCARBON

RECOVERY SULFUR RECOVERY AMMONIA RECOVERY PHENOL RECOVERY

I SOLIDS/LIQUIDS FILTER CAKE SEPARATION

I

AMMONIA

NAPHTHAS MAJOR PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS

LIGHT OILS

Figure 3.1. Flow Sheet f o r An Integrated Liquefaction Process

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34 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

D u s t t y p i c a l l y 1 t o 1 0 0 iJ i n s i z e ) g e n e r a t e d f r o m c o a l r e c e i v i n g , s t o r a g e , r e c l a i m i n g a n d c r u s h i n g i s e s t i m a t e d t o b e a b o u t 24 t o n s l d a y , f o r a 2 0 , 0 0 0 t o n / d a y S R C I1 p l a n t [ R o g o s h e w s k i , g&. d. 1 9 7 8 1 . T a b l e 3.1 l i s t s a n a n a l y s i s o f some t r a c e e l e m e n t s i n d u s t f r o m c o a l p r e p a r a t i o n a f t e r t r e a t m e n t w i t h a w e t s c r u b b e r [ H o p k i n s , et gl. 1 9 7 8 1 .

S u g g e s t e d c o n t r o l a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r c o a l d u s t i n c l u d e p o l y m e r s p r a y i n g , e n c l o s e d s t o r a g e , and w a t e r s p r a y i n g . Of t h e s e , e n c l o s e d s t o r a g e i n v o 1- v e s $ 6 - 8 m i l l i o n c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t f o r a 10 ,000 t o n c o a l p i l e [ R o g o s h e w s k i , &. 19781 . C y c l o n e a n d b a g h o u s e f i l t e r s a p p e a r t o b e t h e m o s t e f - f e c t i v e m e t h o d s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g c o a l d u s t . Due t o t h e s m a l l p a r t i c l e r a n g e , m a g n e t i c and e l e c t r o s t a - t i c f i l t e r s a r e n e e d e d .

T a b l e 3.1 A p p r o x i m a t e T race E l e m e n t A n a l y s i s o f C o a l P r e t r e a t m e n t D u s t a f t e r Wet S c r u b b i n g

E l e m e n t g l d a y

Aluminum 8 , 9 1 0

A r s e n i c 3 . 9

Chromium 1 3 . 0

N i c k e 1 1 5 . 0

CoaZ P i Z e Drainage

C o a l p i l e r u n o f f r e s u l t i n g f r o m r a i n f a l l , e t c . , may c o n t a i n o x i d a t i o n p r o d u c t s o f m e t a l l i c s u l f i d e s . T h i s r u n o f f may a l s o b e a c i d i c , w i t h r e l a t i v e l y h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u s p e n d e d a n d d i s s o l v e d so l i d s [ R o g o s h e w s k i , e t a l . 1 9 7 8 1 . The e l e m e n t s i n t h i s r u n o f f i n c l u d e c a l c i u m , i r o n , a l u m i n u m a n d m a n g a n e s e . Wastewater g e n e r a t e d i n c o a l p r e p a r a t i o n i s r o u t e d t o a t h i c k e n e r w h e r e p a r t i c u l a t e s a r e r e m o v e d a s u n d e r f l o w . T h i s u n d e r - flow c o n t a i n s a b o u t 3 5 p e r c e n t s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s ; t h e s e s o l i d s b e i n g e x p e c t e d t o c o n t a i n t h e same e l e m e n t s as t h o s e o f t h e o r i g i n a l c o a l . T h i c k e n e r u n d e r f l o w i s mixed w i t h c o a l p i l e r u n o f f a n d s e n t t o a t a i l i n g s pond.

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COAL CONVERSION 35

G a s i f i e r S tag and F t y Ash

o f i n a SRC p l a n t i s t h e g a s i f i e r s l . a g a n d q u e n c h e d f l y a s h . C u r r e n t d e s i g n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f s l a g r e q u i r e t h a t i t b e c r u s h e d , s l u r - r i e d w i t h w a t e r , a n d d e - a s h e d . The f l y a s h f r o m t h e q u e n c h e r is f l a s h e d down, n e u t r a l i z e d w i t h l i m e a n d t h i c k e n e d [ H o p k i n s , &a. 1 9 7 8 1 . I t i s a n t i - c i p a t e d t h a t t h i s w a s t e c a n b e d i s p o s e d o f i n s t r i p m i n e s . The l e a c h a b i l i t y o f t h i s w a s t e i s o n e as - p e c t w h i c h n e e d s f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

One o f t h e l a r g e v o l u m e s o l i d s t o b e d i s p o s e d

Residue from SoZids/Liquid S e p a r a t i o n

S o l i d r e s i d u e f r o m s o l i d s / l i q u i d f r a c t i o n a t o r b o t t o m s c a n n o t b e c o m p l e t e l y u t i l i z e d i n h y d r o g e n p r o d u c t i o n , d u e t o i t s h i g h a s h c o n t e n t ( = 6 4 p e r c e n t ) . E f f o r t s t o d i s s o l v e t h e s o l i d i n d i l u t e a c i d d i d n o t p r o d u c e a n y l e a c h e a t e . T a b l e 3.2 g i v e s t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f some o f t h e e l e m e n t s i n t h i s m i n e r a l r e s i d u e [ B o p k i n s , & &. 1 9 7 8 1 , w h i c h t o t a l s a b o u t 3 , 7 0 0 MG/day f o r a 1 0 , 0 0 0 t o n l d a y S R C - 11 l i q u e f a c t i o n p l a n t .

T a b l e 3.2 E s t i m a t e d Trace E l e m e n t s C o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e S R C L i q u e f a c t i o n R e s i d u e

~

E l e m e n t C o n c e n t r a t i o n ppm -~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~

A r s e n i c

B a r i u m

C a l c i u m

I r o n

L u t e r i u m

N i c k e l

S o d i u m

Z i n c

2 4 . 9

5 7 9

3 3 , 3 2 3

1 1 6 , 7 6 0

2 , 050

1 2 6

1 , 1 5 5

1 , 9 3 8

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36 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

The e x t r a c t i o n a n d r e c o v e r y o f m e t a l s f r o m t h i s r e s i d u e i s a n o t h e r a r e a t h a t r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r e v a l - u a t i o n .

Spent Cata t y e t

The c a t a l y s t u s e d i n t h e s h i f t r e a c t i o n i n h y d r o g e n g e n e r a t i o n h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d a t a b o u t 1 3 5 m3 [ H o p k i n s , & d. 1 9 7 8 1 . T r a c e e l e m e n t s , s u l f u r compounds and h e a v y h y d r o c a r b o n s may b e a d s o r b e d on t h e c a t a l y s t . The e s t i m a t e d l i f e t i m e o f a c o b a l t m o l y b d a t e c a t a l y s t i s t h r e e y e a r s . R e g e n e r a t i o n o f s p e n t c a t a l y s t m a y n o t b e p o s s i b l e , d u e t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f t r a c e m e t a l s and s u l f u r as w e l l as p o s s i b l e s i n t e r i n g o f t h e c a t a l y s t . I t i s s u g g e s t - e d t h a t v a l u a b l e m e t a l s b e e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e s p e n t c a t a l y s t a t a n o f f - s i t e f a c i l i t y . S i m i l a r f a c i l i - t i e s m a y b e n e e d e d f o r s p e n t s u l f u r g u a r d a n d m e t h a n a t i o n c a t a l y s t s .

T a i t Gas From A c i d Gas RemovaZ

A c i d g a s f r o m t h e g a s p u r i f i c a t i o n m o d u l e and g a s f r o m h y d r o g e n p r o d u c t i o n a r e r o u t e d t o a S t r e t f o r d u n i t , w h e r e H 2 S [ H o p k i n s , e t a l . 1 9 7 8 1 i s r e c o v e r e d a s e l e m e n t a l s u l f u r . The S t r e t f o r d p r o - c e s s h a s a n e f f i c i e n c y g r e a t e r t h a n 99.5 p e r c e n t i n s u l f u r r e c o v e r y a n d c a n r e d u c e H2S c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t o l e s s t h a n l0ppm. H o w e v e r , t a i l g a s t r e a t m e n t may b e n e e d e d b e f o r e t h e s p e n t g a s c a n b e v e n t e d . The S t r e t f o r d s o l u t i o n c o n s i s t s o f s o d i u m m e t a v a n a - d a t e , s o d i u m a n t h r a q u i n o n e d i s u l f o n a t e (ADA), so- d i u m c a r b o n a t e and s o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e , i n w a t e r . The S t r e t f o r d s o l u t i o n p u r g e s t ream h a s a t o t a l s a l t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 10 -25 p e r c e n t . U s i n g a h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e h y d r o l y s i s t e c h n i q u e , v a n a d i u m ( a s s o l i d ) a n d s o d i u m c a r b o n a t e , s u l f a t e a n d s u l f i t e c a n b e r e c o v e r e d as s o l i d s . H C N i s c o m p l e t e l y c o n v e r t e d t o C02, q 0 and N 2 [ R o g o s h e w s k i S e t a l . 19781 . The S t r e t f o r d t a i l g a s c o n t a i n s a b o u t 42.7 p e r c e n t C 0 2 and 5 ,500 ppm h y d r o c a r b o n s ( a s C2H6). D i r e c t f l a m e i n c i n e r a t i o n and c a r b o n a d s o r p t i o n w i t h i n c i n e r a t i o n ( A d s o x ) i s recommended a s t a i l g a s t r e a t m e n t f o r h y d r o c a r b o n s . F u r t h e r s c r u b b i n g m i g h t b e n e e d e d t o r e m o v e C 0 2 i n t h e t a i l g a s . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e S t r e t f o r d s o l u t i o n b e modi - f i e d t o r e d u c e C02 e m i s s i o n s i n t h e t a i l g a s . T h i s i s o n e a r e a w h i c h n e c e s s i t a t e s f u r t h e r re - s e a r c h o n a d s o r p t i o n phenomena o f SO, a n d C02 v a r i o u s s o l v e n t s .

i n

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COAL CONVERSION 37

NO, RemovaZ

t h e S R C p l a n t i n c l u d e [ H o p k i n s a x & Q. 19781: T h e r e p o r t e d s o u r c e s o f N O e m i s s i o n s w i t h i n

S t e a m g e n e r a t i o n 8.4 Mglday S t r e t f o r d e f f l u e n t g a s 0.005 Mg/day

The r e d u c t i o n i n NO, e m i s s i o n s d u r i n g s t e a m g e n e r a - t i o n f r o m r e d u c i n g a i r f l o w r a t e s may n o t b e a s e f f e c t i v e o r d a m a g e - p r o o f a s o t h e r m o d i f i c a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s . By s u p p l y i n g s u b s t o i c h i o m e t r i c q u a n t i - t i e s o f p r i m a r y a i r t o b u r n e r s , a 40 t o 50 p e r c e n t r e d u c t i o n i n NO, e m i s s i o n s h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d . A n o t h e r u s e f u l m e t h o d o f r e d u c i n g NO, i s a c h i e v e d b y r e c i r c u l a t i o n o f c o a l f l u e g a s , w h i c h l o w e r s p e a k f l a m e t e m p e r a t u r e [ R o g o s h e w s k i , et d. 1 9 7 8 1 .

T a b l e 3.3 i s a s u m m a r y o f s o m e o f t h e p o l l u - t i o n p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h S R C l i q u e f a c t i o n a n d s u g g e s t e d c o n t r o 1 a 1 t e r n a t i v e s .

Recommended Areas for Pollution ControZ Research

A f t e r e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s t e c h n o l o g y , t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s a r e recommended f o r f u r t h e r re - s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t :

The a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f e l e c t r o s t a t i c a n d m a g n e t i c f i l t e r s t o c o n t r o l e m i s s i o n s o f c o a l d u s t p a r t i c l e s i n t h e s u b m i c r o n r a n g e .

L e a c h a b i l i t y o f g a s i f i e r s l a g a n d f l y a s h t o d e t e r m i n e t r e a t m e n t n e e d s a n d / o r d i s p o s a l l i m i t a t i o n s .

E x t r a c t i o n o f p o s s i b l e t o x i c a n d / o r v a l u a b l e m e t a l s f r o m s o l i d s / l i q u i d s s e p a r a t i o n r e s i d u e .

E x t r a c t i o n o f v a l u a b l e m e t a l s ( N i , C o , M o a e tc . ) f r o m s p e n t s h i f t a n d h y d r o g e n g e n e r a t i o n c a t a l y s t s .

S t u d i e s on t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f SO a n d C02 i n S t r e t f o r d p r o c e s s l e a d i n g t o * p r o c e s s m o d i f i c a t i o n t o r e d u c e C 0 2 e m i s s i o n s i n t a i l g a s .

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Table 3 - 3 Pollutants and Control Options in SRC Liquefaction I I 1

S o I ids j Liquids Separation

1 EEYUrFaEtfs Process I Pollutants I Sources in Proces

t.4 i ne r a 1 Fractionator Inorganics, Residue Bottoms Metals and

Organics

I I I ~ ~~

Coal

Acid gas Removal

Steam Generat ion

Storage, handling Sizing

Tail gas Stretford Process Hydrocarbons and C 0 2 ( 2 4 3 % )

_ - NOx gases Nox Emissions

Coal Pile Run O f f Suspended Sollds

Coa 1 Thickener

Gas i f 1 er Slag, Fly _ _ IAsh 1 Inorganics,

Metals and Organics

Reactor I Spent Generation Catalyst Hydrogen I I --

rocess

Pollutant Control Strategy

Cyclone, wet scrubbing, polymer Coating, Electrostatic and Magnetic Fllters

Extraction and Disposal of Tai 1 ings .

Leaching of Metals and Strip Mining.

~ ~ ~~~

Extractlon of (Toxic) Metals

Extraction of Co, Mo, Ni

Direct Flame Incineration, Modlfi- cation of Stretford process to remove C02

Substoichiometric s u p p l y of air, Recirculation of Flue Gas

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COAL CONVERSION 39

M o d i f i c a t i o n of s t e a m g e n e r a t i o n o p e r a t i o n t o r e d u c e N 4 , e m i s s i o n s .

G A S I F I C A T I O N

I n t h i s s e c t i o n , t h e p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m s a n d c o n t r o l a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g f o u r High- Btu c o a l g a s i f i c a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s w i l l b e d i s c u s - s e d .

1. L u r g i 2. By-Gas 3. Bi-Gas 4. K o p p e r s - T o t z e k

L u r g i C o a l Gas i f i c a t i o n

The c o n v e r s i o n o f c o a l t o S N G i v o l v e s h e r e a c t i o n o f c o a l w i t h s t e a m a n d o x y g e n i n a g a s i - f i e r , w i t h s u b s e q u e n t g a s p r o c e s s i n g t o ( a ) a d j u s t t h e H : C O r a t i o b y w a t e r - g a s s h i f t r e a c t i o n , ( b ) r e m o v e a c i d i c c o m p o n e n t s , and ( c ) c a t a l y t i c m e t h a - n a t i o n . The c o r r e s p o n d i n g c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s a re :

5 4

6(C+H) + 7 O2 + 3 H 2 0 + 4H2 + 2CO + 3 C 0 2 + CH

L u r g i g a s i f i c a t i o n (3.1)

W a t e r - g a s s h i f t (3.2) 2

4 2

CO + H 2 0 -f C 0 2 + H

3H2 + CO -f CH + H 0 M e t h a n a t i o n (3.3)

The f o u r m a j o r p r o c e s s e s i n t h e L u r g i g a s i f i - c a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d b e l o w . A f l o w s h e e t o f t h e p r o c e s s i s p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 3.2.

Coal Preparation

C o a l p r e t r e a t m e n t i n t h e L u r g i p r o c e s s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t s o f o n l y c r u s h i n g a n d s c r e e n i n g t h e c o a l , t o p r o d u c e 3-35 mm p a r t i c l e s . T h i s l a r g e r s i z e r a n g e , compared t o c e r t a i n o t h e r g a s i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s , d e c r e a s e s f u g i t i v e e m i s s i o n s .

Coat Gasification

T h e c o a l g a s i f i e r i s o p e r a t e d a t a p r e s s u r e o f a b o u t 25 t o 3 5 a t m , r e c e i v e s c o a l t h r o u g h a f e e d h o p p e r a t t h e t o p , and d i s c h a r g e s a s h t h r o u g h t h e

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I GAS UPGRADING I COAL PREPARATION I COAL G A S I F I C A T I O N I GAS P U R I F I C A T I O N O P E R A T I O N O P E R A T I O N

I OPEKAT ION

I I O P E R A T I O N I - PRIMARY

I I I I CRUSHING AND

.~~~

I I I I I I I I I I I I

t I I

COAI. F I N E S (TO B O I L E R )

I

COOL I NG CONVERSION I - - S H I F T

I ' I I I

ASH ( T O D I S P O S A L ) 1~~~~~~ SECONDARY - I

COOL I NG I

I I

I I A C I D

RECOVERY)

4-l TRACE METHANATION, IIRYING AND COMPRESSION

SULFUR AND I I I I

CONDENSATE ( T O B O I L E R )

F i g u r e 3 . 2 . L u r g i SNG P r o c e s s .

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COAL CONVERSION 4 1

b o t t o m . Oxygen and s t e a m e n t e r a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e g a s i f i e r and t h e p r o d u c t g a s e x i t s n e a r t h e t o p . On a d r y b a s i s , t h e p r o d u c t g a s c o n t a i n s a b o u t 4 p e r c e n t H 3 p e r c e n t C 0 2 , 18 p e r c e n t C O a n d 1 0 p e r c e n t CR4:'as w e l l a s h i g h e r m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t h y d r o c a r b o n s , r e d u c e d s u l f u r a n d n i t r o g e n compounds .

Gas Purification

Gas p u r i f i c a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f t h e r e m o v a l o f c o n d e n s a b l e s b y c o o l i n g , R e c t i s o l t r e a t m e n t f o r t h e r e m o v a l o f b u l k C02 and r e d u c e d s u l f u r compounds , and r e m o v a l o f t r a c e s u l f u r u s i n g " m e t h a n a t i o n g u a r d s . " The c o n d e n s a t e s p r o d u c e d a r e s e n t t o t a r o i l s e p a r a t i o n u n i t s , and b y - p r o d u c t r e c o v e r y . The R e c t i s o l p r o c e s s u s e s c o l d m e t h a n o l t o a b s o r b a c i d g a s e s u n d e r p r e s s u r e . The u s e d s o l v e n t i s r e g e n e r a t e d by s t e p w i s e d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n a n d h e a t i n g . M e t h a n a t i o n g u a r d s a r e b e d s o f s o l i d a d s o r b e n t (e.g. ZnO). The e x h a u s t e d b e d s a r e u s u a l l y d i s c a r d e d r a t h e r t h a n r e g e n e r a t e d .

Gas Upgrading

C o b a l t m o l y b d a t e is u s e d a s a s h i f t c a t a l y s t t o o b t a i n a 3 : l H 2 : C 0 r a t i o . N i c k e l b a s e d m a t e r i a l s a r e u s u a l l y u s e d a s m e t h a n a t i o n c a t a l y s t s . B o t h t h e s p e n t s h i f t a n d m e t h a n a t i o n c a t a l y s t s a r e s o l i d w a s t e s r e q u i r i n g t r e a t m e n t f o r m e t a l r e c o v e r y a n d f o r d i s p o s a l .

Gasifier and Boiter Ash

Wet a s h f r o m t h e g a s i f i e r a n d b o i l e r ash q u e n c h s y s t e m s i s t h e l a r g e s t v o l u m e s o l i d w a s t e s t ream i n an SNG p l a n t [ G h a s s e m i , e t a l . 19791. A 250 x l o 6 S c f f d a y L u r g i SNG p l a n t u s i n g a c o a l c o n t a i n i n g 1 5 p e r c e n t a s h i s e x p e c t e d t o g e n e r a t e a b o u t 5 4 0 0 t o n f d a y w e t a s h . T h i s a s h c o n t a i n s l e a c h a b l e i n o r g a n i c and o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s . T h e s e c o n s t i t u e n t s c a n b e p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s o f g r o u n d w a t e r c o n t a m i n a t i o n . A n a l t e r n a t i v e d i s p o s a l s c h e m e w o u l d i n v o l v e s t a b i l i z a t i o n t o c o n v e r t t h e w a s t e s i n t o a c h e m i c a l f o r m t h a t i s m o r e r e s i s t a n t t o l e a c h i n g i n t h e u l t i m a t e d i s p o s a l s i t e . T a b l e 3.4 p r e s e n t s t y p i c a l l e a c h i n g s t u d y r e s u l t s f o r w a s t e s s t a b i l i z e d by t h e Chem-Fix p r o c e s s [ C o n n e r , 1 9 7 4 1 .

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42 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

T a b l e 3 . 4 L a b o r a t o r y L e a c h i n g R e s u l t s o f Chem- F i x e d R e f i n e r y W a s t e s

E l e m e n t C o n c e n t r a t i o n i n C o n c e n t r a t i o n R a w S l u d g e , ppm i n a p p r o x . 200

m l L e a c h a t e water a f t e r Chem-F i x , ppm

Chromium 43.5 < 0 . 1

I r o n 1 3 1 0 < 0 . 1

Z i n c 8 8 .O < 0.1

N i c k e l 8 . 9 < 0 . 1

The l e a c h a b i l i t y o f t h e a s h p r o d u c e d i n L u r g i S N G i s a n a r e a w h i c h r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

Spent Guard CataZyst

Z i n c o x i d e b e d s a r e u s e d f o r r e m o v i n g s u l f u r a f t e r t h e g a s p u r i f i c a t i o n s t e p h a s r e m o v e d a l l b u t a f e w p a r t s p e r m i l l i o n . Water v a p o r c o n t e n t i s c r i t i c a l , b e c a u s e l i q u i d w a t e r c a n c o m p l e t e l y d e g r a d e t h e ZnO b e d [ G h a s s e m i , et e. 19791 . The s u l f u r l o a d i n g c a p a c i t y o f !he ZnO c a t a l y s t in; c r e a s e s f r o m = 5 w t % a t 2 7 3 K t o =20 w t X a t 6 7 3 K . H o w e v e r , t h e maximum recommeded l o a d i n g i s o n l y 3 w t % when t h e d e s i r e d e x i t g a s s p e c i f i c a t i o n i s 0.02 ppm H 2 S [ D r a n o Corp. , 19781 . S p e n t m e t h a n a t i o n g u a r d m a t e r i a l w i l l c o n s i s t p r i m a r i l y o f z i n c s u l - f i d e a n d u n r e a c t e d z i n c o x i d e . O p e r a t i n g d a t a o n t h e q u a n t i t y a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f s p e n t m e t h a n a t i o n g u a r d c a t a l y s t a r e n e e d e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e d i s p o s a l a n d / o r r e c l a m a t i o n o f t h e s p e n t c a t a l y s t [ G h a s s e m i , - e t -- a l . 1 9 7 9 1 .

Spent Shift/Methanation Catat ysts

C a t a l y s t s u s e d f o r s h i f t and m e t h a n a t i o n r e - q u i r e p e r i o d i c r e p l a c e m e n t ; t h e s p e n t c a t a 1 y s t s c o n s i s t u t e s o l i d w a s t e s . G r o s s c o m p o s i t i o n o f a s p e n t c a t a l y s t i s n o t e x p e c t e d t o b e d r a m a t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f a f r e s h c a t a l y s t , a l t h o u g h a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a r b o n , s u l f u r , and m e t a l l i c e l e - m e n t s i s t o b e e x p e c t e d . D a t a i s n e e d e d o n t h e

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COAL CONVERSION 4 3

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s p e n t L u r g i SNG c a t a l y s t s . C o b a l t - m o l y b d a t e is u s e d as a s h i f t c a t a l y s t . T a b l e 3.5 p r e s e n t s p i l o t p l a n t d a t a o n s p e n t E a r s h a w Ni-0104-T-1/4 c a t a l y s t [ L e p p i n , 19771 .

T a b l e 3.5 S p e n t E a r s h a w N i c k e l C a t a l y s t s A n a l y s i s

T y p i c a l F r e s h B o t t o m o f Top o f C a t a l y s t F i r s t S t a g e S e c o n d

M e t h a n a t o r S t a g e M e t h a n a t o r

S u l f u r , % w t . 0 .15 3.7 0 .16

C a r b o n , X w t . 3 .4 3 .4 4 . 5

N i c k e l , X w t . 60 .O 52 .O 6 1 . O

S p e n t n i c k e l m e t h a n a t i o n c a t a l y s t i s a s a c t i v e a s z i n c f o r t r a c e s u l f u r r e m o v a l , a n d c a n b e u s e d a s a s u l f u r g u a r d c a t a l y s t [ G h a s s e m i , &a. 1 9 7 8 1 . S e q u e n t i a l i n t e r c h a n g e o f t h e f i r s t and s e c o n d s t a g e m e t h a n a t o r s i s a l s o recommended, a s i t i s a p p a r e n t f r o m T a b l e 3.5 t h a t t h e c a t a l y s t a t t h e t o p o f t h e s e c o n d s t a g e m e t h a n a t o r i s a l m o s t f r e s h . I n t h e e n d , h o w e v e r , s p e n t m e t h a n a t i o n c a t a l y s t c o n s t i t u t e s a s o l i d w a s t e . The l a r g e w e i g h t p e r - c e n t o f n i c k e l on t h e c a t a l y s t w o u l d b e a n e c o n o m i c i n c e n t i v e f o r r e c l a i m i n g t h a t m e t a l f r o m t h e s p e n t c a t a l y s t . D a t a on t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f s p e n t n i c k e l m e t h a n a t i o n c a t a l y s t s and t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f m e t a l e x t r a c t i o n f o r r e c l a m a t i o n a r e two a r e a s t h a t d e s e r v e f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . . F u r t h e r , t h e s p e n t c a t a l y s t s , a l t h o u g h o f s m a l l q u a n t i t y , a r e o f s p e c i a l c o n c e r n d u e t o t h e i r c o n t e n t o f p o t e n t i a l l y t o x i c m e t a l s ( N i , C o , Mol, c o a l - d e r i v e d o r g a n i c s ( m e t a l c a r b o n y l s f o r e x a m p l e ) , and t r a c e e l e m e n t s . The f i x e d - b e d m e t h a n a t i o n l s h i f t r e a c t o r s y s t e m i s r e p o r t e d t o h a v e t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f (1) o p e r a t i o n a t c o n d i t i o n s r e m o v e d f r o m c a r b o n f o r m a t i o n , t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g c a t a l y s t l i f e , ( 2 ) r e d u c t i o n i n c a t a l y s t s e n s i t i v i t y t o s u l f u r , and ( 3 ) n e e d f o r C O 2 r e m o v a l f r o m a r e d u c e d v o l u m e o f g a s . H o w e v e r , t h i s h a s n o t y e t b e e n c o m m e r c i a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e d [ G a s s e m i , -- a l . 1 9 7 8 1 .

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44 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

Ash Quench Slurry

An a s h q u e n c h s l u r r y r e s u l t s when p r o c e s s w a t e r s a r e u s e d t o c o o l and t r a n s p o r t g a s i f i e r a s h t o a s e t t l i n g u n i t o r d i s p o s a l s i t e . No o p e r a t i n g d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r a s h q u e n c h s l u r r y c h a r a c - t e r i s t i c s [ G h a s s e m i , e t a l . 19791 . L a b o r a t o r y d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s s l u r r y c a n c o n t a i n u p t o 20 g / L o f d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s , w i t h t h e d o m i n a n t i o n s b e i n g s o d i u m , p o t a s s i u m , c a l c i u m , and s u l f a t e [ G r i f f i n , -- e t a l . 19771 . An i n c r e a s e i n t h e s o l u b i l i t y o f i r o n , m a n g a n e s e , cadmium, a n d a l u m i n u m i s a l s o e x p e c t e d w i t h d e c r e a s i n g pH. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c e r t a i n h a z a r d o u s e l e m e n t s ( e .g . a r s e n i c , chromium a n d c o p p e r ) c a n r e a c h l e v e l s w h i c h w a r r a n t c o n t r o l o f t h e a s h s l u r r y d i s c h a r g e . C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f a s h s l u r r y w a t e r i s n e c e s s a r y t o e v a l u a t e p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a l t e r n a t i v e s s u c h a s c o a g u l a t i o n a n d f l o c c u l a t i o n .

PhenoZ Recovery

Gas l i q u o r f r o m t a r - o i l r e c o v e r y c o n t a i n s a h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p h e n o l s , up t o 4200 mg/L [ G h a s s e m i , d. 1 9 7 9 ) . The P h e n o s o l v a n p r o c e s s , u s i n g b u t y l a c e t a t e a s s o l v e n t , i s u s e d t o e x t r a c t t h e s e p h e n o l s . Most o f t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a on t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h i s s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n p r o c e s s a r e f o r o n e u n i t i n S a l s b u r y , S o u t h A f r i c a . S o l v e n t s s u g g e s t e d f o r t h e P h e n o s o l v a n p r o c e s s i n c l u d e b u t y l a c e t a t e , i s o p r o p y l e t h e r a n d l i g h t a r o m a t i c o i l [Wurm, 1 9 6 9 ; E a r h a r t , d. 19771 . F o r b u t y l a c e t a t e , t h e f o 1 l o w i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r v a r i o u s p h e n o l i c compounds h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d [ E a r h a r t , & d. 19771 .

T a b l e 3.6 D i s t r i b u t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r V a r i o u s P h e n o l s i n B u t y l A c e t a t e a t 300°K

Compound K*

Pheno 1 6 5

3 , 5 X y l e n o l 540

P y r o c a t e c h o l 13

R e so r c i n o 1 1 0

WL . ailution

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COAL CONVERSION 45

The s o l v e n t s c a n r e m o v e o n l y l i m i t e d a m o u n t s o f n o n - p h e n o l i c o r g a n i c s . A b e t t e r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e a v a i l a b l e s o l v e n t s f o r p h e n o l e x t r a c t i o n , a n d t h e i r r e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c i e s f o r v a r i o u s p h e n o l s , i s n e e d e d . F u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f s o l v e n t e x t r a c - t i o n s y s t e m s t o r e m o v e n o n - p h e n o l i c o r g a n i c s i s a l s o s u g g e s t e d .

Removat of S u t f u r Compounds f r o m t h e R e c t i 8 0 2 P r o c e s s

I n t e rms o f t o t a l v o l u m e a n d c o n t e n t o f H S and o t h e r r e d u c e d s u l f u r c o m p o u n d s , c o n c e n t r a t e d a c i d g a s f r o m t h e R e c t i s o l p r o c e s s i s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t g a s e o u s w a s t e s t r e a m i n a L u r g i SNG f a c i - l i t y . Some o f t h e c o n t r o l o p t i o n s f o r t h e c o n c e n - t r a t e d a c i d g a s s t r e a m a r e shown i n T a b l e 3.7 [ G h a s s e m i , et d. 19791 .

T a b l e 3 .7 C o n t r o l O p t i o n s f o r t h e C o n c e n t r a t e d A c i d Gas S t r e a m

C o n t r o l O p t i o n s Comments

1.

2 .

3 .

4.

C l a u s P l a n t S u l f u r R e c o v e r y

C l a u s P l a n t S u l f u r R e c o v e r y a n d t a i 1 g a s t r e a t m e n t

C l a u s P l a n t S u l f u r r e c o v e r y a n d S O 2 c o n t r o l l r e c o v e r y

S t r e t f o r d S u l f u r R e c o v e r y

H i g h C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f H 2 S i n t a i l g a s ; f e e d g a s H2 S e n r i c h - ment a n d H y d r o c a r b o n r e m o v a l a r e n e e d e d

Not h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e a t h i g h l e v e l s o f C 0 2 i n f e e d , a p p l i c a b l e o n l y f o r s t reams c o n - t a i n i n g 5-15 p e r c e n t H2 s R e a s o n a b l e o p t i o n when f e e d g a s e s c o n - t a i n more t h a n 5-15 p e r c e n t H2S

I n a p p 1 i c a b l e t o was g a s e s c o n t a i n i n g g r e a t e r t h a n 1 5 p e r - c e n t H 2 S ; n o t e c o n o - m i c a l a t h i g h C 0 2 l e v e l s ; d i s c h a r g e may c o n t a i n h i g h COS a n d HC l e v e l s

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Table 3-8. Pollutants and Control Options in I .u r&i SNG Prccess

Process Sources in process

Nature Of Pol l u t an t

Pollutants Pollutant contrnl Strateav

~-

leachable in- organic, organic materials

stabilization of ash to de- crease OK prevent leach ability

Coal Gasifi- cation ash

~ ~

Reclamation by extraction Gas Upgrading Spent metha- nation guard catalyst

E?e t hana t ion guard reactor

ZnO with trace orpan-

and metals iCS, Sulfur

~~

Co, Mo, Ni. with trace organics, Sulfur

Snent methanation catalvst as methanation guard, extraction of toxic metals from spent catalyst

Shift/Metha- nation

Spent catalysts

Reactors

Coagulation and flocculation to remove dissolved salts

Coal Gasification

Thickener overflow

Dissolved in- organics, hazardous metals ( m , Ni)

Ash quench slurry

Tarfoil separation

Phenols in gas l iquor

Better characterization of solvents to modifyfdevelop extraction svstems

Nonnhenolic organics

--

Acid gas removal

Sulfur -ompounds

so2, n s, co 2 2 Clans sulfur recovery and SO tail gas treatment, Stretfori

sulfur recovery Rectisol tail Eas

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COAL CONVERSION 47

The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e b e s t o p t i o n f o r t h e management o f a s p e c i f i c s u l f u r - b e a r i n g g a s s t r e a m m u s t b e made on a c a s e - b y - c a s e b a s i s , d u e t o r e - s t r i c t i o n s on f e e d c o m p o s i t i o n s and e c o n o m i c s f o r d i f f e r e n t p r o c e s s e s . Some o f t h e a b o v e o p t i o n s h a v e n o t a p p e a r e d i n c o m m e r c i a l d e s i g n [ G h a s s e m i , -- e t a l . 19791 d u e t o t h e l a c k o f e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a . I t a p p e a r s t h a t r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t t o p r o v i d e o p e r a t i o n a l d a t a f o r v a r i o u s s u l f u r r e c o v e r y , and t a i l g a s t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s is n e e d e d . O2

T a b l e 3.8 s u m m a r i z e s some o f t h e p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e L u r g i S N G p r o c e s s , and s u g g e s t e d c o n t r o l a l t e r n a t i v e s .

Recommended A r e a s f o r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l R e s e a r c h

A f t e r e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s t e c h n o l o g y , t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s a r e recommended f o r f u r t h e r r e - s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t :

S t a b i l i z a t i o n o f g a s i f i e r and b o i l e r a s h t o d e c r e a s e o r p r e v e n t l e a c h a b i l i t y .

O p e r a t i n g d a t a and c o m p o s i t i o n o n s p e n t m e t h a n a t i o n g u a r d , s h i f t a n d m e t h a n a t i o n c a t a l y s t t o a l l o w e v a l u a t i o n o f p o s s i b l e e x t r a c t i o n and r e c o v e r y o f v a l u a b l e and t o x i c m e t a l s .

S t u d i e s on t h e u s e o f s p e n t m e t h a n a t i o n c a t a l y s t a s s u l f u r g u a r d .

D e v e l o p m e n t o f s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n s y s t e m s t o r e m o v e n o n - p h e n o l i c o r g a n i c s , and d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f d i s t r i b u t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r e x i s t i n g s o l v e n t s .

E n g i n e e r i n g d a t a on v a r i o u s s u l f u r r e c o v e r y , SO and t a i l g a s p r e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s . 2

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48 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

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COAL CONVERSION 49

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U.S. EPA. E v a l u a t i o n of B a c k g r o u n d Data R e l a t i n g -- t o N e w S o u r c e P e r f o r m a n c e S t a n d a r d s f o r L U R G I G a s i f i c a t i o n , EPA-600/7 /77-057, J u n e 1 9 7 7 .

U.S. EPA. E v a l u a t i o n o f P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l in F o s s i l F u e l C o n v e r s i o n P r o c e s s e s -- L i a u e f a c t i o n : S e c t i o n 2 - SRC P r o c e s s , EPA- 65012-74-009F.

U.S. EPA. E v a l u a t i o n of P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l in F o s s i l F u e l C o n v e r s i o n P r o c e s s e s -- Gas i f i c a t i o n , S e c t i o n 1 - K o p p e r s - T o t z e k Process-EPA-65012- 74-00 9A S e c t i o n 3 - L u r g i P r o c e s s - EPA-65012-74-009C S e c t i o n 5 - B i g a s P r o c e s s - EPA-65012-74-009G S e c t i o n 6 - Hygas P r o c e s s - EPA-65012-74-009B

U.S. EPA. Mechan i sm and K i n e t i c s o f t h e F o r m a t i o n - o f a n d o t h e r C o m b u s t i o n P r o d u c t s -- P h a s e - I1 M o d i f i e d C o m b u s t i o n , EPA-600/7/76-009B, Aug. 1 9 7 6 .

U.S. EPA. P o l l u t a n t s from S v n t h e t i c F u e l s P r o d u c t i o n : S a m p l h a n d A n a l y s i s M e t h o d s for -- C o a l G a s i f i c a t i o n , EPA-60017-79-201, Aug. 1 9 7 9 .

U.S. EPA. S u l f u r and N i t r o n e n B a l a n c e s i n The -- S o l v e n t R e f i n e d C o a l P r o c e s s e s ( T a s k 2, EPA- 65012-75-011, J a n . 1 9 7 5 .

U.S. EPA. S u l f u r R e t e n t i o n i n C o a l A s h , EPA-60017- 7 8 1 1 5 3 8 , Nov. 1 9 7 8 .

U.S. EPA. SymDosium P r o c e e d i n g s : E n v i r o n m e n t a l A s D e c t s o f F u e l C o n v e r s i o n T e c h n o l o n v . II, Dec. 1 9 7 5 , EPA-60012-76-194, J u n e 1 9 7 6 .

U.S. EPA. SvmDosium P r o c e e d i n g s : E n v i r o n m e n t a l A s p e c t s o f F u e l C o n v e r s i o n T e c h n o l o n v , ZII, S e p t . 1 9 7 7 , EPA-600/7 /78-063, A p r i l 1 9 7 8 .

U.S. EPA. SvmDosium P r o c e e d i n g s : E n v i r o n m e n t a l A s p e c t s of Fuel C o n v e r s i o n T e c h n o l o n v , H, A p r i l 1 9 7 9 , EPA-60017-79-217, S e p t . 1 9 7 9 .

U.S. EPA. The S o l u b i l i t y o f A c i d Gases, i n M e t h a n o l , EPA-600/7-79-097, A p r i l 19%.

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CBAPTER 4

EXPLOSIVES INDUSTRY

I N T R O D U C T I O N

The p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g t h e h i g h e x p l o s i v e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r , a n d w i l l p r o v i d e a n i n s i g h t i n r e d u c i n g t h e p o l l u t a n t s a r i s i n g f r o m t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s b y means o f p r o c e s s m o d i f i c a t i o n . I n c l u d e d a r e t h e two m o s t p r o d u c e d h i g h e x p l o s i v e s ; t r i n i t r o t o l u e n e (TNT) a n d n i t r o - c e l l u l o s e , w h i c h a r e g e n e r a t e d b y n i t r a t i o n p r o c e s - s e s t o y i e l d t h e s e n i t r o c o m p o u n d s .

The e x p l o s i v e i n d u s t r y , a s a w h o l e , c a n b e g r o u p e d i n t o f o u r c a t e g o r i e s :

1. M a n u f a c t u r i n g o f e x p l o s i v e s

2. M a n u f a c t u r i n g o f p r o p e l l a n t s

3 . F o r m u l a t i o n [ l o a d , a s s e m b l e a n d p a c k (LAP) ]

4. M a n u f a c t u r i n g o f i n i t i a t i n g compounds

S i n c e b o t h o f t h e compounds d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r r e q u i r e l a r g e a m o u n t s o f n i t r i c a c i d f o r p r o d u c t i o n , t h e p r o c e s s f o r p r o d u c i n g n i t r i c a c i d i s a l s o p r e s e n t e d . P r o c e s s d e s c r i p t i o n s g i v e n h e r d o n o t i n c l u d e a c t u a l f o r m u l a t i o n ( l o a d , a s s e m b l e , a n d p a c k ) . F i g u r e 4.1 i s a n o v e r v i e w f l o w c h a r t o f t h e e x p l o s i v e i n d u s t r y .

N I T R I C A C I D P R O D U C T I O N

F i g u r e 4.2 d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e r o l e o f n i t r i c a c i d i n t h e e x p l o s i v e i n d u s t r y . The p r o c e s s g i v e n h e r e i s n o t t h e o n l y p r o c e s s a v a i l a b l e f o r n i t r i c a c i d p r o d u c t i o n . A s i s s u g g e s t e d l a t e r i n t h i s s e c t i o n , o t h e r s y s t e m s f o r t h i s p r o c e s s m u s t b e c l o s e l y e x a m i n e d .

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~ INDUSTRY PRODUCTS

Figure 4.1. Processes in t h e Explosive I n d u s t r y (Koradek and Patel, 1978).

r

-

EXPLOSIVE

NIT RAT ION PKODIICTS

CHEMICAL RAI.1- NITRATION OK(:ANIC MATERIAL PROCESSING FORMULATION

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AMXONIA O X I D A T I O N

P R O C E S S

H2S04 OR M g ( N 0 3 ) 2

I N I T R I C A C I D CONCENTRATION

4

/ /

S P E N T A C I D RECOVERY

.. 1 I

H 2 S 0 4 OR

CH COOA CONC.

N I T R A T I O N

c

TO RECYCLE

D I S P O S A L AND/OR

F i g u r e 4 . 2 . Flow C h a r t f o r N i t r i c A c i d P r o d u c t i o n ( H u d a k and Parsons, 1 9 7 7 ) .

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54 P R O C E S S M O D I F I C A T I O N S

Ammonia O x i d a t i o n P r o c e s s

I n t h i s p r o c e s s , a n h y d r o u s ammonia i s v a p o r - i z e d and mixed w i t h p r e h e a t e d a i r , and c o m b u s t e d u n d e r p r e s s u r e i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f a c a t a l y s t , t o p r o d u c e n i t r i c o x i d e . N i t r i c o x i d e i s f u r t h e r o x i d i z e d b y e x c e s s a i r t o n i t r o g e n d i o x i d e and i t s dimmer ($ 04). T y p i c a l l y t h e c a t a l y s t i s p l a t i n u m - r h u b i d i u m o r p l a t i n u m - p a l l a d i u m - m e r c u r y . The b e d o p e r a t e s a t 800-919°C and 1 2 0 p s i a . The e q u i l i - b r i u m m i x t u r e o f N O 2 a n d i t s d i m e r a r e a d s o r b e d i n a w a t e r c o o l e d a b s o r p t i o n t o w e r t o f o r m weak (60 -65 p e r c e n t HN03) n i t r i c a c i d [Hudak and P a r s o n s , 1 9 7 7 ; P a t t e r s o n , e t a l . 1 9 7 6 1 . ,

The ma in s o u r c e o f p o l l u t i o n f r o m t h e ammonia o x i d a t i o n p r o c e s s (AOP) i s t h e t a i l g a s f r o m t h e a b s o r p t i o n t o w e r , w h i c h p r o d u c e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2.5 g NO,/kg HN03 f o r t h e h i g h p r e s s u r e p r o c e s s . The c o n v e r s i o n i s a t l e a s t 95 p e r c e n t o f t h e o r e t i c a l , w i t h a n ammonia c o n s u m p t i o n o f 0.4 k g / k g B N 0 3 [Hudak a n d P a r s o n s , 19771 . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e t a i l g a s c o n t a i n s N 2 [ P a t t e r s o n , et g-1. 19761 .

Q u a n t i t a t i v e r e d u c t i o n i n p o l l u t a n t s c a n b e

3 The f i r s t s t r a t e g y i n i n c r e a s i n g HN03 a c h i e v e d a s a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f a n i n c r e a s e i n HNO p r o d u c t i o n . o u t p u t i s a more e f f i c i e n t d e s i g n f o r t h e c a t a l y t i c b e d . Maximum y i e l d o f n i t r o g e n o x i d e s c a n b e a t - t a i n e d b y m i x i n g t h e g a s e s v i a a f i l t e r n e a r t h e i n l e t b e f o r e c o n t a c t i n g t h e c a t a l y t i c g a u z e , a n d by s e l e c t i o n o f a n o p t i m a l o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e [ S m i t h a n d L o c k y e r , 1 9 7 9 ; Dor fman , a. 19781 . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e mechan i sm o f t h e s u r f a c e c a t a l y s i s p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n N O g e n e r a t i o n . F o r s m a l l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f NH3 o n t h e c a t a l y s t s u r f a c e , t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f NH i n t o N O i s a l m o s t c o m p l e t e . The y i e l d o f N O c a n t e n d t o d e c r e a s e , s i n c e NO i s decomposed t o N 2 [ A t r o s c h e n k o , 19791 . T h i s d e c r e a s e i s a r e s u l t o f p o o r e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n c a t a l y s t s u r f a c e a n d t h e g a s b u l k , a n d s u b s e q u e n t a c c u m u l a t i o n o f N O on t h e c a t a l y s t s u r - f a c e . Based on t h i s a r g u m e n t , t h e y i e l d o f N O i n t h e bed c a n b e o p t i m i z e d b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e r a t e o f mass t r a n s f e r f r o m t h e b u l k g a s t o t h e c a t a l y s t s u r f a c e . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e d e g r e e o f d i s s o c i a t i o n of NO i n c r e a s e s l i n e a r l y w i t h t i m e [ Z h i d k o v , e t a l . 19791 . T h u s , k n o w l e d g e o f t h e NO d i s s o c i a t i o n r e a c t i o n and N O p r o d u c t i o n r a t e w i l l b e n e e d e d i n m a x i m i z i n g N O o u t p u t .

3

g-1.

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EXPLOSIVES 55

I t i s a l s o o f v a l u e t o e x a m i n e t h e o p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s f o r t h e a b s o r p t i o n t o w e r . The r a t e o f n i t r i c a c i d p r o d u c t i o n c a n b e i m p r o v e d b y c o n t r o l - l i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e a b s o r b e r . Dor fman , s d. ( 1 9 7 8 ) a c c o m p l i s h e d a 4 p e r c e n t i n HN03 o u t p u t by a d j u s t i n g t h e H 2 0 c o n s u m p t i o n , t h u s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e temp e r a t u r e .

N i t r i c A c i d C o n c e n t r a t i o n

The n i t r i c a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o c e s s i s a c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n i n w h i c h n i t r i c a c i d f r o m t h e A O P i s mixed w i t h c o n c e n t r a t e d H 2 S 0 4 a n d f e d t o t h e d i s t i l l a t i o n t o w e r w i t h s t e a m . The s u l f u r i c a c i d c o m b i n e s w i t h f r e e w a t e r w h i l e (98 -99 p e r c e n t ) H N O v a p o r s [Hudak and P a r s o n s , 1 9 7 7 1 f o r m a n o v e r - h e a d stream. The n i t r i c a c i d v a p o r s , c o n t a m i n a t e d w i t h s m a l l a m o u n t s o f NO, a n d O 2 f r o m H N 0 3 d i s s o - c i a t i o n , p a s s t o a b l e a c h e r and c o n d e n s o r . The H N O v a p o r s c o n d e n s e a s 9 5 - 9 9 p e r c e n t H N O ? w h i l e NO, a n O 2 p a s s t o t h e a b s o r b e r c o l u m n f o r c o n v e r s i o n t o , a n d r e c o v e r y o f , a d d i t i o n a l weak n i t r i c a c i d . T h i s weak n i t r i c a c i d i s r e c y c l e d t o t h e d e h y d r a t i n g u n i t . The b o t t o m p r o d u c t , c o n s i s t i n g o f a p p r o x i - m a t e l y 6 8 p e r c e n t H 2 S 0 4 [Hudak and P a r s o n s , 1 9 7 7 1 , i s r e c o v e r e d and s e n t t o a c o n c e n t r a t i o n u n i t f o r r e p r o c e s s i n g .

The p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e o f e m i s s i o n s , 0.1 - 2.5 g NOx/Kg H N O p r o d u c e d [Hudak and P a r s o n s , 1 9 7 7 1 , i s f r o m t h e a b s o r b e r t a i l g a s . The N O , c o n t e n t o f t h e t a i l g a s i s a f f e c t e d by s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s : i n s u f - f i c i e n t a i r s u p p l y t o t h e a b s o r b e r , h i g h t e m p e r a - t u r e s i n t h e a b s o r b e r , and i n t e r n a l l e a k a g e w h i c h p e r m i t s g a s e s f r o m t h e AOP t o e n t e r t h e a b s o r b e r [Hudak and P a r s o n s , 19771 .

I n c o n s i d e r i n g p r o c e s s m o d i c a t i o n s w h i c h may l e a d t o a b a t e m e n t o f p o l l u t a n t s , i t i s a d v a n t a g e o u s t o c o n s i d e r o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e p r o c e s s e s f o r p r o - d u c t i o n o f n i t r i c a c i d . One n e w l y d e v e l o p e d p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s c o n c e n t r a t i n g n i t r i c a c i d by s u r p a s s i n g t h e a z e o t r o p e . I n t h i s p r o c e s s , t h e g a s e s l e a v i n g t h e A O P o x i d a t i o n s t e p a r e e n r i c h e d i n N O 2 a n d t h e n a b s o r b e d i n a z e o t r o p i c a c i d t o p r o d u c e a s u p e r a z e o t r o p e m i x t u r e (80 p e r c e n t H N O 1. T h i s m i x t u r e i s t h e n e a s i l y d i s t i l l e d . The e x i t i n g g a s e s f r o m t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p r o c e s s c o n t a i n 300 ppm o f N O F [ M a r z o and M a r z o , 19801 . The a d v a n t a g e o f t h i s p r o c e s s , as o p p o s e d t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a 1, o x i d a t i o n a b s o r p t i o n o p e r a t i o n , s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d .

3

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56 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

S p e n t A c i d R e c o v e r y

S p e n t a c i d f r o m t h e v a r i o u s n i t r a t i o n p r o c e s - s e s f l o w i n t o t h e t o p o f a d e n i t r a t i n g t o w e r . The H N 0 3 a n d N O a r e s t r i p p e d f r o m t h e s p e n t a c i d b y s t e a m . s e n t t o a H 9 O 4 c o n c e n t r a t o r . S u l f u r i c a c i d ( 9 3 p e r c e n t ) f r o m t h e c o n c e n t r a t o r i s a b y - p r o d u c t o f m o s t n i t r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s [ P a t t e r s o n , et al. 19761 .

W a s t e w a t e r s f r o m t h e s p e n t a c i d r e c o v e r y u n i t

The % o t t o m p r o d u c t c o n t a i n s 5 S O 4 , w h i c h i s

a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u s - p e n d e d s o l i d s a n d s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s o f n i t r o g e n s a l t s . The s o l i d s f r o m t h e s e p r o c e s s e s , c a l l e d n i t r o b o d i e s , m u s t b e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s p e n t a c i d f o r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l .

T a b l e 4.1 s u m m a r i z e s some o f t h e p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n i t r i c a c i d p r o d u c t i o n a n d s u g g e s t s c o n t r o 1 a 1 t e r n a t i v e s .

Recommended Areas f o r Po 1 l u t i o n C o n t r o 1 R e s e a r c h i n N i t r i c A c i d P r o d u c t i o n

A f t e r f o 1 l o w i n g s e a r c h a n d

e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s t e c h n o l o g y , t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t : a r e a s a r e recommended f o r f u r t h e r re-

S t u d i e s o n k i n e t i c s a n d mass t r a n s f e r f o r h e t e r o g e n e o u s c a t a l y s i s t o i m p r o v e t h e c a t a l y t i c b e d d e s i g n , w h i c h w i l l r e d u c e N O d i s s o c i a t i o n a n d i n c r e a s e NB3 c o n v e r s i o n .

S t u d i e s o n h e a t a n d mass t r a n s f e r w i t h r e a c t i o n i n a b s o r p t i o n t o w e r s t o o p t i m i z e HNO3 p r o d u c t i o n , b y d e t e r m i n i n g t h e o p t i m a l p a r a m e t e r s f o r a d s o r p t i o n t o w e r o p e r a t i o n .

C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f n i t r i c a c i d p r o d u c t i o n b y means o f a s u p e r a z e o t r o p i c m i x t u r e w h i c h may b e u s e f u l i n m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t p r o c e s s .

TNT PRODUCTION

T r i n i t r o t o l u e n e (TNT) i s t h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e l y p r o d u c e d m i l i t a r y h i g h e x p l o s i v e . P r o d u c t i o n o f TNT d u r i n g 1 9 6 9 - 7 1 e x c e e d e d 22 ,000 t o n s / m o n t h , more t h a n a n y o t h e r h i g h e x p l o s i v e compound [ P a t t e r s o n ,

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T a b l e 4 . 1 P o l l u t a n t s and C o n t r o l O p t i o n s i n N i t r i c Acid P r o d u c t i o n P r o c e s s

P o l l u t a n t s

c o n c e n t r a -

n i t r o b o d i e s

Source i n P r o c e s s

T a i l g a s f rom a b s o r p t i o n tower

A b s o r p t i o n t a i l gas

From n i t r a - t i o n p r o c e s s e s .

N a t u r e o f P o l l u t a n t C o n t r o l S t r a t e g y P o l l u t a n t s

I- I n o r g a n i c g a s e s

I n o r g a n i c g a s e s

Adjus tment o f o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e f o r maximum HNO o u t p u t . Mixing of g a s e s a t t h e i n j e t o f c a t a l y t i c bed . Improvement of m a s s t r a n s f e r r a t e be tween t h e c a t a l y s t and t h e b u l k g a s .

P r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t a i r s u p p l y . P r e v e n t i o n of l e a k a g e from AOP.

Organ ic and i n o r g a n i c

Removal of suspended s o l i d . N i t r o b o d i e s a d s o r p t i o n .

r 0 rn

n rn 2

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58 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

-- e t a l . 19761 . TNT p r o d u c t i o n i n v o l v e s t h r e e d i s - t i n c t p r o c e s s e s , n i t r a t i o n , p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d f i n - i s h i n g . S c h e m a t i c a l l y , TNT p r o d u c t i o n i s shown i n F i g u r e 4.3.

N i t r a t i o n

N i t r a t i o n o f t o l u e n e is p e r f o r m e d i n a s e r i e s o f b a t c h o r c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r s , w i t h a mixed a c i d s t r e a m f l o w i n g c o u n t e r c u r r e n t l y t o t h e f l o w o f t h e o r g a n i c s t r e a m . T h e o l e u m f e d t o t h e l a s t r e a c t o r e m e r g e s as t h e s p e n t a c i d f r o m t h e f i r s t r e a c t o r . T h e a c i d s t r e a m t o t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d r e a c t o r s i s f o r t i f i e d w i t h 6 0 p e r c e n t H N O ? . " Y e l l o w w a t e r " i s a d d e d t o t h e s e c o n d r e a c t o r . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 p e r - c e n t [Hudak a n d P a r s o n s , 1 9 7 7 ; P a t t e r s o n , & d. 1 9 7 6 1 o f t h e TNT f r o m t h e t h i r d r e a c t o r i s B o r 2 , 3 , 4 a n d y o r 3 , 4 , 6 i s o m e r s ( t h e f a v o r e d p r o d u c t i s a o r t h e 2 , 4 , 6 i s o m e r ) .

The g a s e s f r o m t h e n i t r a t o r - s e p a r a t o r s t e p c o n t a i n C O , C 0 2 , N O , N O 2 , N 2 0 a n d t r i n i t r o m e t h a n e (TNM). T h e s e g a s e s a r e p a s s e d t h r o u g h a fume r e - c o v e r y s y s t e m , f o r r e c o v e r y o f N O x a s n i t r i c a c i d , a n d a r e t h e n v e n t e d t h r o u g h a s c r u b b e r t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e . F i n a l e m i s s i o n s c o n t a i n u n a b s o r b e d NOx a s w e l l a s T N M . R a t e d c a p a c i t y f o r a t y p i c a l f u m e r e c o v e r y s y s t e m o p e r a t i o n f o r t h e c o n t i n u o u s p r o - c e s s i s i n d i c a t e d t o b e 272 Kg HN03/hour [Hudak a n d P a r s o n s , 19771 . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 4 5 Kg NO /Mg TNT a r e g e n e r a t e d b y t h e n i t r a t o r s o f w h i c h 3 . 6 Kg N O x /Mg TNT a r e v e n t e d t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e [Hudak a n d P a r s o n s , 1 9 7 7 1 . I n a d d i t i o n , u n s y m m e t r i c a l "meta" i s o m e r s , a s w e l l a s o x i d a t i o n p r o d u c t s , a r e g e n e - r a t e d . "Red water" , t h e m a i n s o u r c e o f p o l l u t i o n , i s t h e b y - p r o d u c t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t o f "meta" i s o - mers in t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n s t e p .

The p o l l u t a n t s f r o m TNT p r o d u c t i o n c a n b e a l l e v i a t e d b y i m p r o v i n g t h e c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n , t o d e c r e a s e t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f n i t r i c a c i d , t h e o x i d a t i v e s i d e r e a c t i o n s , a n d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f u n s y m m e t r i c a l isoomers . F o r t h i s p u r p o s e , a l o w t e m p e r a t u r e (-10 C) n i t r a t i o n , t o d i n i t r ! t e t o 1- u e n e , f o l l o w e d b y a h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e ( 9 0 C ) t r i n i - t r a t i o n i s recommended [ H i l l , e t a l . 1 9 7 6 ; B a a s , - a l . u n d a t e d ] . The m a j o r c h a n g e s f r o m t h e e x i s t i n g p r o c e s s w o u l d o c c u r i n t h e d i n i t r a t i o n s t e p . I t h a s b e e n shown t h a t l o w e r i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e f r o m 33°C t o -8°C i n t h e d i n i t r a t o r s t e p r e s u l t s i n r e d u c t i o n o f "meta" i s o m e r s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e

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NOILRILN33N03 aI3v 318.11~ I ,

A83A0338 aI3V LNPdS

IVSOdSIa 0.I

3N I If S I NI d

I

NOI.IV:)I d I8nd

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60 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

p r o d u c t f r o m 2.4 p e r c e n t t o 1.8 p e r c e n t [ H a a s , I a l . u n d a t e d ] .

The fume r e c o v e r y s y s t e m f o r g a s e o u s e m i s s i o n s i n t h e n i t r a t i o n s e p a r a t i o n s t e p m u s t b e d e s i g n e d t o o p e r a t e e f f i c i e n t l y a t t h e maximum p r o d u c t i o n l e v e l o f TNT.

P u r i f i c a t i o n

The c r u d e TNT f r o m t h e n i t r a t i o n s t e p i s washed w i t h w a t e r t o r e m o v e f r e e a c i d s . T h i s s t e p i s a c c o m p l i s h e d b y u s i n g a c o u n t e r c u r r e n t f l o w o f water . The TNT i s t h e n n e u t r a l i z e d w i t h s o d a a s h a n d t r e a t e d w i t h a 1 6 p e r c e n t a q u e o u s s o d i u m s u l - f i t e ( s e l l i t e ) s o l u t i o n t o r e m o v e t h e n i t r o g r o u p i n t h e meta p o s i t i o n , f o r m i n g h i g h l y s o l u b l e s o d i u m s a l t s o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i n i t r o t o l u e n e s u l f o n i c a c i d . The TNT i s t h e n t r e a t e d i n a s e r i e s o f c o u n t e r c u r r e n t e x t r a c t o r s w i t h H 2 O a n d t h e n t r a n s - f e r r e d t o t h e f i n i s h i n g p r o c e s s a s a s l u r r y .

The w a s t e s t reams f r o m t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n s a r e " y e 1 l o w wa te r , " " r e d water" a n d " p i n k water." " Y e 1 l o w w a t e r " i s g e n e r a t e d a s a r e s u l t o f t h e f i r s t w a t e r wash. Some o f t h i s a c i d i c e f f l u e n t i s r e t u r n e d t o t h e d i n i t r a t i o n s t e p a n d t h e r e s t i s c o m b i n e d w i t h o t h e r p r o c e s s w a s t e waters f o r t r e a t - men t . "Red wa te r , " t h e e f f l u e n t o f s e l l i t e t r e a t - ment a n d s u b s e q u e n t w a s h i n g o f TNT, c o n s i s t s o f 27.6 p e r c e n t water , 17 .3 p e r c e n t o r g a n i c s , 5.2 p e r c e n t N a N O a n d 2.9 p e r c e n t Na SO [Hudak a n d P a r s o n s , 1 9 7 f i . The g e n e r a t i o n of2 'Ced wa te r " a m o u n t s t o 0.34 k g / k g TNT p r o d u c e d a n d c o n s i s t s o f 0.26 k g p r o c e s s w a t e r , 0.06 k g o r g a n i c s ( n i t r o t o - l u e n e s and n i t r o t o l u e n e - s u l f o n i c a c i d s l a t ) , a n d .02 k g d i s s o v l e d o r g a n i c s (Na NO, a n d N a S & ) [Hudak a n d P a r s o n s , 19771 . " P i n k w a t e r " i s t h e w a s t e s t ream g e n e r a t e d f r o m TNT m a n u f a c t u r i n g a s w e l l as LAP o p e r a t i o n . " P i n k wa te r " a r i s e s f r o m t h e n i t r a - t i o n fume s c r u b b e r d i s c h a r g e , " r e d wa te r " c o n c e n - t r a t i o n d i s t i l l a t e , f i n i s h i n g o p e r a t i o n hood s c r u b - b e r a n d wash down e f f l u e n t a n d , p o s s i b l y , s p e n t a c i d r e c o v e r y waste.

C o n t r o l s t r a t e g y f o r r e d u c t i o n o f " r e d wa te r " h a s b e e n d i s c u s s e d i n t h e n i t r a t i o n s e c t i o n . The t r a c e s o f TNT i n " p i n k water" a n d " y e l l o w water" s h o u l d b e r e c o v e r e d . I t i s p o s s i b l e t o p u r i f y t h e s e s t reams b y t r e a t i n g t h e waste w a t e r s w i t h s u r f a c t a n t , t h u s f o r m i n g a p r e c i p i t a t e w i t h TNT

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EXPLOSIVES 61

w h i c h c a n e a s i l y b e r e m o v e d by f i l t r a t i o n [Okamota , -- e t a l . 19791. The " p i n k w a t e r " r e s u l t i n g f r o m TNT s p e n t a c i d r e c o v e r y r e p r e s e n t s 15-118 k g / d a y o f TNT f o r a t y p i c a l p l a n t [Hudak and P a r s o n s , 19771 . I n a d d i t i o n " p i n k water" c o n t a i n s D N T w h i c h , b y i m - p r o v i n g t h e n i t r a t i o n p r o c e s s , s h o u l d b e r e d u c e d t o a t o l e r a b l e l e v e l .

F i n i s h i n g

I n t h i s p r o c e s s T N T is s o l i d i f i e d o n a w a t e r - c o o l e d f l a k e r drum o r b e l t and i s t h e n s c r a p e d f r o m t h e c o o l i n g s u r f a c e w i t h a b l a d e .

The w a s t e s t r e a m f r o m t h e f i n i s h i n g p r o c e s s i s m a i n l y w a s t e f r o m s p i l l a g e , f l o o r d r a i n a g e , a n d w a s h i n g s f r o m t h e f i n i s h i n g a r e a .

The r e c o v e r y o f TNT f r o m t h e s e w a s t e s t r e a m s s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d i f TNT a p p e a r s i n a n y l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s i n t h e s e s t r e a m s .

T a b l e 4.2 i s t h e s u m m a r y o f t h e p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h TNT p r o d u c t i o n a n d s u g - g e s t e d c o n t r o 1 a l t e r n a t i v e s .

Recommended A r e a s f o r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l R e s e a r c h i n TNT P r o d u c t i o n

A f t e r e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s t e c h n o l o g y , t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s a r e recommended f o r f u r t h e r r e - s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t .

R e s e a r c h o n k i n e t i c s o f t h e n i t r a t i o n r e a c t i o n s , w h i c h w i l l p e r m i t a l l e v i a t i o n o f p o l l u t a n t s b y a d o p t i o n o f a l o w t e m p e r a t u r e d e n i t r a t i o n s t a g e .

M a t e r i a l b a l a n c e s t o i d e n t i f y t h e o p t i m a l d e s i g n f o r t h e fume r e c o v e r y s y s t e m i n t h e n i t r a t i o n - s e p a r a t i o n p r o c e s s .

R e c o v e r y o f TNT i n t h e " p i n k water" b y a p p l i c a t i o n o f foam s e p a r a t i o n t o a n a q u e o u s s o l u t i o n .

NITROCELLULOSE P R O D U C T I O N

N i t r o c e l l u l o s e (NC) i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t p r o d u c t f r o m t h e m i l i t a r y s e c t o r o f t h e U.S .

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Tab le 4 - 2 P o l l u t a n t s and C o n t r o l Opt ion5 i n 'INT P roduc t ion

P r o c e s s

Nit r a t ion

P u r i f i - c a t i o n

I ' f n i s t i i ng

P o l l u t a n t s

CO, CO , N O , N O N 2 0 , N 8 TNFI

unsymmetr ica l "Met a" isoine rs of TtJT

"Ye 1 low water'' a c i d i c e f f l u - e n t t r a c e s of TNT

"Red wa te r " N a N O x , Na2SOx

n i t r o t o l u e n e s and n i t r o t o l u - e n e s s u l f u r i c

a c i d

"Pink water" DNT, TNT, a l l p o l l u t a n t s pre s e n t i n r ed w a t e r

S p i l l a y e , d r n l n a v r .

Sources i n p r o c e s s

N i t r a t o r - S e p a r a t o r

Fume recove ry s y s t e m

F i r s t water wash

S e l l i t e wash

N i t r a t i o n fume

d i s c h a r g e "Ked wa te r " concen- t r a t i o n d i bt i l l a t e s . F i n i s h i n g ope ra t ion hdrd s c r u b b e r

s c r u b b e r

Wash down e f f l u e n t

Nature o f p o l l u t a n t s

I n o r g a n i c and o rTan ic , Bases

1nor-l:anic and o r g a n i c Edses

Ino rgdn tc and ori:anic l i q u i d

I n o r g a n i c and Organ ic l i q u i d s

I n o r g a n i c and o r g a n i c l i q u i d

P o l l u t a n t c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y

Low t empera tu re d i n i t r a t i o n s t a g e t o r educe %eta" i somers and o x i d e s of n i t r o s e n and ca rbon ,

Chanpe t h e d e s i g n as t o o p e r a t e a t maximum TNT p r o d u c t i o n capdci t v

Removal of TNT from a l l w a s t e water9 by a p p l i c a t i o n O F foam s e p a r a t i o n . "F.ed water" g e n e r a t i o n w i l l be c o n s i d e r a b l y lower when "meta" i somers fo rma t ion is dec reased .

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EXPLOSIVES 6 3

e x p l o s i v e i n d u s t r y , w i t h a 1969-71 p r o d u c t i o n l e v e l o f n e a r l y 1 2 , 4 0 0 t o n s f m o n t h { P a t t e r s o n , e t a l . 19761 . N C i s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i n g r e d i e n t u s e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a l l g u n p r o p e l l a n t s a n d many r o c k e t p r o p e l l a n t s . C e l l u l o s e m o n o n i t r a t e , d i n i - t r a t e a n d t r i n i t r a t e h a v e n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t s o f 6.75, 11.11, a n d 14.4 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y , r e p r e - s e n t i n g p r o g r e s s i v e r e p l a c e m e n t s o f t h e - O H g r o u p s i n t h e c e l l u l o s e u n i t b y O N 0 2 g r o u p s . t h e r e a r e t h r e e g r a d e s o f NC; p r o x y l i n , p y r o c e l l u - l o s e , a n d g u n c o t t o n w i t h 8-12 p e r c e n t , 12.6 p e r - c e n t , a n d 1 3 p e r c e n t minimum n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t re- s p e c t i v e l y . The p r e p a r a t i o n o f a l l g r a d e s o f NC r e q u i r e t h e same p r o c e d u r e , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e a c i d mix u s e d i n t h e n i t r a t i o n p r o c e s s [ M a r k , 19661 . M a n u f a c t u r i n g o f NC c o n s i s t s o f two p r o c e s - s e s , n i t r a t i o n a n d p u r i f i c a t i o n . An o v e r a l l f l o w c h a r t o f NC p r o d u c t i o n i s d e p i c t e d b y F i g u r e 4.4.

T y p i c a l l y ,

N i t r a t i o n

I n t h i s p r o c e s s , p r e - p u r i f i e d p u l p i s a d d e d t o a m i x t u r e o f n i t r i c a c i d a n d s u l f u r i c a c i d i n " d i p p i n g po t s . " S i n c e t h e n i t r a t i o n r e a c t i o n i s e x o t h e r m i c t h e v e s s e l i s c o o l e d , w!th t h e o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s v a r y i n g f r o m 3 0 t o 40 C. I n a c o n t i n - u o u s p r o c e s s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 8 t o 70 k g f m i n o f c r u d e N C i s p r o d u c e d .

c r N C

T h e n i t r a t i o n i s f o l l o w e d b y c e n t r i f u g i n g t h e u d e NC t o r e m o v e s p e n t n i t r a t i n g a c i d s The wrung

i s t h e n dumped i n t o " d r o w n i n g t u b s " f i l l e d w i t h wa te r t o s t o p t h e r e a c t i o n . The n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t o f N C i s h e l d b e t w e e n 10:5 p e r c e n t t o 13.8 p e r c e n t n i t r o g e n [Hudak a n d P a r s o n s , 1 9 7 7 1 .

The p o l l u t a n t s e m i t t e d f r o m t h e n i t r a t i o n p r o c e s s a r e 0.65g SO, a n d 1.05g N O , p e r kg N C f r o m t h e r e a c t o r p o t s a n d 32.5% SO, a n d 14.5g N O , p e r k g N C f r o m t h e a c i d c o n c e n t r a t o r s . The N O f r o m t h e r e a c t o r s and c e n t r i f u g e a r e v e n t e d t o a n a b s o r b e r w h e r e N O i s o x i d i z e d a n d a b s o r b e d i n t h e w a t e r , g e n e r a t i n g weak n i t r i c a c i d . M o s t o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r f r o m t h e n i t r a t i o n p r o c e s s i s d u e t o c l e a n u p s . T h u s , w a s t e w a t e r s may b e e x p e c t e d t o h a v e a l o w pH, r e l a t i v e l y h i g h l e v e l s o f N O , a n d s u s p e n d - e d s o l i d s .

N i t r a t i o n o f c e l l u l o s e i n " d i p p i n g p o t s " c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d a t 1 7 t o 45.C [ M i l e s , 1 9 5 5 1 , d e - p e n d i n g o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e d e s i r e d p r o d u c t .

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N I T R I C A C I D

CONCENTRATION N I T R A T I O N

_I S P E N T A C I D

RECOVERY

L

P U R I F I C A T I O N

TO RECYCLE

D I S P O S A L OR

TO PROPELLANT FORMULATION

F i g u r e 4 . 4 . F l o w C h a r t f o r N i t r o c e l l u l o s e Product ion. (Hudak and Parsons, 1 9 7 7 ) .

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EXPLOSIVES 65

J u J i a n L i n a r e s ( 1 9 6 6 ) c a r r i e d o u t t h i s n i t r a t i o n a t 2 9 C , p r o d u c i n g c e l l u l o s e n i t r a t e o f 13.35 p e r c e n t N c o n t e n t . T h u s , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e n i t r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e f l e x i b l e , a n d y i e l d e n d - p r o d u c t s , o f c o m p a r a b l e q u a l i t y . The o p t i m a l o p e r a t i n g t e m - p e r a t u r e m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r r e d u c t i o n o f SO, a n d NO, e m i s s i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o n v e r t i n g t h e waste a c i d f r o m t h e n i t r a t i o n p r o - c e s s t o s u l f u r i c a c i d m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d . S u c h a p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s t h e r e a c t i o n o f r o a s t i n g g a s e s c o n t a i n i n g SO2 a t t e m p e r a t u r e s e x c e e d i n g 250°C w i t h t h e a c i d waste ( m o s t l y H2S04 s p r a y , t o f o r m s u l f u r i c a c i d [ R e n s h a n d J e n t h e , 19671 . t o r may a l s o p r o v e b e n e f i c i a l .

P u r i f i c a t i o n

a n d HN03) a n d w a t e r

A b s o r p t i o n o f NOz f r o m t h e a c i d c o n c e n t r a -

The p u r i f i c a t i o n o f NC i n v o l v e s f i v e p r o c e s - s e s : b o i l i n g t u b h o u s e , b e a t e r h o u s e , p o a c h e r h o u s e , b l e n d e r h o u s e , a n d f i n a l w r i n g e r h o u s e . I n t h e b o i l i n g t u b h o u s e , u n s t a b l e s u l f a t e e s t e r s a n d n i t r a t e s o f p a r t i a l l y o x i d i z e d c e l l u l o s e a r e d e - s t r o y e d b y a c i d h y d r o l y s i s . I n t h e b e a t e r h o u s e , t h e N C i s r e d u c e d t o a p h y s i c a l s t a t e m o r e a m e n a b l e t o p u r i f i c a t i o n , b y J o r d a n h e a t e r s . I n t h e p o a c h e r h o u s e , t h e N C i s t r e a t e d w i t h s o d a a s h , a n d un - p u l p e d f i b e r s a r e r e m o v e d . The f u n c t i o n o f t h e b l e a c h e r h o u s e i s t o s a m p l e a n d r e g u l a t e t h e q u a - l i t y o f t h e f i n a l p r o d u c t . I n t h e f i n a l w r i n g e r h o u s e , t h e NC s l u r r y i s c e n t r i f u g e d t o a p p r o x i m a t e - l y 3 0 p e r c e n t m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t .

Due t o l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f p r o c e s s wa te r u s e d d u r i n g t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g o f N C , t h e t r e a t m e n t a n d d i s p o s a l o f w a s t e w a t e r i s a f o r m i d a b l e p r o b l e m . P r e s e n t l y , o v e r f l o w f r o m t h e s e t t l i n g p i t s f l o w t o t h e w a s t e a c i d n e u t r a l i z a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s , w h e r e CaC03 i s a d d e d t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e a c i d . A f t e r n e o - t r a l i z a t i o n , t h e m a t e r i a l i s e i t h e r d i s c h a r g e d d i r e c t l y o r t r a n s f e r r t d t o s e t t l i n g l a g o o n s . Ap- p r o x i m a t e l y 13.6 x 1 0 kg C a s 0 4 s l u d g e i s g e n e r a t e d y e a r l y , as a r e s u l t o f w a s t e a c i d n e u t r a l i z a t i o n , a t o n e NC p r o d u c t i o n p l a n t [Hudak a n d P a r s o n s , 1 9 7 7 1 .

W a s t e w a t e r s f r o m t h e b e a t e r , p o a c h e r , a n d b l e n d e r h o u s e s f l o w t o a n o t h e r p i t a r e a , w h e r e N C f i n e s s e t t l e o u t . E f f l u e n t f r o m t h e p i t i s e i t h e r r e c y c l e d t o t h e wash l i n e s o r i s d i s c h a r g e d . The m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t o t a l s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s i n t h e

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66 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

w a s t e w a t e r d i s c h a r g e d i s N C f i n e s . One s o u r c e l i s t s t h e f o l l o w i n g N C l o s s e s d u r i n g NC p u r i f i c a - t i o n [Hudak a n d P a r s o n s , 19771 :

B o i l i n g t u b h o u s e 6 8 . 2 k g l d a y J o r d a n b e a t e r h o u s e 2 9 5 k g l d a y P o a c h e r h o u s e 2 9 5 k g l d a y

N i t r o c e l l u l o s e f i n e s l o s t d u r i n g t h e b o i l i n g t u b , J o r d a n b e a t e r , a n d p o a c h e r h o u s e o p e r a t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e i n e f f i c i e n c i e s i n NC p u r i f i c a t i o n . N C f i n e s c a n b e r e c o v e r e d f r o m w a s t e w a t e r s b y s i m p l e f i l t r a t i o n , t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d c o n - t e n t a s w e l l a s i m p r o v i n g t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e p r o c e s s .

I t i s , p e r h a p s , n o t p o s s i b l e t o r e c y c l e a l l t h e w a t e r u s e d i n t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f NC b u t , i t may b e p o s s i b l e t o r e d u c e t h e v o l u m e o f t h e waste- water . F o r t h i s p u r p o s e a n i n - d e p t h s t u d y o f NC p u r i f i c a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y . S u c h s t u d i e s m u s t c o n - c e n t r a t e on m e t h o d s o f p u r i f i c a t i o n w i t h minimum w a t e r u s a g e . T h u s , a n o v e r a l l m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e o f t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n s t e p w i l l b e u s e f u l .

T a b l e 4.3 i s a s u m m a r y o f t h e p o l l u t i o n p r o b - l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h NC p r o d u c t i o n a n d s u g g e s t e d c o n t r o l a l t e r n a t i v e s .

Recommended A r e a s f o r Po 1 l u t i o n C o n t r o 1 R e s e a r c h i n N i t r o c e 1 l u l o s e P r o d u c t i o n

A f t e r e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s t e c h n o l o g y , t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s a r e recommended f o r f u r t h e r r e - s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t :

B e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e k i n e t i c s o f t h e c e l l u l o s e n i t r a t i o n w i l l i n d i c a t e m e t h o d s o f o p e r a t i o n t o m i n i m i z e N O , a n d SO, f o r m a t i o n .

B e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a b s o r p t i o n of SO, , and a d d i t i o n o f a n a b s o r p t i o n t o w e r t o t h e a c i d c o n c e n t r a t o r t o r e c o v e r NO,.

R e s e a r c h o n f i l t r a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s and f i l t r a t i o n u n i t s f o r e f f e c t i v e r e c o v e r y o f NC f i n e s f r o m b o i l i n g t u b , J o r d a n b e a t e r a n d p o a c h e r h o u s e s .

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Tab le 4-3 . P o l l u t a n t s and C o n t r o l O r I I

P r o c e s s P o l l u t a n t s Source i n p r o c e s s

R e a c t o r s ,

suspended s o l i d I v e s s e l .

N i t r a t i o n SOx, N O x 9 NO3

Nature of p o l l u t a n t

I n o r g a n i c gases and s o l i d .

I n o r g a n i c a c i d s

Organic , suspended s o l i d s

Waste a c i d I C e n t r i f u g e

P o l l u t a n t C o n t r o l S t r a t e g y

Improve r e a c t i o n by t empera tu re ad jus tmen t t o r educe g e n e r a t i o n o f o x i d e s .

Convers ion t o s u l f u r i c a c i d by s p r a y i n g a c i d was te bv w a t e r i n p re sence of r o a s t i n g g a s e s

2 ' c o n t a i n i n g SO

Removal by f i l t r a t i o n from waste s t r e a m s .

Waste a c i d C e n t r i f u g e H N 0 3 , H SO 2 4

P u r i f i c a t i o n NC f i n e s B o i l i n g Tub house J o r d a n b e a t e r house poacher house

Inorp ,an ic a c i d s

P u r i f i c a t i o n NC f i n e s

Reduct ion of p r o c e s s wa te r .

~~

B o i l i n g Tub house J o r d a n b e a t e r

I Process w a t e r , a c i d i c . I

i o n s i n NC P roduc t ion I

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68 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

Reexamine a n d m o d i f y f l o w s t reams t o o p t i m i z e w a t e r u s a g e by r e c y c l e and o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s i n t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s .

REFERENCES

A t r o s h c h e n k o , V., a l . S i m u l a t i o n of P r o c e s s Ammonia O x i d a t i o n R e a c t i o n , E.A. Int. Congr . Chem. Enpr. Chem. E a u i p . Des., Autom. 1 9 7 9 .

Dor fman , A.D., & al.. g e t h o d s of Ammonia O x i d a t i o n C o n t r o l . Ar tom. Khim. P r o i z v o d . (Moscow) , 1 9 7 8 .

H a a s , R., e t a l . Low T e m p e r a t u r e P r o c e s s TNT M a n u f a c t u r e P a r t 2 P i l o t P l a n t D e v e l o p m e n t . I n d u s t r i a l L a b o r a t o r y N i t r a t i o n , ACS- Symposium S e r i e s 2 2 , A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l S o c i e t y pp . 272 .

H i l l , M., e t a l . . Low T e m p e r a t u r e P r o c e s s for TNT E a n u f a c t u r e P a r t 1 L a b o r a t o r y D e v e l o u m e n t . I n d u s t r i a l & L a b o r a t o r y N i t r a t i o n , ACS- S y m p o s i u m s e r i e s 22 , A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l S o c i e t y , 1 9 7 6 , p p . 2 5 3 .

Hudak, C . a n d P a r s o n s , T. I n d u s t r i a l P r o c e s s P r o f i l e s for E n v i r o n m e n t a l Use: C h a u t e r 12. The E x p l o s i v e s I n d u s t r y , EPA 6 0 0 / 2 7 7 / 0 2 3 L , F e b . 1 9 7 7 .

J u l i e n L i n a r e s , F r e n c h P a t e n t 87097 ( 1 9 6 6 ) .

K i rk -Othmer Encyc l o p e d i a of C h e m i c a l Techno lu, V o l , 8 , H.F. Mark , N . Y . , W i l e y 1 9 6 6 .

M a r z o , L. a n M a r z o , J. C o n c e n t r a t i n g N i t r i c A c i d b y S u r p a s s i n g a n A z e o t r o p e . C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g . Nov. 3 , 1 9 8 0 .

M i l e s , F., C e l l u l o s e N i t r a t e , N e w York: I n t e r s c i e n c e P u b l i s h e r s I n c . 1 9 5 5 .

Okamota , _al. A m l i c a t i o n o f Foam S e p a r a t i o n to A a u e o u s S o l u t i o n s o f TNT. P a r t I1 R e m o v a l of O r g a n i c E x u l o s i v e s Wi th S u r f a c t a n t , O r d e r no. AD-A066118, A v a i l . NTIS. f r o m Gov. Rep. Annoce . I n d e x ( U . S . ) 1 9 7 9 , 79 ( 1 5 1 , 2 3 9 .

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EXPLOSIVES 69

P a t t e r s o n , J.W., & a l . S t a t e o f t h e A r t : M i l i t a r y E X D l O S i V e S a n d P r o p e l l a n t s P r o d u c t i o n l n d u s t r x V o l . I11 Waste Water T r e a t m e n t , EPA/600/2- “ , F e b . l 9 7 6 .

R e n s h , W e r n e r , J e n t h e , H o r s t , Ger ( E a s t ) P a t e n t 5 8 2 9 3 ( 1 9 6 7 ) .

S m i t h , Norman, a n d L o c k y e r , J o h n , B r i t i s h P a t e n t 1 5 3 8 1 9 8 ( 1 9 7 9 ) .

Z h i d k o v , B., & gl. S t u d y of the K i n e t i c s of Ammonia O x i d a t i o n i n a P l a t i n u m C a t a l y s t K i n e t i c s of D e c o m D o s i t i o n of N i t r o n e n O x i d e s , Khim. T e k h n o l o y , 1 9 7 9 .

SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES

A m e r i c a n D e f e n s e P r e p a r e d n e s s A s s n . Waste T r e a t m e n t i n t h e M i l i t a r y E x v l o s i v e s a n d P r o p e l l a n t s P r o d u c t i o n I n d u s t r e . W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., O c t . , 197 5.

--

B o o z - A l l e n A p p l i e d R e s e a r c h , I n c . , A_ S t u d y of H a z a r d o u s Waste M a t e r i a l s . H a z a r d o u s E f f e c t s - a n d D i s p o s a l M e t h o d s Vol. 11, PB 211-466, 1 9 7 3 .

B r a d l e y , R., e t a l . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of I n d u s t r i e s D e s c r i D t i o n and P r o d u c t L i s t s , SRI P r o j e c t ECD-3423 94025 f o r U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency , M e n l o P a r k , C a l i f o r n i a , S t a n f o r d R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , Dec. , 1 9 7 4 .

D e l l m e i e r , A l e x ; S t e c k e r , F r i e d r i c h , German P a t e n t 1 , 2 8 2 , 5 2 9 ( 1 9 6 8 ) .

H a d l e y , W., e t a l . P o t e n t i a l P o l l u t a n t s f r o m P e t r o c h e m i c a l P r o c e s s e s , F i n a l R e p o r t , C o n t r a c t 68-02-0226, T a s k 9 , MRC-DA-406. D a y t o n O h i o , M o n s a n t o R e s e a r c h Corp . , D a y t o n L a b . , Dec. , 1 9 7 3 .

P r o c e s s e s R e s e a r c h , I n c . A i r P o l l u t i o n f r o m N i t r a t i o n P r o c e s s e s , C o n t r a c t No. CPA 70-1 , T a s k 2 2 , C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o , March 1 9 7 6 .

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CHAPTER 5

I R O N A N D S T E E L INDUSTRY

I N T R O D U C T I O N

The m a n u f a c t u r e o f s t e e l i n v o l v e s many p r o c e s - s e s w h i c h r e q u i r e l a t g e q u a n t i t i e s o f r a w m a t e r i a l s a n d o t h e r r e s o u r c e s . Due t o t h e w i d e v a r i e t y o f p r o d u c t s a n d p r o c e s s e s , o p e r a t i o n s v a r y f r o m p l a n t t o p l a n t . H o w e v e r , t h e s t e e l i n d u s t r y c a n b e s e g - r e g a t e d i n t o two ma jo r c o m p o n e n t s ; r a w s t e e l m a k i n g , a n d f o r m i n g a n d f i n i s h i n g o p e r a t i o n s . An o v e r v i e w o f t h e i r o n a n d s t e e l p r o c e s s i s g i v e n i n F i g u r e 5.1 [ U . S . EPA, 1 9 8 0 a l .

I n t h e f i r s t m a j o r p r o c e s s , c o a l i s c o n v e r t e d t o c o k e . N e a r l y a l l a c t i v e c o k e p l a n t s a r e by- p r o d u c t p l a n t s w h i c h p r o d u c e , i n a d d i t i o n t o c o k e , u s a b l e b y - p r o d u c t s s u c h a s c o k e o v e n g a s , c o a l t a r , c r u d e o r r e f i n e d l i g h t o i l s , ammonium s u l f a t e o r a n h y d r o u s ammonia, a n d n a p t h a l e n e . Less t h a n 1 p e r c e n t o f d o m e s t i c c o k e i s p r o d u c e d i n b e e h i v e c o k e mak ing .

The c o k e f r o m c o k e m a k i n g o p e r a t i o n s i s t h e n s u p p l i e d t o t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e p r o c e s s , w h e r e m o l t e n i r o n i s p r o d u c e d . I n t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e s , i r o n o r e , l i m e s t o n e a n d c o k e a r e p l a c e d i n t o t h e t o p o f t h e f u r n a c e a n d a i r i s b l o w n c o u n t e r c u r r e n t l y f r o m t h e b o t t o m . The c o m b u s t i o n o f c o k e p r o v i d e s h e a t w h i c h p r o d u c e s m e t a l l u r g i c a l r e a c t i o n s . T h e l i m e s t o n e f o r m s a f l u i d s l a g w h i c h c o m b i n e s w i t h u n w a n t e d i m p u r i t i e s i n t h e o r e . M o l t e n i r o n f r o m t h e b o t t o m o f t h e f u r n a c e a n d m o l t e n s l a g , w h i c h f l o a t s o n t o p o f t h e i r o n , a r e p e r i o d i c a l l y w i t h d r a w n . The b l a s t f u r n a c e f l u e g a s , w h i c h h a s c o n s i d e r a b l e f u e l v a l u e , i s c l e a n e d a n d t h e n b u r n e d i n s t o v e s t o p r e h e a t t h e i n c o m i n g a i r b l a s t t o t h e f u r n a c e .

S t e e l i s a n a l l o y o f i r o n , c o n t a i n i n g l e s s t h a n 1 p e r c e n t c a r b o n . S t e e l m a k i n g c o n s i s t s es- s e n t i a l l y o f o x i d i z i n g c o n s t i t u e n t s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y c a r b o n ) t o s p e c i f i e d l o w l e v e l s , a n d t h e n a d d i n g

71

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IRON AND STEEL 73

v a r i o u s a l l o y i n g e l e m e n t s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e g r a d e o f s t e e l t o b e p r o d u c e d . The b a s i c r a w m a t e r i a l s f o r s t e e l m a k i n a r e h o t m e t a l p i $ i r o n , s t e e l s c r a p , l i m e s t o n e , % u r n e d l i m e , d o l o m i t e , f l u o r s p a r , i r o n o r e s , a n d i r o n - b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s p e l l e t s o r m i l l s c a l e . The p r i n c i p a l s t e e l mak ing p r o c e s s e s i n u s e t o d a y a r e t h e B a s i c Oxygen F u r n a c e (BOF), t h e Open H e a r t h F u r n a c e ( O H F ) , and t h e E l e c t r i c A r c F u r n a c e (EAF).

Hot f o r m i n g ( i n c l u d i n g c o n t i n u o u s c a s t i n g ) a n d c o l d f i n i s h i n g o p e r a t i o n s f o l l o w t h e s t e e l mak ing p r o c e s s . T h e s e o p e r a t i o n s a r e so v a r i e d t h a t s i m - p l e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t . I n g e n e r a l , h o t f o r m i n g p r i m a r y m i l l s r e d u c e i n g o t s t o s l a b s o r b l o o m s , and s e c o n d a r y h o t f o r m i n g m i l l s r e d u c e s l a b s o r b l o o m s t o b i l l e t s , p l a t e s , e t c . S t e e l f i n i s h i n g i n v o l v e s a number o f o p e r a t i o n s t h a t b a s i c a l l y i m p a r t d e s i r a b l e s u r f a c e o r m e c h a n i - c a l p r o p e r t i e s t o t h e s t e e l . C o r r e c t s u r f a c e p r e - p a r a t i o n i s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t r e q u i r e m e n t f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y a p p l i c a t i o n o f p r o t e c t i v e c o a t i n g s t o t h e s t e e l s u r f a c e . The s t e e l s u r f a c e mus t b e c l e a n e d a t v a r i o u s p r o d u c t i o n s t a g e s , t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e o x i d e s w h i c h f o r m o n t h e s u r f a c e a r e n o t worked i n t o t h e f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t . The p i c k l i n g p r o c e s s c h e m i c a l l y r e m o v e s o x i d e s and s c a l e f r o m t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e s t e e l b y t h e a c t i o n o f i n o r g a n i c a c i d s . T h i s me thod i s t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d , d u e t o c o m p a r a t i v e l y l o w o p e r a t i n g c o s t s and e a s e o f o p e r - a t i o n . P i c k l i n g w i l l b e t h e o n l y f i n i s h i n g o p e r a - t i o n c o n s i d e r e d h e r e .

C O K E M A K I N G

F i g u r e 5.2 p r o v i d e s a f l o w d i a g r a m o f a c o k e p l a n t , t h e p r o c e s s e s r e q u i r e d i n c l u d i n g :

1. C o a l m i n i n g and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n 2 . C o a l p r e p a r a t i o n 3. C h a r g i n g o f c o a l 4. C o k i n g 5 . P u s h i n g and q u e n c h i n g 6 . Coke h a n d l i n g and t a r c o n d e n s a t i o n

C o a l d u s t i s e m i t t e d d u r i n g s i z e r e d u c t i o n a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f t h e c o a l . E m i s s i o n s a r e e s t i - m a t e d t o b e 5 k g / t o n o f c o a l . P a r t i c l e s a r e g e n e - r a l l y l e s s t h a n 0 . 1 m m i n s i z e , w i t h s u s p e n d e d f r a c t i o n s i n t h e r a n g e o f 1 t o 1 0 [ B a r n e s , et d. 1 9 7 0 1 . The w a s t e w a t e r s p r o d u c e d f r o m c o a l

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F n P. m

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IRON AND STEEL 75

p r e p a r a t i o n may c o n t a i n u p t o 200 g / l o f s u s p e n d e d p a r t i c l e s ( 2 8 mesh t o c o l l o i d a l d i m e n s i o n s ) a n d m o s t c a n b e e l i m i n a t e d b y t h i c k e n e r s , c y c l o n e s , a n d f i l t e r s [ K e y s t o n e C o a l I n d u s t r y M a n u a l , 1 9 7 4 1 . T r a c e e l e m e n t s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e w a s t e w a t e r i n c l u d e a r s e n i c , cadmium and l e a d .

Coke i s t h e r e s i d u e f r o m t h e d e s t r u c t i v e d i s - t i l l a t i o n o f c o a l . C o a l i s h e a t e d i n t h e c o k e o v e n s ( w i t h no a i r i n t h e o v e n ) b y a d j a c e n t cham- b e r s o r f l u e s u s i n g ; 1) some o f t h e g a s r e c o v e r e d f r o m c o k i n g o p e r a t i o n s , 2 ) c l e a n e d b l a s t f u r n a c e g a s , o r , 3 ) a m i x t u r e o f c o k e o v e n a n d b l a s t f u r - n a c e g a s e s . D u r i n g c a r b o n i z a t i o n , a b o u t 20 t o 3 5 p e r c e n t b y w e i g h t o f t h e i n i t i a l c o a l c h a r g e i s e v o l v e d a s mixed g a s e s a n d v a p o r s , w h i c h a r e v e n t e d t h r o u g h a n o p e n i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h e o v e n . From o n e t o n o f c o k e , a b o u t 544-634 kg b l a s t f u r n a c e c o k e , 45-91 k g c o k e b r e e z e , 270-325 m3 c o k e g a s , 3 0 - 4 5 k g t a r , 9 - 1 3 k g (NX4!2S04, 5 4 - 3 1 2 k g a m m o n i a l i q u o r a n d 9-15 kg l i g h t o i l a r e p r o d u c e d [ K e y s t o n e C o a l I n d u s t r y M a n u a l , 19741 . P o t e n t i a l l y h a z a r d o u s e m i s s i o n s f r o m t h e c o k e p l a n t i n c l u d e C O , a m i n e s , o r g a n o m e t a l l i c s , t a r a n d s o o t , c a r b o n y l s , h y d r o g e n c y a n i d e , s u l f u r c o m p o u n d s , e t c . [ C a v a n a u g h , e t al. 19741 . The u s e o f r e f i n e d o r c l e a n e d c o a l a s a r a w m a t e r i a l a n d b e t t e r k n o w l e d g e o f c o k i n g r e a c t i o n s c a n r e d u c e o r e l i m i n a t e some o f t h e s e p o l l u t a n t s .

M o s t o f t h e p a r t i c u l a t e s g e n e r a t e d i n h o t c o k e q u e n c h i n g o p e r a t i o n s a r e c o l l e c t e d a n d r e u s e d w i t h - i n t h e p l a n t , and d o n o t c o n s t i t u t e a s i g n i f i c a n t p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m . H o w e v e r , w a s t e w a t e r s f r o m w e t c o k e q u e n c h i n g o p e r a t i o n s c o n t a i n h i g h c o n c e n t r a - t i o n s o f ammonia, o i l a n d g r e a s e , a n d p h e n o l ( a l l o f t h e t h r e e e x e r t a b i o c h e m i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d ) , p l u s c y a n i d e , s u l f i d e a n d s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s . T a b l e 5.1 g i v e s a n a n a l y s i s o f q u e n c h w a s t e w a t e r s s a m p l e s [ U . S . EPA, 1 9 7 7 1 .

Some t h e t r e a t m e n t t e c h n o l o g i e s u s e d f o r c o n - t r o l o f p o l l u t i o n f r o m t h e q u e n c h w a t e r s a r e [ U . S . EPA, 1 9 7 4 1 :

1. D i s t i l l a t i o n w i t h ammonia r e c o v e r y o f w a s t e ammonia l i q u o r

2 . A l k a l i n e ammonia s t r i p p i n g 3. Neu t r a l i z a t i o n 4 . S e t t 1 i n g 5 . A i r f l o t a t i o n

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76 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

6 . C l a r i f i c a t i o n , w i t h vacuum f i l t r a t i o n o f s l u d g e

F i 1 t r a t i o n 7 .

8 . C a r b o n a d s o r p t i o n

T a b l e 5 . 1 A v e r a g e A n a l y s i s o f Quench W a t e r S a m p l e s

C o n t a m i n a n t C o n c e n t r a t i o n ( PPm)

P h e n o l s 776

Su I f a t e s 1 , 0 6 6

C h l o r i d e s 1 , 9 5 4

T o t a l Ammonia 2 , 5 1 7

C y a n i d e s 9 8

T o t a l S o l i d s 5 , 2 1 4

C o n v e r s i o n o f h o t c o k e q u e n c h i n g f r o m t h e w e t t o t h e d r y p r o c e s s w o u l d : 1 ) e l i m i n a t e a i r and w a s t e w a t e r e m i s s i o n s f r o m t h e w e t q u e n c h i n g p r o - c e s s , and 2 ) p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l f o r p a r - t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n c o n t r o l , s i n c e c o n t r o l o f t h e s e e m i s s i o n s i s p a r t o f t h e d r y q u e n c h i n g d e s i g n [ U . S . EPA, 19761 . P o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l c o s t s a r e n o t s i g n i - f i c a n t f o r t h e d r y p r o c e s s . The h o t q u e n c h g a s e s c a n b e c o o l e d , r e c o v e r i n g u s e f u l e n e r g y . C a p i t a l a n d o p e r a t i n g c o s t s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n w e t q u e n c h i n g o p e r a t i o n s , b y up t o $10.70 p e r t o n o f c o k e . Dry c o k e q u e n c h i n g i s c l a i m e d b y R u s s i a n a u t h o r s t o p r o d u c e a h i g h e r - g r a d e c o k e , t h u s r e d u c - i n g t h e c o k e demand i n t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e . However , t h i s c l a i m n e e d s t o b e d e m o n s t r a t e d f o r U.S. c o a l s .

A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e d r y c o k e quen- c h i n g p r o c e s s h a s b e e n g i v e n [ E P A , 19761 . In d r y q u e n c h i n g o f c o k e , t h e h o t c o k e p u s h e d f r o m t h e o v e n s i s c o o l e d i n a c l o s e d s y s t e m . Dry q u e n c h i n g u s e s " i n e r t " g a s e s t o e x t r a c t h e a t f r o m t h e i n c a n - d e s c e n t c o k e b y d i r e c t c o n t a c t . The h e a t i s t h e n r e c o v e r e d in was te h e a t b o i l e r s o r b y o t h e r t e c h n i - q u e s . The " i n e r t " g a s e s c a n b e g e n e r a t e d f r o m a n

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IRON AND STEEL 7 7

i n i t i a l i n t a k e o f a i r w h i c h r e a c t s w i t h t h e t o c o k e t o f o r m a q u e n c h i n g g a s c o n t a i n i n g 14.5% C 4 7 0.4% 0 2 , 10.6% C O , 2 % H2 a n d 7 2 . 5 % 3 . A f t e r c o o l i n g , t h e g a s e s p a s s t h r o u g h two d u s t r e c o v e r y c y c l o n e s ( w h e r e p a r t i c u l a t e s a r e c o l l e c t e d a t ‘400-600 l b / h r ) b e f o r e b e i n g r e c y c l e d . T h e p a r t i c u l a t e s c o n s i s t m a i n l y o f c a r b o n d u s t , w h i c h i s b u r n t a s s o l i d f u e l . P a r t o f t h e g a s e s a f t e r p a r t i c u l a t e r e m o v a l may b e s e n t f o r r e m o v a l o f e v a p o r a t e d cy - a n i d e s a n d S O x , t o p r e v e n t a c c u m u l a t i o n . A d d i - t i o n a l r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d t o s t u d y t h e a p p l i c a b i l i - t y o f d r y q u e n c h i n g o f U.S. c o a l s and t h e c l e a n i n g o f r e c y c l e g a s e s u s i n g s y s t e m s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e u s e d i n b y - p r o d u c t c o k e r e c o v e r y o p e r a t i o n s .

C O K E BY-PRODUCT R E C O V E R Y

F i g u r e 5.3 shows t h e v a r i o u s c o k e b y - p r o d u c t s r e c o v e r y o p e r a t i o n s [ U . S . E P A , 1 9 7 7 1 . The c o n d e n - s a t e f r o m t h e c o o l e d c o k e o v e n g a s e s c o n t a i n s t a r and ammonia l i q u o r , w h i c h a r e d e c a n t e d . The u n c o n - d e n s e d g a s e s a r e r e h e a t e d a n d p a s s e d o n t o t h e ammonia s c r u b b e r . Some o f t h e t a r d e r i v a t i v e s r e c o v e r e d i n c l u d e c r e o s o t e o i l , c r e o s o l s , n a p h t h a - l e n e , p h e n o l a n d medium a n d h a r d p i t c h . P h e n o l i s r e c o v e r e d f r o m t h e weak ammonia l i q u o r b y s c r u b b i n g w i t h b e n z e n e o r l i g h t o i l . The p h e n o l i z e d b e n z e n e , o r l i g h t o i l , i s c o n t a c t e d w i t h c a u s t i c s o d a t o e x t r a c t s o d i u m p h e n o l a t e . The s o d i u m p h e n o l a t e i s n e u t r a l i z e d w i t h C 0 2 t o l i b e r a t e c r u d e p h e n o l s .

The weak ammonia l i q u o r i s h e a t e d t o r e m o v e “ f r e e “ ammonia a n d i s t h e n c o n t a c t e d w i t h l i m e s o l u t i o n t o r e m o v e a n d s t r i p NH3 a s v a p o r . T h e s e v a p o r s a r e s e n t t o t h e ammonia a b s o r p t i o n p r o c e s s . The w a s t e l i q u o r g e n e r a t e d i n t h e ammonia s t i l l c o n t a i n s s u l f i d e a s H2S. T h e s e wastes may c o n t a i n u p t o 2 0 p e r c e n t by v o l u m e o f Ca(OHI2 [ U . S . E P A , 19771 . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t Ca(0H)2 b e r e c o v e r e d f r o m t h e w a s t e l i q u i d s a n d r e c y c l e d t o t h e ammonia s t i l l .

Ammonia v a p o r s f r o m t h e p r i m a r y c o o l i n g a n d h e a t i n g o p e r a t i o n s and t h e ammonia s t i l l a r e a b s o r - b e d i n a d i l u t e H 2 S 0 4 s o l u t i o n . p r o d u c t i s c r y s t a l l i z e d f r o m t h e r e s u l t i n g s l u r r y . Gases, l e a v i n g t h e ammonia a b s o r b e r , a r e s c r u b b e d w i t h r e c y c l e d wash o i l t o r e m o v e l i g h t o i l . The l i g h t o i l i s r e f i n e d t o p r o d u c e b e n z e n e , t o l u e n e a n d x y l e n e . The u n c o n d e n s e d “ c o k e o v e n g a s e s ” a r e s e n t t o a g a s h o l d e r a n d c o n t a i n m a i n l y C 0 2 , C O , Y ,

T h e ( N H 4 ) 2 S 0 4

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COKE

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IRON AND STEEL 79

H2, 0 2 a n d H2S. The c o m p o s i t i o n i s g i v e n i n T a b l e 5.2. I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t H2S b e r e m o v e d p r i o r t o ammonia a b s o r p t i o n , u s i n g t h e C l a u s o r S t r e t f o r d p r o c e s s [ D u n l a p . et &. 19731 .

T a b l e 5 . 2 Coke Oven G a s e s ( A f t e r B y - p r o d u c t R e c o v e r y ) [Ess, 1 9 4 8 ; W i l s o n , gl. 1 9 8 0 1

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One o f t h e m a j o r p o l l u t a n t s f r o m l i g h t o i l r e c o v e r y i s c y a n i d e [ A l l e n , 19791 . BCN c o n t a i n e d i n t h e g a s l e a v i n g t h e c o o l i n g t o w e r a t o n e s i t e a m o u n t t o 0.56 l b / t o n o f c o k e . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t c y a n i d e b y r e m o v e d b y a d s o r p t i o n o r o t h e r s u i t a b l e m e t h o d s . A b o u t t h e same amoun t o f c y a n i d e i s e x p e c t e d t o b e i n t h e c o o l e r w a s t e w a t e r s . B io - l o g i c a l s y s t e m s f o l l o w e d b y n u t r i e n t a d d i t i o n i n t h e f o r m o f p h o s p h o r i c a c i d h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d t o p r o d u c e a r e d u c t i o n o f c y a n i d e o f u p t o 9 5 p e r c e n t [ H o f s t e i n a n d Koh lmann , 1 9 8 0 1 .

IRON M A K I N G

B l a s t f u r n a c e s a r e l a r g e c y l i n d r i c a l s t r u c - t u r e s i n w h i c h m o l t e n i r o n is p r o d u c e d b y t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e i r o n b e a r i n g o r e s w i t h c o k e a n d l i m e s t o n e . R e d u c t i o n i s p r o m o t e d b y b l o w i n g h e a t e d a i r i n t o t h e l o w e r p a r t o f t h e f u r n a c e . A s t h e r a w m a t e r i a l s m e l t a n d d e c r e a s e i n v o l u m e , t h e e n t i r e mass o f t h e f u r n a c e c h a r g e d e s c e n d s . A d d i t i o n a l raw m a t e r i a l s a r e a d d e d ( c h a r g e d ) a t t h e t o p o f t h e f u r n a c e , t o k e e p t h e amoun t o f r a w m a t e r i a l s w i t h i n t h e f u r n a c e a t 8 c o n s t a n t l e v e l .

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I r o n o x i d e s r e a c t w i t h t h e h o t C O f r o m t h e b u r n i n g c o k e , and t h e l i m e s t o n e r e a c t s w i t h i m p u r i - t i e s i n t h e i r o n o r e a n d c o k e t o f o r m m o l t e n s l a g . T h e s e r e a c t i o n s s t a r t a t t h e t o p o f t h e f u r n a c e a n d p r o c e e d t o c o m p l e t i o n a s t h e c h a r g e p a s s e s t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e f u r n a c e . T h e m o l t e n s l a g , w h i c h f l o a t s o n t o p o f t h e m o l t e n i r o n , i s d r a w n o f f ( t a p p e d ) b y way o f a " t a p p i n g h o l e . " B l a s t f u r n a c e o p e r a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e U.S. p r o d u c e g r e a t e r t h a n 99 p e r c e n t o f t h e b a s i c i r o n . The t o t a l r a t e d c a p a c i - t y o f a l l U.S. p l a n t s i s 321 ,847 t o n s l d a y .

The g a s e s w h i c h a r e p r o d u c e d i n t h e f u r n a c e a r e e x h a u s t e d t h r o u g h t h e t o p o f t h e f u r n a c e . T h e s e g a s e s a r e c l e a n e d , c o o l e d , and t h e n b u r n e d t o p r e h e a t t h e i n c o m i n g a i r t o t h e f u r n a c e . G e n e r a l - l y , g a s c l e a n i n g i n v o l v e s t h e r e m o v a l o f t h e l a r g e r p a r t i c u l a t e s b y a d r y d u s t c o l l e c t o r , f o l l o w e d b y a v a r i e t y o f wet s c r u b b e r s f o r f i n e r p a r t i c l e remo- v a l . Many o f t h e same p o l l u t a n t s f o u n d i n c o k e p l a n t w a s t e w a t e r s a r e a l s o f o u n d i n i r o n - m a k i n g w a s t e w a t e r s . The p h e n o l i c p o l l u t a n t s f o u n d i n i r o n - m a k i n g w a s t e w a t e r s a r e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e c o k e u s e d i n t h e i r o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s . C y a n i d e and ammonia ( r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s f o r m e d w i t h i n t h e f u r - n a c e o r t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e c o k e c h a r g e t o t h e f u r n a c e g a s e s ) a r e c a r r i e d o v e r w i t h t h e g a s s t r e a m , a n d t r a n s f e r r e d t o s c r u b b i n g waters . T a b l e 5.3 l i s t s some o f t h e p o l l u t a n t s i n t h e s e s c r u b b i n g w a t e r s [ U . S . E P A , 1980bl.

T a b l e 5 . 3 A n a l y s i s o f B l a s t F u r n a c e S c r u b b e r W a s t e w a t e r s

Po 1 l u t a n t C o n c e n t r a t i o n m g l l

Ammonia 6 3 . 2 C y a n i d e 1 6 . 9 P h e n o 1s 2.77 F l u o r i d e 2 3 S u s p e n d e d S o l i d s 6 9 3 P H 7 . 1 - 8.3

The c l e a n e d g a s e s a r e t h e n c o o l e d w i t h d i r e c t c o n - t a c t s p r a y s i n l a r g e g a s c o o l i n g v e s s e l s .

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About 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e e x i s t i n g b l a s t f u r n a c e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s i n c l u d e r e c y c l e ( a f t e r t h i c k e n i n g ) and d i s c h a r g e o n l y a b o u t 5 t o 1 0 p e r - c e n t o f t h e p r o c e s s f l o w . The d e w a t e r e d s o l i d s f r o m t h i c k e n e r a r e e i t h e r s e n t t o t h e s i n t e r i n g o p e r a t i o n s o r t o o f f - s i t e d i s p o s a l . T h e s e s o l i d s c o n t a i n h e a v y m e t a l s . The e f f l u e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 5.4.

T a b l e 5.4 Wastewater T h i c k e n e r U n d e r f l o w [ U . S . EPA, 1 9 8 0 b l

Po 1 l u t a n t C o n c e n t r a t i o n m g / l

c u Pb N i Ag Zn

0 . 1 9 2 .11 0 .10 0.023

2 7 . 5

I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e g a s c l e a n i n g s y s t e m b e m o d i f i e d t o u s e f e w a n d , i f p o s s i b l e , no w e t s c r u b - b e r s . F o r f i n e p a r t i c l e c o l l e c t i o n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i l t e r s o r m a g n e t i c f i l t e r s s h o u l d b e s t u d i e d . The c l e a n e d g a s e s a r e g e n e r a l l y c o o l e d i n s p r a y t o w e r s ( b e f o r e b e i n g b u r n t ) t h u s p r o d u c i n g more w a s t e w a t e r s . I n s t e a d , i t is s u g - g e s t e d t h a t 1) c l e a n e d g a s e s b e b u r n t d i r e c t l y , o r 2 ) b e c o o l e d b y h e a t e x h c a n g e w i t h a i r f e e d t o t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e and t h e n b u r n t .

I t w a s s u g g e s t e d f o r t h e c o k e b y - p r o d u c t r e - c o v e r y p r o c e s s t h a t o r g a n i c compounds b e r e m o v e d by a d s o r p t i o n on a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n . S i m i l a r s y s t e m s a r e p r o p o s e d f o r r e m o v a l o f o r g a n i c s f r o m t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e w a s t e w a t e r s . The u s e o f b i o l o g i c a l o x i d a - t i o n and a l k a l i n e c h l o r i n a t i o n s y s t e m s f o r t r e a t - ment o f t h e s e w a s t e w a t e r s t o r e m o v e H C N i s a l s o s u g g e s t e d .

H o f s t e i n and Kohlman ( 1 9 7 9 ) r e p o r t t h a t o n e o f t h e non-U.S. p l a n t s t h e y v i s i t e d u s e s C a r o s A c i d ( p e r - m o n o s u l f u r i c a c i d - H2S05) t o r e d u c e c y a n i d e and p h e n o l l e v e l s i n t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e w a s t e w a t e r s t o 0.2 m g / l H C N and 0.5 m g / l p h e n o l . The n o r m a l i n f l u e n t l e v e l o f p h e n o l a t t h a t p l a n t was 2 m g / l . The a d d i t i o n o f p o l y p h o s p h a t e i n t h e c o o l i n g t o w e r s

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h a d b e e n r e p o r t e d t o a i d i n C N r e m o v a l , b u t a t C N l e v e l s a b o v e 1 0 m g / l i t was n o t e f f e c t i v e . A n o t h e r p l a n t t h e o r i z e d , b a s e d on o e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e , t h a t t h e f o r m a t i o n o f m e t a l P o - c y a n i d e c o m p l e x e s a d s o r b e d i n t h e s l u d g e r e d u c e d c y a n i d e l e v e l s f r o m 0.2 m g / l t o 0.1 m g / l . A n o t h e r p l a n t , i n West Germany, u s e s a e r a t i o n p r i o r t o d i s c h a r g e t o t h e c l a r i f i e r s , a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e g a s c l e a n i n g w a t e r r e c i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m . The p u r p o s e o f a e r a - t i o n i s t o s t r i p C O and C O z f r o m t h e w a t e r , and t o p r e c i p i t a t e CaC03. A p o r t i o n o f t h e c l a r i f i e r s l u d g e i s r e c y c l e d , t o a c t a s a s e e d a n d e n h a n c e p r e c i p i t a t i o n and s e d i m e n t a t i o n .

O s a n t o w s k i and G i e n o p o 10s ( 1 9 7 9 ) o b t a i n e d p i l o t p l a n t d a t a on t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f a d v a n c e d w a s t e t r e a t m e n t m e t h o d s f o r u p g r a d i n g b l a s t f u r n a c e w a s t e w a t e r s . The t r e a t m e n t m e t h o d s i n v e s t i g a t e d i n c l u d e d : a l k a l i n e c h l o r i n a t i o n , c l a r i f i c a t i o n , f i l t r a t i o n ( d u a l m e d i a a n d m a g n e t i c ) , o z o n a t i o n , a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n and r e v e r s e o s m o s i s . A l k a l i n e c h l o r i n a t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f e l e v a t i n g t h e pH o f t h e oncoming w a s t e w a t e r s t o 11.0-11.5 w i t h a d d i t i o n o f s o d i u m h y p o c h l o r i t e f o r o x i d a t i o n o f c y a n i d e ; f o l - l owed by n e u t r a l i z a t i o n f o r ammonia r e m o v a l . The s e t t l e d e f f l u e n t was d e c h l o r i n a t e d by a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n . T h e s e s t u d i e s showed t h a t a b o v e a C12:NH3 r a t i o o f 7.3:1, NH3 l e v e l s d r o p p e d s h a r p l y t o a s l o w a s 0.48 mg/L , NH3 r e m o v a l w a s h i g h a n d a l l o t h e r o x i d i z a b l e c o n t a m i n a n t s were a l s o r e m o v e d . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d t o o p t i m i z e t h e Cl2:NH3 r a t i o t o o b t a i n t h e b e s t ammonia r e m o v a l . Ozona- t i o n was d e t e r m i n e d t o b e e f f e c t i v e i n m e e t i n g d i s c h a r g e l e v e l s . P r e f i l t e r e d w a s t e w a t e r was e l e - v a t e d t o pH 10.5 p r i o r t o o z o n a t i o n . Th o z o n e d o s a g e v a r i e d f r o m 0-1,500 m g / l o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t e d , w i t h c o n t a c t t i m e s f r o m 6 0 - 2 4 0 m i n u t e s . NH3 a n d c y a n i d e l e v e l s o f 3.1 a n d 0.001 m g / l w e r e a c h i e v e d . R e s e a r c h i s r e q u i r e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e o p t i m a l pH and c o n t a c t t i m e .

Meta ls i n t h e raw w a s t e w a t e r s may b e b e s t r e m o v e d b y s u l f i d e p r e c i p i t a t i o n . The u s e o f ex - c e s s s u l f i d e i n a t r e a t e d e f f l u e n t m a y c a u s e a n o b j e c t i o n a b l e o d o r p r o b l e m , h o w e v e r . A d e c r e a s e i n pH m i g h t a f f e c t p e r s o n n e l i f t h e w a s t e w a t e r become a c i d i c , a n d e v o l v e d H2S. t i o n s , a f e r r o u s s u l f i d e s l u r r y may b e a g o o d c h o i c e s i n c e i t d o e s n o t d i s s a s s o c i a t e r e a d i l y , t h u s , c o n t r o l l i n g t h e p r e s e n c e o f e x c e s s s u l f i d e . To t h i s d a t e , t h e r e a r e no f u r n a c e w a s t e w a t e r s

I n v e i w o f t h e s e o b j e c -

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s y s t e m s c u r r e n t l y u s i n g s u l f i d e p r e c i p i t a t i o n [ U . S . EPA, 1 9 8 0 b 1 , e v e n t h o u g h t h i s t e c h n o l o g y h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e m e t a l f i n i s h i n g i n d u s t r y . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f s u l f i d e p r e c i p i t a t i o n t o r e m o v e m e t a l s f r o m b l a s t f u r n a c e w a s t e w a t e r s by i n v e s t i g a t e d .

T h e r e a r e two t y p e s o f d u s t m a t e r i a l s c o l - l e c t e d f r o m t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e o p e r a t i o n s ; 1) d r y - c o l l e c t e d d u s t s a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m c y c l o n e d u s t c o l l e c t o r s , a n d 2 ) w e t - c o l l e c t e d d u s t s a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m w e t s c r u b b e r s a f t e r r e d u c i n g t h e water c o n t e n t b y t h i c k e n e r s and f i l t e r s . The b u l k o f t h i s mate- r i a l i s u s e d a s l a n d f i l l , e v e n t h o u g h some i s u t i l i z e d i n t h e s i n t e r i n g o p e r a t i o n s . Coke , p e l - l e t , and BOF s l a g f r a g m e n t s a r e t h e p r e d o m i n a n t c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e d r y d u s t m a t e r i a l s a n d i n c l u d e s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t i e s o f h e m a t i t e , m a g n e t i t e , g r a p h i t e , c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e , w u s i t e and s i l i c a . The s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s e d u s t s r a n g e s f r o m 2.5 t o 0.014 mm. W e t - c o l l e c t e d d u s t 8 a r e s i m i l a r t o d r y - c o l l e c t e d d u s t s and a v e r a g e 2 4 p e r c e n t b y w e i g h t F e a n d 4 5 p e r c e n t b y w e i g h t C , w i t h a b o u t 6 8 p e r c e n t o f the m a t e r i a l l e s s t h a n 6 0 pm i n s i z e . The h i g h a n d v a r i a b l e c a r b o n c o n t e n t o f t h i s m a t e - r i a l makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o u s e i n t h e s i n t e r i n g o p e r a t i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e h i g h a m o u n t s o f z i n c i n t h e w e t - c o l l e c t e d d u s t s c a n impede t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e o p e r a t i o n s , i f r e c y c l e d . A b r i q u e t t i n g me thod f o r d e z i n c i n g t h e s e d u s t s h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d [ A l l e n , 19791 . T y p i c a l a n a l y s i s o f s a l a b l e z i n c o x i d e d u s t i s 63.3 p e r c e n t Zn, 6.9 p e r c e n t P b , and 1 .2 p e r c e n t F e .

A n o t h e r p o s s i b l e , a l t e r n a t i v e d e z i n c i n g p r o - c e s s may i n v o l v e e x t r a c t i n g t h e z i n c f r o m c o l l e c t e d d u s t s . The W a e l z p r o c e s s i s a d i r e c t r e d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e t h a t h a s b e e n u s e d f o r 20 y e a r s t o r e f i n e l o w g r a d e z i n c o r e s . The B e r z e l i u m and L u r g i com- p a n i e s c o n d u c t e d a l a r g e s c a l e e x p e r i m e n t i n D i n s b u r g , Germany, t h a t u s e d i r o n and s t e e l m a t e - r i a l d u s t s [ R a u s c h and S e r b e r t , 19481 . They ob- s e r v e d t h a t d e z i n c i f i c a t i o n was p o s s i b l e w i t h a c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s , w i t h 95 p e r c e n t o f t h e z i n c a n d 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e a l k a l i s r e m o v e d and 95 p e r c e n t o f i r o n m e t a l i z e d . T h i s p r o c e s s was f o u n d t o o p e r a t e more e c o n o m i c a l l y o n a l o w e r t h r o u g h p u t ( l o 5 t o n s / y e a r ) t h a n o t h e r d i r e c t r e d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s [U.S. EPA, 1 9 7 9 1 a n d , i t is l e s s s o p h i s t i c a t e d s i n c e i t d o e s n o t r e q u i r e p e l l e t i z i n g b e f o r e r e d u c t i o n .

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A d v a n c e s i n t e c h n o l o g i e s s u c h a s a u x i l i a r y f u e l i n j e c t i o n , h i g h e r h o t b l a s t t e m p e r a t u r e s , m o i s t u r e i n ’ e c t i o n , a n d o x y g e n e n r i c h m e n t h a v e b e e n m a j o r i a c t o r s i n i n c r e a s i n g t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e p r o c e s s . B a s e d o n a s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s t e c h n i q u e o f c e r t a i n o p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s , Q u i g l e y a n d S a y l e s ( 1 9 7 4 ) c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e c o k e s t a b i l i t y i s i m p r o v e d b y i n c r e a s i n g b u l k d e n s i t y a n d c o k i n g t i m e , a n d i m p r o v i n g c o a l g r i n d i n g . They a l s o f o u n d t h a t a n i n c r e a s e o f 1.5 p e r c e n t i n a s h c o n t e n t o f t h e c o k e r e s u l t e d i n o v e r 50 p e r c e n t o f f - q u a l i t y i r o n o v e r a two-day p e r i o d . T h u s s t u - d i e s a i m e d a t i m p r o v i n g b l a s t f u r n a c e p e r f o r m a n c e b y i m p r o v i n g t h e c o k i n g p r o c e s s a p p e a r a p p r o p r i a t e .

S l a g s f r o m t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e u s u a l l y come i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h w a t e r i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e i r r e m o v a l f r o m t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e . The r e a c t i o n b e - t w e e n s l a g a n d w a t e r p r o d u c e s H2S a n d S 4 , among o t h e r g a s e s , w h i c h e v e n t h o u g h s m a l l i n q u a n t i t y , c a n c a u s e o d o r p r o b l e m s . K n o w l e d g e o f t h e mecha- n i s m s o f H2S a n d S O 2 f o r m a t i o n i s l i m i t e d . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t S O r e s u l t s p r i m a r i l y f r o m t h e o x i d a - t i o n o f H2S. I t i s d e s i r a b l e t o s u p p r e s s t h e f o r m a t i o n o f s u l f u r o u s g a s e s , p r i m a r i l y H S. I n l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s , K a p l a n a n d R e n g s t r o f f (1973) s h o v e d t h a t t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s l a g w i t h t h e o x i d i z i n g m a t e r i a l s F e 0 C 0 2 , C a C O d e c r e a s e d t h e e m i s s i o n o f H S. I n p f a n t t r i a 1 s ; ’ w h e r e commer- c i a l b a t c h e s o f b i a s t f u r n a c e s l a g were t r e a e d w i t h s t e a m p r i o r t o w a t e r q u e n c h i n g t h e h o t s o l i d s l a g a n d m o l t e n s l a g , t h e s t e a m t r e a t m e n t r e s u l t e d i n a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e e m i s s i o n o f H 2 S .

One i m p o r t a n t p r o c e s s m o d i f i c a t i o n w o u l d b e t o o p t i z i m e s l a g q u e n c h i n g m e t h o d s t o d e c r e a s e H 2 S e m i s s i o n s . T h i s w o u l d r e q u i r e a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d - i n g o f H2S and S 0 2 f o r m a t i o n m e c h a n i s m s i o n s d u r i n g s l a g q u e n c h i n g , a n d t h e e f f e c t o f v a r i o u s a d d i t i v e s .

A n o t h e r o p t i o n i s t o p r o d u c e e l e m e n t a l s u l f u r f r o m H2S b y t h e C l a u s o r S t r e t f o r d P r o c e s s . i s f o u n d t o c a u s e f o u l i n g o f t h e C l a u s c a t a l y s t b e d s o r d e c r e a s e t h e l i f e o f S t r e t f o r d a b s o r p t i o n s o l u t i o n , H C N may h a v e t o b e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e f e e d g a s e s b y t h e p o l y s u l f i d e p r o c e s s , w h i c h i s known t o h a v e r e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c i e s o f u p t o 90 p e r c e n t o f H C N [ H i l l , 1 9 4 5 1 .

I f H C N

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IRON AND STEEL 85

C y a n i d e s a r e t h o u g h t t o f o r m i n t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a c t i o n s :

K20 + 3C + N2 2KCN + CO ( 5 . 1 )

T h i s r e a c t i o n i s f a v o r e d a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d t h e a b s e n c e o f CO. The o x i d a t i o n o f c y a n i d e s t a k e s p l a c e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a c t i o n :

2KCN + 4C02 2 K 2 C 0 3 + N2 + 5CO ( 5 . 2 )

I t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t c o n d i t i o n s f a v o r a b l e f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f c y a n i d e s , i.e., t h e c o e x i s t e n c e o f c o k e , a l k a l i o x i d e s , and N2 a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d i n a r e d u c i n g a t m o s p h e r e , a r e i n h e r e n t i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e i r o n b l a s t f u r n a c e . I n c o n t r a s t , i t may b e p o s s i b l e , a t l e a s t i n p r i n c i p l e , t o m o d i f y t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e s t a c k r e g i o n , s o t h a t o x i d a t i o n o f c y a n i d e s i s p r o m o t e d . V e r y l i t t l e work h a s b e e n d o n e , h o w e v e r , on t h e k i n e t i c s o f t h e r e a c t i o n s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n a n d o x i d a t i o n o f c y a - n i d e s i n t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e . Sohn and S z e k e l y ( 1 9 4 3 ) a s s u m e d mass t r a n s f e r t o t h e KCN p a r t i c l e t o b e r a t e c o n t r o l l i n g , and c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e r e may b e a r e a l p o s s i b l i t y o f r e d u c i n g t h e n e t e m i s s i o n f c y a n i d e s f r o m t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e b y t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a n d C O / C O 2 p r o f i l e s w i t h i n t h e s t a c k . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t e f f o r t s b e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d o b t a i n i n g k i n e t i c i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e f o r m a t i o n and o x i d a t i o n o f c y a n i d e s i n t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e , a n d a n o p t i m i z i n g s t a c k d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i o n t o r e d u c e t h e t o t a l c y a n i d e i n t h e e f - f l u e n t g a s e s .

STEEL MAKING

S t e e l is a n a l l o y o f i r o n c o n t a i n i n g l e s s t h a n 1.0 p e r c e n t c a r b o n . S t e e l m a k i n g i s b a s i c a l l y a p r o c e s s i n w h i c h c a r b o n , s i l i c o n , p h o s p h o r o u s , m a n g a n e s e , a n d o t h e r i m p u r i t i e s p r e s e n t i o t h e r a w h o t m e t a l o r s t e e l s c r a p , a r e o x i d i z e d t o s p e c i f i c minimum l e v e l s . The h o t s t e e l i s t h e n e i t h e r t e e m e d i n t o i n g o t s o r t r a n s f e r r e d t o a c o n t i n u o u s c a s t i n g o r p r e s s u r e c a s t i n g o p e r a t i o n f o r d i r e c t c o n v e r s i o n i n t o a s e m i - f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t .

The b a s i c r a w m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e s t e e l m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s a r e h o t m e t a l o r p i g i r o n , s t e e l s c r a p , l i m e s t o n e , b u r n e d l i m e , d o l o m i t e , f l u o r s p a r , i r o n o r e s a n d i r o n b e a r i n g m i n e r a l s s u c h a s p e l l e t s , m i l l s c a l e a n d w a s t e s o l i d s f r o m t h e f u r n a c e s .

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86 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

V a r i o u s t y p e s o f s t e e l a r e m a n u f a c t u r e d b y a d d i n g a l l o y i n g a g e n t s e i t h e r t o t h e h o t c h a r g e i n t h e f u r l p a c e o r t o t h e l a d l e o f s t e e l a f t e r t h e h o t s t e e l i s t a p p e d " f r o m t h e f u r n a c e . The t h r e e t y p e s o f s t e e l m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s a r e :

1. B a s i c Oxygen F u r n a c e (BOF) 2 . Open H e a r t h F u r n a c e (OHF) 3 . E l e c t r i c A r c F u r n a c e (EAF)

A c o m p r e h e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s o p e r a - t i o n s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e e a c h o f t h e s e p r o c e s s e s i s g i v e n b y McGannon (1964).

The l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f a i r b o r n e g a s e s , d u s t s , smoke , and i r o n o x i d e fumes g e n e r a t e d i n t h e s t e e l mak ing p r o c e s s e s a r e c o l l e c t e d a n d c o n t a i n e d by v a r i o u s g a s c l e a n i n g s y s t e m s . D e p e n d i n g on t h e t y p e o f g a s c l e a n i n g s y s t e m u s e d , w a s t e w a t e r d i s - c h a r g e s o r s l u d g e g e n e r a t i o n c a n r e s u l t . The b a s i c g a s t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s u s e d a r e :

- BOF Semi-wet W e t - s u p p r e s s e d c o m b u s t i o n Wet-open c o m b u s t i o n

- OBF Semi-wet Wet

EAF Semi-wet Wet

-

The semi -we t a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l s y s t e m s u s e w a t e r t o p a r t i a l l y c o o l and c o n d i t i o n t h e w a s t e g a s e s and f u m e s , p r i o r t o f i n a l p a r t i c u l a t e r e m o v a l i n d r y c o l l e c t o r s s u c h a s p r e c i p i t a t o r s o r b a g - h o u s e s . Wet a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l s y s t e m s u s e w a t e r n o t o n l y t o c o o l t h e w a s t e g a s e s , b u t a l s o t o s c r u b t h e fume p a r t i c l e s f r o m t h e w a s t e g a s e s . The B O F u s e s c o m b u s t i o n s y s t e m s , s u p p r e s s e d or o p e n , t o c o n t r o l C O e m i s s i o n s .

Two v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e BOF p r o c e s s a r e t h e K a l d o p r o c e s s and t h e Q-BOP f u r n a c e . A t p r e s e n t , t h e r e i s o n l y o n e K a l d o i n s t a l l a t i o n a n d o n l y t h r e e Q-BOF i n s t a l l a t i o n s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The was te p r o d u c t s f r o m t h e BOF s t e e l m a k i n g p r o c e s s i n c l u d e a i r b o r n e f l u x e s , s l a g , c a r b o n m o n o x i d e and d i o x i d e , a n d o x i d e s o f i r o n ( F e O , F e 2 0 3 , F e 3 0 $ e m i t t e d a s s u b m i c r o n d u s t . A l s o , when h o t m e t a l ( i r o n ) i s p o u r e d i n t o l a d l e s o r t h e f u r n a c e ,

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IRON AND STEEL 87

s u b m i c r o n i r o n x i d e f u m e s a r e r e l e a s e d a n d some o f t h e c a r b o n i n t h e i r o n i s p r e c i p i t a t e d a s g r a p h i t e , commonly c a l l e d "k i sh . " A p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 t o 2 p e r - c e n t o f t h e i n g o t s t e e l i s l o s t a s d u s t . The p r i m a r y g a s c o n s t i t u e n t e m i t t e d f r o m t h e BOF d u r i n g t h e o x y g e n b l o w i n g c y c l e i s C O . C O w i l l b u r n o u t s i d e o f t h e BOF, i f a l l o w e d t o come i n c o n t a c t w i t h o u t s i d e a i r ( o p e n c o m b u s t i o n ) . I f o u t s i d e a i r i s p r e v e n t e d f r o m c o m i e g i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e C O g a s c o m b u s t i o n i s r e t a r d e d ( s u p p r e s s e d c o m b u s t i o n ) .

In t h e Open H e a r t h F u r n a c e p r o c e s s , s t e e l i s p r o d u c e d i n a s h a l l o w r e c t a n g u l a r r e f r a c t o r y b a s i n , o r h e a r t h , e n c l o s e d b y r e f r a c t o r y l i n e d w a l l s a n d r o o f . O H f u r n a c e s c a n u s e a n a l l s c r a p s t e e l c h a r g e ; h o w e v e r , a 50 p e r c e n t s c r a p 1 5 0 p e r c e n t h o t m e t a l c h a r g e i s t y p i c a l . F u e l o i l , c o k e o v e n g a s , n a t u r a l g a s , e t c . a r e b u r n e d a s f u e l a n d t h e h o t g a s e s a r e c i r c u l a t e d a b o v e t h e raw m a t e r i a l c h a r g e . The waste g a s e s a r e w a t e r c o o l e d , s c r u b b e d w i t h r e c y c l e d w a t e r a n d s e n t t h r o u g h a e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r b e f o r e b e i n g v e n t e d . The was te p r o - d u c t s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e OHF p r o c e s s a r e s l a g , i r o n o x i d e s a s s u b m i c r o n d u s t , w a s t e g a s e s ( c o n s i s t i n g o f a i r , C 0 2 a n d water v a p o r ) , Sqi a n d NO, ( d u e t o t h e n a t u r e o f c e r t a i n f u e l s b e i n g b u r n e d ) , and o x i d e s o f z i n c .

The E l e c t r i c A r c F u r n a c e (EAF) s t e e l m a k i n g p r o c e s s p r o d u c e s h i g h q u a l i t y a l l o y s t e e l s i n r e - f r a c t o r y l i n e d c y l i n d r i c a l f u r n a c e s u s i n g a c o l d s t e e l s c r a p c h a r g e a n d f l u x e s . T h e waste p r o d u c t s f r o m t h e EAF p r o c e s s a r e smoke , s l a g , C O , CO2, m e t a l o x i d e s ( m a i n l y i r o n ) e m i t t e d as s u b m i c r o n p a r t i c l e s , a n d z i n c o x i d e s .

R a w was tewa te r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 5 .5 [ U . S . E P A , 1 9 8 0 b l .

The t r e a t m e n t m e t h o d s p r e s e n t l y u s e d d o n o t a t t e m p t t o r e m o v e t h e s e t o x i c m e t a l s e x c l u s i v e l y [ U . S . E P A , 1 9 8 0 b l . S u l f i d e p r e c i p i t a t i o n t o e n - h a n c e t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f m e t a l s f r o m w a s t e w a t e r s , b e f o r e r e c y c l e , i s o n e s u g g e s t e d p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h . T h e r e i s a n e e d t o d e v e l o p e x t r a c t i o n a n d i o n e x c h a n g e s y s t e m s t o r e m o v e t o x i c m e t a l s f o r m e d i n t h e s t e e l f u r n a c e w a s t e w a t e r s . S u s p e n d e d s o l i d s i n s t e e l m a k i n g w a s t e w a t e r s a r e v e r y f i n e , r e d i n c o l o r , a n d p r i n c i p a l l y i r o n o x i d e . M a g n e t i c s e p a r a t i o n c a n r e d u c e t h e l e v e l o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s t o 25-30 m g / l [ C e n t i , 19731 .

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A C I D PICKLING

A c i d p i c k l i n g i s t h e s t e e l f i n i s h i n g p r o c e s s i n w h i c h s t e e l p r o d u c t s a r e immersed i n h e a t e d c o n c e n t r a t e d a c i d s o l u t i o n s t o r e m o v e s u r f a c e s c a l e . B a s e d o n t h e t y p e o f p i c k l i n g a c i d u s e d , t h i s p r o c e s s c a n b e s u b d i v i d e d i n t o :

1 . S u l f u r i c a c i d p i c k l i n g 2 . H y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d p i c k l i n g 3. Comb i n a t i o n a c i d p i c k 1 i n g

Wastewaters a r e g e n e r a t e d b y t h r e e s o u r c e s i n t h e p i c k l i n g p r o c e s s . The l a r g e s t s o u r c e i s t h e r i n s e w a t e r u s e d t o c l e a n t h e a c i d s o l u t i o n f r o m t h e p r o d u c t a f t e r i t h a s b e e n i m m e r s e d i n t h e p i c k l i n g s o l u t i o n . The s e c o n d s o u r c e i s t h e s p e n t p i c k l i n g a c i d l i q u o r . The s p e n t p i c k l e l i q u o r i s a s m a l l v o l u m e was te , c o n t a i n i n g h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f a c i d , i r o n , a n d t o x i c m e t a l p o l l u t a n t s . W a s t e w a t e r f r o m t h e w e t a c i d fume s c r u b b e r s i s t h e t h i r d s o u r c e .

R i n s e w a t e r d i s c h a r g e f l o w s can b e m i n i m i z e d w i t h c a s c a d e o r c o u n t e r c u r r e n t r i n s e s y s t e m s . T h e s e s y s t e m s r e d u c e w a t e r f l o w , c o n c e n t r a t e t h e p o l l u t a n t s i n t h e l a s t r i n s i n g c h a m b e r , a n d a c h i e v e

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90 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

more t h o r o u g h r i n s i n g [ U . S . EPA, 1 9 8 0 ~ 1 .

The m o s t common me thod o f r e c o v e r i n g s p e n t s u l f u r i c a c i d i s a c i d r e c o v e r y , b y r e m o v i n g f e r r o u s s u l f a t e t h r o u g h c r y s t a l l i e a t i o n , and r i n s i n g t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d a c i d [U .S . EPA, 1 9 8 0 ~ 1 . The s p e n t l i q u o r f r o m h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d p i c k l i n g c o n t a i n s f r e e h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d , f e r r o u s c h l o r i d e , a n d w a t e r . T h i s l i q u o r i s h e a t e d t o 1 ,050"C a n d , a t t h i s t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e w a t e r i s c o m p l e t e l y e v a p o - r a t e d and FeC12. d e c o m p o s e s c o m p l e t e l y i n t o F e 203and H C l g a s . The i r o n o x i d e i s s e p a r a t e d and r e m o v e d , and €IC1 g a s i s r e a b s o r b e d i n t h e w a t e r .

R e c y c l e s y s t e m s , w i t h r e c y c l e r a t e s a s h i g h a s 90-95 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l w a s t e w a t e r f l o w , a r e u s e d t o c o n t r o l p o l l u t a n t s g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g t h e s c r u b b i n g o f a c i d fumes . R e c y c l e r a t e s a r e l i m i t e d b y t h e b u i l d - u p o f s o l i d s . Lime a n d s u l f i d e p r e c i - p i t a t i o n a r e s u g g e s t e d t o i m p r o v e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f m e t a l s i n t h e w a s t e w a t e r s .

T e m p e r a t u r e and a g i t a t i o n a r e i m p o r t a n t o p e r a - t i n g f a c t o r s i n t h e p i c k l i n g p r o c e s s . The t e m p e r a - t u r e o f p i c k l i n g d r a m a t i c a l l y a f f e c t s t h e r e a c t i o n r a t e . A g i t a t i o n i s p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t i g n o r e d a i d t o , g o o d p i c k l i n g . The s p e e d o f p i c k l i n g c a n b e i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y by p r o p e r l y a g i t a t i n g t h e a c i d b a t h o r t h e s t e e l p r o d u c t d u r i n g t h e p i c k l i n g o p e r a t i o n . One method o f a g i t a t i o n i s a n a i r - o p e r a t e d , m e c h a n i c a l a g i t a t i o n s y s t e m . An a d d e d b e n e f i t o f t h i s s y s t e m i s t h a t t h e e v a p o r a t i o n c a u s e d b y a i r a g i t a t i o n c o n c e n t r a t e s , r a t h e r t h a n d i l u t e s , t h e a c i d b a t h . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t p r o - c e s s i m p r o v e m e n t s b e a i m e d a t d e c r e a s i n g p i c k l i n g t i m e , a n d m a i n t a i n i n g good a g i t a t i o n and h i g h e n o u g h a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n l e v e l s d u r i n g p i c k l i n g .

T a b l e 5.6 l i s t s t h e v a r i o u s p r o c e s s m o d i f i c a - t i o n s u g g e s t e d f o r c o n t r o l o f p o l l u t i o n f r o m t h e i r o n and s t e e l i n d u s t r y .

R E C O M M E N D E D AREAS FOR PROCESS MODIFICATIONS R E SEARCH

A f t e r c a r e f u l e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s t e c h - n o l o g y , t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s a r e recommended f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t :

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lable 5-6. Pollutants and Suggested Control Strategy I ron and Steel Industrv

Dissolved and suspended s o l i d s

Process

Coke Making

Coke By-Product Recovery

I r o n Making

-

Conversion to dry coke quenching with particulate removal

-~

Pollutant

Coke oven gases having by-product recovery

Organometallics, Carbonyls, HCN, SO x ' H2S

Removal of H S by Clam or Stratford Process

- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Phenols, Sulfates, Chlorides, Ammonia, Cyanides

H2S

HCN

Metals (Zn , Pb, etc.)

I Pollutant Control Source in Process 1 Nature of Pollutant strategy

Emissions from coke ovens

Toxic I Use of refined coal, better control I of coking operations.

Wastewaters from coke quenching

_ _ _ _ _ - _ _ - I Cooler Wastewaters Removal of HCN by biological oxidation systems

Blast Furnace wastewaters

Suspended s o l i d s

Conversion from wet to dry gas cleaning systems - electrostatic, magnetic f i l t e r s

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Table 5 - d . Pollutants and Sunpested Control Stratcpy for Iron and Steel Industry (Cant'd)

process

Steel makiiig

Acid Pickling

Pollutant

Zn, C r , Ph, Cu, i ron oxide

Spent Pickle Liquor ( S P L )

Rinse Waters

source in process

Wastewaters from cooling and canditioninp of gases f rom steel making furnaces

Cleanin8 of treated product after pickling

Nature of Pollutant

Suspended, dissolved solids

Inorganic adds. suspended toxic metals. iron

Inorsanic acids, suspended toxic metals. iron

Pollutant Control s tratepy

Sulfide precipitation of toxic metals L recycle o f treated wastewaters magnetic separation o f si isnende iron oxides, solvent extracti"" o f metals

Improved pickling process by temperature control and good agitation to decrease SPL, recovery of acid

Minimizing rinsewater discharges b y u s i n g cascade or counter- current rinse systems

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I R O N AND STEEL 9 3

Use o f r e f i n e d o r c l e a n e d c o a l i n c o k e m a k i n g .

S t u d y o f t h e f o r m a t i o n o f c y a n i d e s a n d c a r b o n y l s d u r i n g c o k i n g , i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t or r e d u c e p o l l u t a n t f o r m a t i o n .

Dry c o k e q u e n c h i n g s t u d i e s o f U.S. c o a l s , t o e l i m i n a t e q u e n c h w a t e r c o n t a m i n a t i o n .

The e f f e c t o f p r o c e s s v a r i a b l e s s u c h a s c o a l g r i n d i n g a n d c o k i n g t i m e o n c o k e p r o d u c e d . T h i s w o u l d b e u s e d t o i m p r o v e t h e c o k e s t a b i l i t y , i n o r d e r t o e n h a n c e b l a s t f u r n a c e p e r f o r m a n c e .

E v a l u a t i o n o f b i o l o g i c a l o x i d a t i o n s y s t e m s t o r e m o v e H C N f r o m b y - p r o d u c t c o k e mak ing w a s t e w a t e r s .

A b s o r p t i o n o f H2S f r o m c o k e o v e n g a s e s b y C l a u s o r S t r e t f o r d p r o c e s s , f o r s u l f u r r e c o v e r y .

D e v e l o p m e n t o f b e t t e r C N r e m o v a l s y s t e m s f r o m b l a s t f u r n a c e w a s t e w a t e r s b y u s i n g a d d i t i v e s s u c h a s C a r o s a c i d (H2SO5) and p o l y p h o s p h a t e , a n d by a e r a t i o n .

O p t i m i z a t i o n o f pH a n d c o n t a c t t i m e t o i m p r o v e a l k a l i n e c h l o r i n a t i o n a n d o z o n a t i o n t o u p g r a d e b l a s t f u r n a c e w a s t e w a t e r s .

S o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n o f z i n c , o r d e z i n c i f i c a t i o n b y W a l e z p r o c e s s , t o r e c o v e r z i n c f r o m b l a s t f u r n a c e d u s t s . S u c h z i n c r e m o v a l c a n a l s o f a c i l i t a t e t h e u s e o f t r e a t e d d u s t s i n t h e s i n t e r i n g p r o c e s s .

S t u d y o f k i n e t i c s o f H2S a n d S O 2 f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g b l a s t f u r n a c e s l a g q u e n c h i n g , t o d e v e l o p m e t h o d s b y w h i c h H S f o r m a t i o n c a n b e d e c r e a s e d .

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9 4 PROCESS M O D I F I C A T I O N S

S t u d y t h e k i n e t i c s o f f o r m a t i o n a n d o x i d a t i o n o f c y a n i d e s i n t h e b l a s t f u r n a c e , t o o p t i m i z e t h e d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s t a c k i n o r d e r t o o x i d i z e t h e c y a n i d e .

D e v e l o p m e n t o f s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n and s u l f i d e p r e c i p i t a t i o n m e t h o d s t o r e m o v e t o x i c m e t a l s f r o m t h e r e c y c l e d s t e e l p l a n t w a s t e w a t e r s .

S t u d y t h e e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e a n d a g i t a t i o n i n o r d e r t o o p t i m i z e p i c k l i n g o p e r a t i o n s and e x t e n d t h e p i c k l e l i q u o r l i f e .

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96 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

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I R O N AND STEEL 9 7

U . S . E P A . Deve lopment Document for Proposed E f f l u e n t G u i d e l i n e s and N e w S o u r c e Per formance ~

S t a n d a r d s f o r S t e e l Making Segment o f t h e Iron and S t e e l P o i n t S o u r c e Manufac tur ing C a t e g o r x . E P A , January , 1 9 7 4 .

W i l s o n , J r . , P . J . and W e l l s , J.H. ( e d . ) C o a l . Coke C h e m i c a l s - Chap. 11, Chem. Eng. S e r i e s , McGraw H i l l Book C o . , ( 1 9 5 0 ) .

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CHAPTER 6

PAPER A N D PULP INDUSTRY

I N T R O D U C T I O N

The p u l p i n g p r o c e s s i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s C h a p t e r . P u l p i n g o f wood i s t h e i n i t i a l s t e p i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f p a p e r a n d p a p e r p r o d u c t s . The p u l p i n g p r o c e s s i s t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f f i b r o u s raw m a t e r i a l (wood) i n t o a m a t e r i a l s u i t a b l e f o r u s e i n p a p e r , p a p e r b o a r d , and b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s . P u l p i s t h e f i b r o u s m a t e r i a l r e a d y t o b e made i n t o p a p e r .

T h e r e a r e f o u r m a j o r c h e m i c a l p u l p i n g t e c h - n i q u e s : (1) K r a f t o r s u l f a t e , (2) s u l f i t e , ( 3 ) s e m i c h e m i c a l , a n d ( 4 ) s o d a . Of t h e m a j o r p u l p i n g t e c h n i q u e s , t h e K r a f t o r s u l f a t e p r o c e s s p r o d u c e s o v e r 8 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e c h e m i c a l p u l p p r o d u c e d a n - n u a l l y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n 1 9 7 0 , t h e r e were 1 1 6 m i l l s p r o d u c i n g 29.6 m i l l i o n t o n s o f p u l p b y t h e k r a f t p r o c e s s . D u r i n g t h e same y e a r , p u l p a n d p a p e r b o a r d c o n s u m p t i o n was 56.8 m i l l i o n t o n s [U.S. EPA, 1 9 7 3 1 .

KRAFT PULPING

T h e t w o b a s i c c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e p u l p wood a r e c e l l u l o s e a n d l i g n i n . The c e l l u l o s e f i b e r s , w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e t h e p u l p , a r e b o u n d t o g e t h e r b y l i g n i n . T h u s , a n y p r o c e s s m a n u f a c t u r i n g p u l p m u s t r e m o v e t h e l i g n i n . The K r a f t p r o c e s s e m p l o y s c h e m i c a l d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e l i g n i n . The f l o w c h a r t o f t h e K r a f t p r o c e s s i s d e p i c t e d i n F i g u r e 6.1.

The t y p i c a l p o l l u t a n t s f r o m t h e K r a f t p u l p i n g p r o c e s s a r e h y d r o g e n s u l f a t e , m e t h y l m e r c a p t a n t , d i m e t h y l s u l f a t e , a n d d i m e t h y l d i s u l f i d e . The p o l l u t a n t s c o n t a i n i n g s u l f u r a r e c o l l e c t i v e l y c a l - l e d t o t a l r e d u c e d s u l f u r (TRS). H y d r o g e n s u l f i t e e m i s s i o n s a r e a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f s o d i u m s u l f i d e b r e a k d o w n i n t h e K r a f t c o o k i n g l i q u o r . M e t h y l m e r c a p t a n t a n d d i m e t h y l s u l f i d e a r e f o r m e d i n t h e r e a c t i o n s w i t h l i g n i n . D i m e t h y l s u l f i d e i s

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Strong Black Liquor

Evavorator Gases

1 Pulp

Wood C h i p s

Pressing and Digester

deak Black

Knotter and - Steam - F l u

Condensates

Fum'ace

-7T) Causticizer

.ime CaO)

(7)- Settling

Gases Lime Kiln

Figure 6.1. Flow Chart of Kraft P u l p i n g Process (U.S. EPA. Sept. 1973).

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PAPER AND PULP 101

f o r m e d t h r o u g h t h e o x i d a t i o n o f m e r c a p t a n t g r o u p s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e t h i o l i g n i n .

The K r a f t p r o c e s s . a s a w h o l e , c a n b e s u b c a t e - g o r i z e d i n t o two p a r t s ; a c t u a l p u l p i n g , a n d r e c o v - e r y . The p u l p i n g o c c u r s i n t h e d i g e s t e r s y s t e m , f o l l o w e d b y t h e p u l p wash. The r e c o v e r y r e f e r s t o m u l t i p l e e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r s ( M E E ) , r e c o v e r y f u r - n a c e , s m e l t d i s s o l v e r , and l i m e k i l e , a l l o f w h i c h s e r v e t o r e c o v e r t h e w h i t e l i q u o r a n d h e a t .

D i g e s t e r S y s t e m

T h e r e a r e two t y p e s o f d i g e s t e r s , c o n t i n u o u s a n d b a t c h . The c o m p o s i t i o n a n d q u a l i t y o f d i g e s t e r g a s e s w i l l d i f f e r b e t w e e n t h e two d i g e s t e r t y p e s . B a t c h d i g e s t e r s o f t e n p r e s e n t a i r p o l l u t i o n p r o b - l e m s b e c a u s e o f g a s s u r g e s p r o d u c e d d u r i n g b l o w i n g . C o n t i n u o u s d i g e s t e r s , h o w e v e r , p r e s e n t much s m a l l e r p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m s t h a n b a t c h d i g e s t e r s , b e c a u s e c o n t a m i n a t e d c o n d e n s a t e s a n d o d o r o u s g a s e s f l o w a t a r e g u l a r r a t e . M o s t o f t h e K r a f t p u l p i n g i s c u r r e n t l y d o n e i n b a t c h d i g e s t e r s [Goodwin , 19781 . The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n a d d r e s s e s o n l y t h e b a t c h d i g e s t e r s y s t e m .

The d i g e s t i o n p r o c e s s i s a d e l i g n i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s i n w h i c h w h i t e l i q u o r a n d wood c h i p s a r e h e a t e d t o 170-175°C. W h i t e l i q u o r i s composed o f s o d i u m s u l f i d e (Na2 S ) and s o d i u m h y d r o x i d e (NaOH).

E m i s s i o n s f r o m t h e d i g e s t e r a r e c a u s e d b y two s t r e a m s ; t h e r e l i e f g a s e s and b l o w g a s e s . The r e l i e f g a s e s a r e t h e v e n t i l a t i o n g a s e s w h i c h ma in - t a i n t h e d i g e s t e r a t t h e p r o p e r p r e s s u r e s ( 1 0 0 - 1 3 5 p s i g ) . The b l o w g a s e s , ( s t e a m a n d o t h e r g a s e s ) a r e f r o m t h e b l o w t a n k w h e r e t h e c o o k i n g l i q u o r i s d r a i n e d f r o m t h e p u l p . B o t h t h e r e l i e f and b l o w g a s e s a r e c o n d e n s e d f o r h e a t r e c o v e r y . T a b l e 6.1 g i v e s t h e p o l l u t a n t e m i s s i o n r a t e s f o r t h e d i g e s t e r s y s t e m .

M e r c a p t a n t s a n d m e t h y l s u l f i d e a r e u n a v o i d a b l e b y - p r o d u c t s o f K r a f t p u l p i n g . H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e a f e w t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h c a n l i m i t t h e i r g e n e r a t i o n . G e n e r a l l y , h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s , h i g h s u l f i d i t y and l o n g r e a c t i o n t i m e s f a v o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s u l f u r compounds [ D o u g l a s , 39661. T h u s , i f t h e s u l f i d i t y o f t h e w h i t e l i q u o r i s k e p t a t a m i n i m u m , t h e f o r m a t i o n o f g a s e o u s s u l f u r compounds w i l l b e r e d u c e d . S a r k a n e n , e t a l . ( 1 9 7 0 1 , s u g g e s t s a 2 0

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102 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

p e r c e n t s u l f i d i t y f o r m o s t p a p e r m i l l s .

T a b l e 6 . 1 T y p i c a l E m i s s i o n R a t e s From B a t c h D i g e s t e r I n kg S u l f u r / T o n o f ADP* [ U . S . E P A , 1 9 7 8 1 .

~ ~ ~~ ~~

Po 1 l u t a n t Blow G a s e s R e l i e f G a s e s

H2s 0-0.1 0-0.5

CH3 SH 0-1 .o 0-0 .3

CH3 S C H 3 0-0.25 0 .05 -0 .8

C H 3 S S C H 3 0 - 0 . 1 0 .05-1.0

*ADP - A i r D r i e d P u l p

F i n a l e m i s s i o n s o f t h e d i g e s t e r s y s t e m a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e e f f e c t i v e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e c o n - d e n s e r ( h e a t e x c h a n g e r ) u n i t s . E x p e r i e n c e shows t h a t t h e s u r f a c e a r e a of t h e h e a t e x c h a n g e r , t h o u g h t o r i g i n a l l y t o b e s u f f i c i e n t , may l a t e r p r o v e t o b e t o o s m a l l 1U.S. E P A , 1 9 7 6 1 . T h i s i s d u e t o f i b e r c a r r y o v e r b y t h e b l o w g a s e s a n d c o n s e - q u e n t f o u l i n g o f t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r s u r f a c e s . The f i b e r c a r r y o v e r i s c a u s e d b y e x c e s s i v e g a s v e l o c i - t i e s a t t h e e n t r a n c e of t h e f l o w e x h a u s t p i p e . The minimum v e l o c i t y t o s u s p e n d s o l i d p a r t i c l e s i s 1 8 f p s , a n d t h e a c t u a l v e l o c i t y i n o n e b l o w t a n k r e a c h e d 46 f p s [ M a r t i n , 19691 . R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s t o r e d u c e f i b e r c a r r y o v e r i n c l u d e : d e c r e a s e t h e d i - g e s t e r wood t o l i q u o r r a t i o ; r e l i e v e t h e d i g e s t e r t o a l o w e r p r e s s u r e b e f o r e b l o w i n g a n d f o r b l o w i n g f o r a l o n g e r t i m e p e r i o d ; i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a c y c l o n e s e p a r a t o r ; a n d p r o v i d i n g more h e a t e x c h a n g e s u r - f a c e .

Brown S t o c k Washer S y s t e m

The w a s h i n g p r o c e s s i s a m i n o r s o u r c e o f a i r P O 1 l u t i o n a s c o m p a r e d t o d i g e s t i o n , e v a p o r a t i o n , a n d c o m b u s t i o n . The e m i s s i o n o f a i r c o n t a m i n a t e d w i t h o r g a n i c s u l f u r compounds i s d u e p r i m a r i l y t o t h e c o n t a c t o f a i r w i t h b l a c k l i q u o r . The amoun t o f a i r a n d s u l f u r compounds v e n t i l a t e d d e p e n d s m a i n l y o n t h e t y p e o f w a s h i n g p r o c e s s a n d e q u i p - men t . The two m a i n w a s h i n g p r o c e s s e s a r e d i s p l a c e - m e n t a n d d i f f u s i o n w a s h i n g [ U . S . EPA,19761 .

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C a t e g o r i c a l l y , d i s p l a c e m e n t w a s h e r s i n c l u d e vacuum w a s h e r s a n d p r e s s u r e w a s h e r s . Of t h e t w o , t h e p r e s s u r e washe r ' s hood v e n t and f o a m t a n k v e n t w i l l h a v e l o w e r f l o w r a t e s a n d t o t a l r e d u c e d s u l f u r ( T R S ) e m i s s i o n s .

T y p i c a l e m i s s i o n r a t e s f r o m t h e vacuum washe r ' s hood v e n t a n d t h e f o a m t a n k a r e shown i n T a b l e 6.2.

T a b l e 6.2 E m i s s i o n Rates From Vacuum Wash ing I n k g S u l f u r / T o n ADP [ U . S . E P A , 1 9 7 6 1

~~~~

Po 1 l u t a n t Washe r Hood V e n t Washe r FoamTank

3 s C H SH

3

C H S C H 3 3

0-0.1

0 .05-1 .0

0.05-0.5

0 -05-0 -4 3

C H SSCH 3

0-0.01

0 -0 .01

0 - 0 . 0 5

0 -0 .03

D i f f u s i o n w a s h i n g i s s u p e r i o r t o d i s p l a c e m e n t w a s h i n g , s i n c e t h e w a s h i n g t a k e s p l a c e i n a c l o s e d r e a c t o r . I n d i f f u s i o n w a s h i n g , t h e r e i s no a i r i n v o l v e d . T h u s , b l a c k l i q u o r o x i d a t i o n a n d o d o r r e l e a s e a r e v e r y s m a l l c o m p a r e d t o d i s p l a c e m e n t w a s h i n g .

Some m i l l s e m p l o y c o n t a m i n a t e d c o n d e n s a t e s f o r w a s h i n g . A s t u d y o f 1 7 w a s h i n g s y s t e m s i n d i c a t e d a n e m i s s i o n r a t e o f 0.014 l b / t o n ADP a s H2S u s i n g H 0 , and 0.35 l b / t o n ADP t r e a t i n g w i t h c o n d e n s a t e l I 3 .S . E P A , 19731 . I n terms o f p o l l u t i o n a b a t e m e n t , w a t e r i s a b e t t e r w a s h i n g medium t h a n t h e c o n d e n s a t e s . A n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y i s t o r e d u c e s u l f u r c o n t e n t s o f t h e c o n d e n s a t e b y s t r i p p i n g .

M u l t i p l e E f f e c t E v a p o r a t o r S y s t e m

M u l t i p l e e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r s (MEE) a r e u t i l i z e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e weak b l a c k l i q u o r f r o m 12-18 p e r c e n t s o l i d s t o 40 -55 p e r c e n t s o l i d s [Goodwin , 1 9 7 8 1 . The weak b l a c k l i q u o r i s a m i x t u r e o f d i g e s t e r s p e n t c o o k i n g l i q u o r a n d s t o c k w a s h e r d i s c h a r g e . B a s i c a l l y , e a c h e f f e c t c o n s i s t s o f a h e a t i n g e l e m e n t and a v a p o r h e a d . T h e h o t v a p o r s f r o m t h e

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104 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

v a p o r h e a t o f a p r e v i o u s e f f e c t p a s s t o t h e h e a t i n g e l e m e n t o f t h e f o l l o w i n g e f f e c t . The vacuum i s m a i n t a i n e d b means o f r a p i d c o n d e n s a t i o n o f t h e v a p o r f r o m t t e f i n a l e f f e c t .

T h i s s e c t i o n i n c l u d e s o n l y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n d i r e c t s team e v a p o r a t i o n s y s t e m f r o m t h e v i e w - p o i n t o f p o l l u t i o n . T h u s , t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n i s f o r Vacuum MEE. However , t h e p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s c a n b e r e a d i l y a p p l i e d t o o t h e r e v a p o r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s . T y p i c a l e m i s s i o n r a t e s f o r MEE a r e shown i n T a b l e 6.3.

T a b l e 6 . 3 E m i s s i o n R a t e s From MEE In k g S u l f u r / T o n ADP [U.S. E P A , 1 9 7 3 1

Po 1 lu t a n t E m i s s i o n R a t e kg S u l f u r / t o n A D P

2s 0 .05-1 .5

CH3SH 0 .05-0 .8

CH3SCH3 0 .05 -1 .0

CH3SSCH3 0.05-1 .O

The m o s t e f f e c t i v e me thod o f r e d u c t i o n o f p o l l u t i o n i n MEE i s t o s t e a m s t r i p t h e c o n d e n s a t e , a n d t o i n c i n e r a t e t h e n o n c o n d e n s a b l e g a s e s ( H 2 S , CH3SH, CH3SCH3, a n d CH3SSCH3). M a t t e s o n , al ( 1 9 6 7 ) s u c c e s s f u l l y s t r i p p e d t h e c o n d e n s a t e , g e n e - r a t i n g o v e r h e a d v a p o r o f more t h a n 95 p e r c e n t hy- d r o g e n s u l f i d e , m e r c a p t a n t s , and d i m e t h y l d i s u l - f i d e . S t e a m s t r i p p i n g was p e r f o r m e d i n a c o n v e n - t i o n a l b u b b l e c a p t r a y s t r i p p e r , r e s u l t i n g i n a b o t t o m p r o d u c t o f n e a r l y p u r e a n d r e u s a b l e w a t e r . T h e s t r i p p e d g a s e s a n d o t h e r g a s e s f r o m t h e M E E c a n b e i n c i n e r a t e d i n a l i m e k i l n [ W a l t h e r a n d Amberg, 1 9 7 0 1 .

The l i b e r a t i o n o f H2S a n d , t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , CH3SH d e p e n d s on t h e pH o f t h e b l a c k l i q u o r . T h i s i s d u e t o t h e a c i d i c n a t u r e o f b o t h g a s e s . F u r - t h e r m o r e , t h e s e g a s e s d i s s o c i a t e m o s t r e a d i l y i n a n a q u e o u s s o l u t i o n o f h i g h e r pH. A d d i t i o n o f c a u s t i c s o d a t o t h e weak b l a c k l i q u o r c a n b e b e n e f i c i a l i n c o n t r o 1 l i n g H 2 S and CH3 SH.

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T h e e m i s s i o n s o f H2S a n d CH3SH a r e a l s o d e p e n - d e n t o n t h e s u l f i d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e weak b l a c k l i q u o r . O x i d a t i o n o f t h i s weak b l a c k l i q u o r c a n c o n v e r t s u l f i d e t o t h i o s u l f a t e , C H SSCH3. r e a u c t i o n o f H2S a n d CH3SH e m i s s i o n f r o m MEE. c o n d e n s a t e f r o m t h e MEE p r o c e s s i n g o f o x i d i z e d weak b l a c k l i q u o r w i l l r e q u i r e l i t t l e , i f a n y , t r e a t m e n t f o r o d o r a b a t e m e n t [EPA, 1 9 7 6 1 .

a n d CH3SH t o T h e s e c o n v e r s i o n s w i l l f a c i l i t a t e t h e

The

F u r t h e r m o r e , G a l e n o a n d A m s o l e n ( 1 9 7 0 ) ob- s e r v e d s e v e r a l b e n e f i t s o f weak b l a c k l i q u o r o x i d a - t i o n w i t h o x y g e n , a s c o m p a r e d t o l a c k o f o x i d a t i o n . The o x i d a t i o n u t i l i z i n g O 2 r e s u l t e d i n l o w e r emis- s i o n s o f B2S f r o m t h e M E E , a n d i m p r o v e d t h e e v a p o - r a t o r c o n d e n s a t e w a t e r q u a l i t y .

T h e r e a r e two m a j o r f a c t o r s w h i c h s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f weak b l a c k l i q u o r o x i d a t i o n t o p r e v e n t TRS e m i s s i o n . F i r s t , a h i g h d e g r e e o f o x i d a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d . S e c o n d , o x i d i z e d s u l f u r compounds h a v e t e n d e n c i e s t o r e v e r t t o s u l f i d e d u r i n g M E E , a s w e l l a s d u r i n g e x t e n d e d s t o r a g e , Long s t o r a g e p e r i o d s a f t e r b l a c k l i q u o r o x i d a t i o n s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d .

R E C O V E R Y FURNACE SYSTEM

The r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e f u n c t i o n s i n c l u d e : ( 1 ) r e c o v e r y o f s o d i u m a n d s u l f u r , ( 2 ) p r o d u c t i o n o f s t e a m a n d , ( 3 ) d i s p o s i t i o n o f u n w a n t e d c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e d i s s o l v e d wood. The r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e s y s t e m g e n e r a l l y i n c l u d e s t h e f o l l o w i n g u n i t s : r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e , f l u e g a s d i r e c t c o n t a c t e v a p o r a t o r , p r i - m a r y p a r t i c u l a t e c o n t r o l d e v i c e , a n d s e c o n d a r y p a r t i c u l a t e c o n t r o l d e v i c e . I n some c a s e s , t h e d i r e c t c o n t a c t e v a p o r a t o r s h a v e b e e n u s e d t o c o n - t a i n t h e p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s o r e l i m i n a t e t h e m a l t o g e t h e r [ U . S . E P A , 1 9 7 0 1 . T a b l e 6.4 i s a l i s t - i n g o f e m i s s i o n r a t e s f r o m t h e r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e .

The t h r e e d i r e c t e v a p o r a t o r s u s e d i n t h e K r a f t p u l p i n g m i l l s a r e c a s c a d e e v a p o r a t o r s , c y c l o n e e v a p o r a t o r s , and t h e v e n t u r i r e c o v e r y u n i t . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a v e n t u r i and t h e o t h e r two e v a p o r a t o r s i s i t s e f f i c i e n c y i n r e m o v i n g p a r t i c u - l a t e s . W h i l e c y c l o n e a n d c a s c a d e e v a p o r a t o r s r e m o v e o n l y 40-50 p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r t i c u l a t e m a t - t e r , t h e v e n t u r i r e c o v e r y u n i t s c a n b e d e s i g n e d t o c a p t u r e b e t t e r t h a n 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r t i c u l a t e s [ U . S . EPA, 19731 . The d i r e c t c o n t a c t e v a p o r a t o r

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106 P R O C E S S M O D I F I C A T I O N S

s e rves a s a n a d s o r p t i o n u n i t f o r SO2 a n d n e a r l y a l l SO3 . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t a b s o r b s H S e m i t t e d f r o m t h e r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of h i g h b l a c k l i q u o r pH a n d low s o d i u m s u l f i d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e s t r o n g b l a c k l i q u o r .

2

T a b l e 6.4 E m i s s i o n R a t e s From R e c o v e r y F u r n a c e [ U . S . E P A , 19761.

P o l l u t a n t s E m i s s i o n R a t e k g / t o n ADP ~~

0-25

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0-40

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The p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n r a t e s a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 6.5.

T a b l e 6.5 P a r t i c u l a t e E m i s s i o n R a t e s From The R e c o v e r y F u r n a c e [ U . S . EPA, 19761.

E m i s s i o n S o u r c e E m i s s i o n R a t e , k g / t o n ADP

R e c o v e r y S y s t e m a f t e r E l e c t r o s t a t i c P r e c i p i t a t o r 0 .5-12

A f t e r V e n t u r i E v a p o r a t o r 14-50

F l u e Gas D u s t Load 40-7 5

The d i r e c t e v a p o r a t i o n u n i t is a l s o a p o t e n - t i a l s o u r c e o f TRS. However , t h e e m i s s i o n o f TRS d e p e n d s h e a v i l y on t h e r e s i d u a l s u l f i d e i n t h e b l a c k l i q u o r f r o m MEE. F o r t h i s p u r p o s e , some

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PAPER AND PULP 10 7

m i l l s e m p l o y s t r o n g b l a c k l i q u o r o x i d a t i o n . A s u r v e y o f 3 2 r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e s y s t e m s w h e r e b l a c k l i q u o r o x i d a t i o n i s n o t u s e d showed s u l f u r e m i s s i o n r a n g i n g f r o m 0.75-31gIKg A D P , w i t h a n a v e r a g e o f 7 .7gIKg A D P . C o n v e r s e l y , a s u r v e y o f 1 7 u n i t s t h a t u t i l i z e d b l a c k l i q u o r o x i d a t i o n i n d i c a t e d a n a v e r - a g e e m i s s i o n r a t e o f 3 .7g /Kg ADP [ G o o d w i n , 1 9 7 8 1 .

I t i s p o s s i b l e t o e l i m i n a t e t h e d i r e c t c o n - t a c t e v a p o r a t o r i n f a v o r o f a n o n - c o n t a c t d e s i g n . T h i s c h a n g e w i l l c a u s e a n i n c r e a s e i n p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s , w h i c h wou ld t h e n r e q u i r e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a more e f f i c i e n t p a r t i c u l a t e c o n t r o l d e v i c e .

The e m i s s i o n o f s u l f u r compounds f r o m t h e r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e i s a l s o d e p e n d e n t on t h e d e s i g n o f t h e f u r n a c e . The r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e h a s two f u n c - t i o n s ; r e c o v e r y o f t h e c h e m i c a l s i n t h e i r r e d u c e d s t a t e ( i . e . , s u l f u r s h o u l d b e p r e s e n t a s s u l f i d e a n d n o t s u l f a t e ) , a n d r e c o v e r y o f h e a t t o g e n e r a t e s t eam f o r t h e p r o c e s s e s .

C o m b u s t i o n w i t h i n t h e r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e i s s e p a r a t e d i n t o two z o n e s . The f i r s t z o n e m u s t b e m a i n t a i n e d u n d e r r e d u c i n g c o n d i t i o n s , a t l e s s t h a n t h e r e q u i r e d s t o i c h i o m e t r i c a m o u n t s o f a i r . T h i s z o n e d i s c h a r g e s c h e m i c a l s i n t h e m o l t e n s t a t e , w i t h t h e s u l f u r p r e s e n t m a i n l y a s s u l f i d e a n d o r g a n i c m a t t e r a s a g a s h a v i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e h e a t v a l u e . The s e c o n d z o n e o f c o m b u s t i o n s t a r t s w i t h t h e a d d i - t i o n o f s e c o n d a r y a i r . The s e c o n d a r y a i r s h o u l d b e s u p p l i e d i n 10-20 p e r c e n t e x c e s s o f t h e amoun t r e q u i r e d f o r c o m p l e t e c o m b u s t i o n .

The r e l e a s e o f s o d i u m f r o m t h e b u r n i n g c h a r o f b l a c k l i q u o r d e p e n d s o n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a n d g a s c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e b o r d e r z o n e b e t w e e n t h e b e d a n d t h e f l u e g a s . The TRS r e l e a s e t o t h e f l u e g a s i s a f f e c t e d b y t h e t o t a l s u l f u r c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a n d t h e s o d i u m t o s u l f u r r a t i o . S i n c e t h e s o d i u m / s u l f u r r a t i o i n t h e s m e l t b e d d e p e n d s o n t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e r e l e a s e o f s u l f u r t o t h e f l u e g a s i s a l s o a f u n c - t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e . H y d r o g e n s u l f i d e may b e p r e - s e n t i n t h e f l u e g a s i n t h e p r i m a r y a i r c o m b u s t i o n z o n e a t 50-100 ppm, i f t h e z o n e b e t w e e n t h e b e d and t h e f l u e g a s i s k e p t a t t h e o p t i m a l t e m p e r a t u r e . H y d r o g e n s u l f i d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f 1 5 , 0 0 0 ppm h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d i n t h i s r e g i o n when b l a c k o u t c o n d i - t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t ( b l a c k o u t c o n d i t i o n s r e f e r t o i n s u f f i c i e n t r a t e o f c o m b u s t i o n i n t h e h e a r t h ) . T y p i c a l l y , a l ow t e m p e r a t u r e f a v o r s t h e p r e s e n c e o f

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108 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

s u l f i d e and B 2 S [ U . S . EPA, 1 9 7 6 1 .

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l a d v a n t a g e s i n r a i s i n g t h e p r i m a r y a i r t e m p e r a t u r e . The v e l o c i t y , f o r t h e same f l o w o f a i r , w i l l i n c r e a s e and i m p r o v e t h e s o d i u m e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m t h e b e d . A l s o , t h e r e l e a s e o f s u l f u r f r o m t h e b e d d e c r e a s e s .

I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s e c o n d a r y a i r , t h e f i n a l c o m b u s t i o n s t a r t s . The amoun t o f p r i m a r y a i r f o r m o s t f u r n a c e s m u s t b e more t h a n 1 1 0 p e r c e n t a n d l e s s t h a n 1 2 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e t h e o r e t i - c a l a i r , t o a v o i d f o r m a t i o n o f s t i c k d u s t . S t i c k d u s t h a s a t e n d e n c y t o f o u l t h e h e a t i n g s u r f a c e s . The s e c o n d a r y a i r s h o u l d b e s u p p l i e d t o t h e f u r n a c e s o t h a t i t mixes w i t h t h e g a s c o m i n g f r o m t h e p r i m a r y a i r c o m b u s t i o n z o n e . T h e r e f o r e , e f f i c i e n t r e g u l a t i o n a n d m e t h o d o f i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s e c o n d a r y a i r i s i m p o r t a n t i n t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f s t i c k d u s t .

The v a r i a b l e s a f f e c t i n g t h e TRS e m i s s i o n s f r o m t h e r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e a r e a s f o l l o w : q u a n t i t y a n d m e t h o d o f i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c o m b u s t e d a i r , t h e r a t e o f b l a c k l i q u o r f e e d , t h e d e g r e e o f t u r b u l a n c e i n t h e o x i d a t i o n z o n e , t h e 02 c o n t e n t o f f l o w g a s , t h e s p r a y p a t t e r n a n d d r o p l e t s i z e o f t h e l i q u o r f e d t o t h e f u r n a c e , and t h e d e g r e e o f d i s t u r b a n c e i n t h e s m e l t b e d . T h e s e v a r i a b l e s a r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f a d i r e c t c o n t a c t e v a p o r a t o r [ T h e o n , e t a l . 1 9 6 8 1 .

T e l l e r a n d Amberg ( 1 9 7 5 ) h a v e d e v e l o p e d a c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e f o r u s e i n t h e r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e w h i c h u t i l i z e s a l k a l i n e a d s o r p t i o n w i t h c a r b o n a c t i v a t e d o x i d a t i o n o f t h e s c r u b b i n g s o l u t i o n . P i l o t p l a n t s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i s t e c h n i q u e i s c a p a b l e o f r e d u c i n g TRS e m i s s i o n s f r o m 20-1500 ppm down t o 1 t o 1 0 ppm. T h i s m e t h o d wou ld a l s o a l l e v i a t e p a r t i c u l a t e a n d SO2 e m i s s i o n s [ T e l l e r and Amberg , 1 9 7 5 1 . A n o t h e r e f f e c t i v e a d s o r p t i o n m e t h o d i s t h e TRS s y s t e m p o t e n t i a l , b y t h e W e y e r h a e u s e r Company. The T R S s c r u b b e r a d s o r b s u p t o 99 p e r c e n t o f B 2 S a n d c o l l e c t s a b o u t 8 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r t i - c u l a t e m a t t e r .

N i t r o g e n o x i d e s a r e g e n e r a t e d i n t h e r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e a t a r a t e o f 0 .7-5 k g l t o n ADP [ U . S . E P A , 1 9 7 6 1 . The r e d u c t i o n o f N O , p r o d u c t i o n l i e s i n p r o v i s i o n s f o r f a c i l i t a t i o n o f a h e a t s i n k i n t h e r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e . The e n d o t h e r m i c r e a c t i o n o f Na2 SO4 t o Na2S i n t h e s m e l t b e d a l s o a c t s a s a h e a t

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PAPER ANI? PULP 109

s i n k t o i n h i b i t e x c e s s f l a m e t e m p e r a t u r e s . A re - d u c i n g a t m o s p h e r e a b o v e t h e s m e l t b e d w i l l a l s o r e d u c e NO, f o r m a t i o n . The s u p p l y o f a i r c a n b e a r r a n g e d t o s p r e a d o u t t h e f l a m e f r o n t a n d , i n t h a t way, i n h i b i t t h e i n c r e a s e i n g a s t e m p e r a t u r e .

S m e l t D i s s o l v i n g Tank

The m o l t e n s m e l t a c c u m u l a t e d i n t h e r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e a s a r e s u l t o f c o m b u s t i o n is d i s s o l v e d i n wa te r i n t h e s m e l t d i s s o l v i n g t a n k . D i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e m o l t e n smel t ( s o d i u m c a r b o n a t e a n d s o d i u m s u l - f i d e ) i n w a t e r f o r m s a g r e e n l i q u o r . The d i s s o l u - t i o n i s a i d e d b y a g i t a t o r s a n d s t e a m , o r a l i q u i d s h a t t e r j e t s y s t e m , t o b r e a k u p t h e s m e l t s t ream b e f o r e i t e n t e r s t h e s o l u t i o n . The l a r g e v o l u m e o f s t e a m g e n e r a t e d b y t h e c o n t a c t o f s m e l t w i t h wa te r i s v e n t e d . T a b l e 6 .6 d e p i c t s t h e e m i s s i o n r a t e s f r o m t h e s m e l t d i s s o l v i n g t a n k .

T a b l e 6 . 6 E m i s s i o n R a t e s From S m e l t D i s s o l v e Tank [ U . S . E P A , 1 9 7 6 1

P o l l u t a n t s Kg S u l f u r f t o n ADP

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P a r t i c u l a t e E m i s s i o n ( A f t e r C o n t r o l D e v i c e ) 0 .01-0 .5

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P a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r c o n t a i n s NaOB, N a 2 C 0 3 , and Na2S. The p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s a r e c a p t u r e d f r o m e s c a p i n g v e n t g a s e s b y m i s t e l i m i n a t o r p a d s . T y p i - c a l e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e p a d s f o r p a r t i c u l a t e r e m o v a l i s 70-90 p e r c e n t . However , h i g h e r e f f i c i e n c i e s c a n b e a c h i e v e d b y f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e s m e l t t a n k w i t h a s p r a y o r p a c k e d s c r u b b e r i n a d d i t i o n t o m i s t

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110 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

e l i m i n a t o r p a d s . C o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h i s t y p e c a n b e 9 8 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n t i n r e m o v i n g p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r [ U . S . E P A , 1 9 7 6 1 . A n o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e i s t o com- b i n e v e n t g a s e s f r o m t h e s m e l t t a n k w i t h f l u e g a s e s f r o m t h e r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e p r i o r t o e n t e r i n g t h e p a r t i c u l a t e c o l l e c t i o n d e v i c e . However , t h e e f - f e c t i v e n e s s o f a e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r i s r e d u c e d d u e t o t h e wa te r v a p o r c o n t e n t o f t h e s m e l t t a n k v e n t g a s e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e Na S e n t r a i n e d i n t h e s m e l t t a n k v e n t g a s e s coming i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h C 0 2 f r o m t h e r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e may p r o m o t e f o r m a t i o n o f H S. I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e b e s t p a r t i - c u l a t e c o n t r o l d e v i c e f o r t h e s m e l t t a n k i s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f m i s t e l i m i n a t o r p a d s and a s c r u b b e r .

2

The T R S e m i s s i o n s d e p e n d o n t h e s u l f i d e c o n - t e n t o f p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r , t h e t u r b u l e n c e i n t h e d i s s o l v i n g t a n k , t h e t y p e o f s o l u t i o n u s e d i n a s c r u b b e r , i f p r e s e n t , and pH o f t h e s c r u b b e r l i q u o r . F r e s h water i s t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n f o r s c r u b b i n g a n d i s c a p a b l e o f p r o d u c i n g 0 . 0 0 1 l b s u l f u r / t o n ADP [ M a r t i n , 1 9 6 9 1 .

LIME K I L N

The g r e e n l i q u o r i s c o n v e r t e d t o w h i t e l i q u o r i n t h e l i m e k i l n . T h i s u n i t i s a n e s s e n t i a l e l e - ment o f t h e c l o s e d - l o o p s y s t e m . The k i l n c a l c i n e s t h e c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e w h i c h p r e c i p i t a t e f r o m t h e c a u s t i c i z e r , t o p r o d u c e q u i c k l i m e ( C a O ) . The c a l - c i n e d c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e p r e c i p i t a t e i s a l s o c a l l e d l i m e mud. The q u i c k l i m e i s w e t t e d ( s l a c k e d ) b y t h e w a t e r i n t h e g r e e n l i q u o r s o l u t i o n , t o f o r m c a l c i u m h y d r o x i d e f o r t h e c a u s t i c i z i n g r e a c t i o n .

The mud i s c o n t a c t e d b y t h e h o t g a s e s p r o - d u c e d b y t h e c o m b u s t i o n o f n a t u r a l g a s o r f u e l o i l , a n d p r o c e e d s t h r o u g h t h e k i l n i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e g a s f l o w . The l i m e mud i s a 55-60 p e r c e n t s o l i d - w a t e r s l u r r y a n d i s f e d a t e l e v a t i o n t o t h e k i l n . I n t h e u p p e r p a r t o f t h e k i l n t h e mud d r i e s , w h i l e a t t h e l o w e r e n d ( t h e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e z o n e 1800-2000" F), i t a g g l o m o r a t e s i n t o s m a l l p e l - l e t s a n d i s c a l c i n e d t o CaO. T y p i c a l e m i s s i o n r a t e s f r o m l i m e k i l n a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 6 . 7 .

V a r i a b l e s a f f e c t i n g t h e TRS e m i s s i o n o f t h e lime k i l n i n c l u d e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a t t h e c o l d e n d o f t h e k i l n , t h e O2 c o n t e n t o f t h e g a s e s l e a v i n g t h e k i l n , t h e s u l f i d e c o n t e n t o f t h e l i m e mud, a n d t h e pH a n d s u l f i d e c o n t e n t o f t h e w a t e r u s e d i n t h e

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PAPER AND PULP 11 1

p a r t i c u l a t e s c r u b b e r [NCASI, 1 9 7 1 1 . I f c o n t a m i - n a t e d c o n d e n s a t e i s u s e d a s t h e s c r u b b i n g s o l u t i o n , t h e e x h a u s t g a s e s c o u l d s t r i p o u t t h e d i s s o l v e d TRS a n d i n c r e a s e t h e TRS e m i s s i o n f r o m t h e l i m e k i l n .

T a b l e 6 . 7 L i m e K i l n E m i s s i o n R a t e s [U.S. E P A , 1 9 7 6 1

P o l l u t a n t s L i m e K i l n E x h a u s t & L i m e S l a k e r Ven t k g S u l f u r / t o n ADP kg S u l f u r / t o n ADP

0-0.5 0 - 0 . 1

CH3 SH 0-0.2 0 -0 .01

C H 3 S C H 0-0.1 0-0.01

CH3SSCH3 0-0.05 0-0.01

k g l t o n ADP k g l t o n A D P

0-1.4 -- 1 0 - 2 5 --

so2

The two m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r e v e n t i v e m e a s u r e s i n t e r m s o f TRS e m i s s i o n a r e ; m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e p r o - p e r p r o c e s s c o n d i t i o n s , a n d s c r u b b i n g t h e e x h a u s t g a s e s w i t h c a u s t i c s o l u t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , TRS e m i s s i o n c a n b e r e d u c e d b y a s u f f i c i e n t s u p p l y o f Q 2 and a r e d u c t i o n i n s u l f i d e c o n t e n t o f t h e mud.

The l i m e k i l n i s o p e r a t e d w i t h e x c e s s a i r a n d h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e . B o t h c o n d i t i o n s f a v o r t h e p r o - d u c t i o n o f N O x . T h e r e f o r e , a n y m e a s u r e t o r e d u c e TRS may p r o m o t e g e n e r a t i o n o f NO,. T h u s , o x i d e s o f n i t r o g e n a r e u n a v o i d a b l e b y - p r o d u c t s o f t h e l i m e k i l n a n d a n y m e a s u r e t o c o n t r o l t h e i r r e l e a s e s h o u l d o c c u r a f t e r t h e k i l n .

T a b l e 6 . 8 s u m m a r i z e s some o f t h e p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e K r a f t p u l p i n g p r o c e s s , a n d s u g g e s t s c o n t r o l a l t e r n a t i v e s .

R E C O M M E N D E D AREAS FOR PROCESS MODIFICATION RESEARCH

A f t e r e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s t e c h n o l o g y , t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s a r e recommended f o r f u r t h e r

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Table 6 . 8 , Pollutants and Control Options in Kraft Pulpinp. Process

TRS, SOz,

Particulates

Brown Stock Lasher I

OrEanic and inorganic gases and solids I Smelt Tank

M u 1 tiple Effect Evaporators

Recovery Furnace System

Spelt D i s s a l v e Tank.

Lime Kiln

Pollutants Sources in Nature o f

T R S , relief 6 blow gases blow tank

'IRS. noncondens- Vacuum washer I Organic. gases ables I

Pollutant Control Strategy

Lower sulfidity, lower blow pressure, reduce fiber carryover by cyclone or other methods.

Use water as washing fluid, employ diffusion washers.

Treatment of weak black l i q u o r by oxidation and with caustic soda. Effective stripping of condensate from the condenser unit.

Strong black liquor oxidation. Use direct contact evaporator, venturi type. Improve design. Alkaline adsorption with carbon-activated oxidation of the scrubbing solution.

Combination of mist eliminator pad and scrubber unit. Use fresk water for scrubbing.

Maintain proper process conditions. Sufficient supply of 0 and reduction in sulfur czntent of the mud.

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PAPER AND PULP 113

r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t :

. R e s e a r c h and d i g e s t i o n o f wood c h i p s t o d e t e r m i n e o p t i m a l s u l f i d i t y , pH, a n d t e m p e r a t u r e t o r e d u c e p o l l u t i o n .

S t u d i e s o n c o n t r o l o f f i b e r c a r r y o v e r f r o m t h e b l o w t a n k b y c y c l o n e a n d / o r b y r e d u c t i o n o f r e l i e f p r e s s u r e a n d s e l e c t i o n o f wood t o l i q u o r r a t i o t o p r e v e n t TRS e m i s s i o n .

C o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s o n d e s i g n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f d i f f u s i o n a n d d i s p l a c e m e n t w a s h e r s t o m i n i m i z e TRS.

Effect o f b l a c k l i q u o r o x i d a t i o n a n d pH c o n t r o l o n weak a n d s t r o n g b l a c k l i q u o r t o r e d u c e TRS e m i s s i o n .

S t u d i e s o n t h e d i r e c t a n d n o n - c o n t a c t e v a p o r a t i o n i n t h e r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e s y s t e m , t o d e t e r m i n e c a p a b i l i t y a n d m e r i t s o f e a c h u n i t i n r e d u c i n g t h e TRS e m i s s i o n .

R e s e a r c h o n c o m b u s t i o n o f s t r o n g b l a c k l i q u o r t o p r e v e n t b l a c k o u t c o n d i t i o n s a n d s t i c k d u s t f o r m a t i o n , b y o p t i m i z i n g t h e d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e .

R e s e a r c h a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f s c r u b b i n g t e c h n i q u e s t o r e d u c e TRS e m i s s i o n .

REFERENCES

D o u g l a s , I . B . , "The C h e m i s t r y o f P o l l u t a n t F o r m a t i o n i n K r a f t P u l p i n g . " I n p r o c e e d i n g s o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n A t m o s p h e r i c E m i s s i o n s f r o m S u l f a t e P u l p i n g , A p r i l 2 8 , 1 9 6 6 . E . O . P a i n t e r P r i n t i n g Co. , 1 9 6 6 .

" F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g E m i s s i o n o f O d o r o u s Reduced S u l f u r Compounds f r o m M i s c e l l a n e o u s K r a f t P r o c e s s S u l f u r " , NCASI T e c h n i c a l B u l l e t i n , No. 6 0 , March 1 9 7 2 .

G a l e a n o , S .F . a n d Amsden, C . D . " O x i d a t i o n o f Weak B l a c k L i q u o r w i t h M o l e c u l a r Oxygen." T A P P I , Vol 53, November 1 9 7 0 , p p . 2142-2146.

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114 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

Goodwin , D . R . " D r a f t G u i d e l i n e Document : C o n t r o l o f TRS E m i s s i o n s f r o m E x i s t i n g K r a f t P u l p M i l l s " , EPA 450/2-78-003A. J a n u a r y 1 9 7 8 .

H a n s e n , S .P . a n d B u r g e s s , F . I . "Carbon T r e a t m e n t o f K r a f t C o n d e n s a t e s W a s t e s . " TAPPI, Vo l . 5 1 , J u n e 1 9 6 8 , p p . 241-245.

M a r t i n , G . C . " F i l t e r C a r r y o v e r W i t h Blow Tank E x h a u s t " , TAPPI, V o l . 5 2 , No. 1 2 , December 1 9 6 9 .

M a t t e s o n , M . J . , e t a l . " S e k o r 11: S t e a m S t r i p p i n g o f V o l a t i l e S u b s t a n c e s f r o m K r a f t P u l p i n g M i l l E f f l u e n t S t r e a m . " T A P P I , Vo l 5 0 , No. 2 , F e b r u a r y 1 9 6 7 .

P r a k a s h , C . B . a n d M u r r y , F.E. " S t u d i e s on H 2 S E m i s s i o n s d u r i n g C a l c i n i n g " , pulp and P a p e r M a n a z i n e of C a n a d a , Vo l . 7 4 , May 1 9 7 3 , p p . 99-102.

S a r k a n e n , K . V . , e t a l . , " K r a f t Odor" , TAPPI. V o l . 5 3 , No. 5 , May 1 9 7 0 .

S u g g e s t e d P r o c e d u r e f o r t h e C o n d u c t o f L i m e K i l n S t u d i e s t o D e f i n e E m i s s i o n s o f Reduced S u l f u r T h r o u g h C o n t r o l o f K i l n and S c r u b b e r O p e r a t i n g V a r i a b l e . " NCASI S p e c i a l R e p o r t No. 70-71 , J a n u a r y 1 9 7 1 .

T e l l e r , A . J . a n d Amberg , H . R . " C o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t h e D e s i g n f o r TRS and P a r t i c u l a t e R e c o v e r y f r o m t h e E f f l u e n t s o f K r a f t R e c o v e r y F u r n a c e . I 1 P r e p r i n t TAPPI E n v i r o n m e n t a l C o n f e r e n c e , May 1 9 7 5 .

T h e o n , G . N . , e t a l . "The E f f e c t o f C o m b u s t i o n V a r i a b l e o n t h e R e l e a s e o f O d o r o u s S u l f u r Compounds f r o m a K r a f t R e c o v e r y F u r n a c e , TAPPI, V o l . 5 1 , N O . 8 , A u g u s t 1 9 6 8 , p p . 324- 3 3 3 .

U.S. E P A . " A t m o s p h e r i c E m i s s i o n s From t h e P u l p and P a p e r M a n u f a c t u r e I n d u s t r y . " E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n A g e n c y . R e s e a r c h P a r k N . C . Off i c e o f A i r Q u a l i t y P l a n n i n g a n d S t a n d a r d s . EPA 4 5 9 1 1 - 7 3 / 0 0 2 , S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 3 .

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PAPER AND PULP 115

U.S. EPA. " C o n t r o l o f A t m o s p h e r i c E m i s s i o n s i n t h e Wood P u 1 p i n g I ndu s t r y " , Env i r o nmen t a 1 E n g i n e e r i n g I n c . , a n d J . E . S i r r i n e Company, F i n a l R e p o r t , EPA C o n t r a c t No. CPA-22-69-18, March 1 5 , 1 9 7 0 .

U.S. E P A . " E n v i r o n m e n t a l P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l P u l p a n d P a p e r I n d u s t r y : P a r t I A i r " , EPA 62517176-001 , O c t o b e r 1 9 7 6 .

W a l t h e r , J . E . a n d Amberg , H . R . "A P o s i t i v e A i r Q u a l i t y P r o g r a m a t a N e w K r a f t M i l l , , J o u r n a l -- o f A i r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l A S S O C . , V o l . 2 0 , No. 2 , J a n u a r y 1 9 7 0 .

W a l t h e r , J . E . a n d Amberg , H . R . "The R o l e o f t h e D i r e c t C o n t a c t E v a p o r a t o r i n C o n t r o l l i n g K r a f t R e c o v e r y . F u r n a c e E m i s s i o n s " , PUlD a n d P a p e r M a g a z i n e of C a n a d a , Vo l . 7 2 , O c t o b e r 1 9 7 1 , p p . 65-67 .

SUP P LEM E NTA L REF E R E N C E S

A n d e r s o n , H . K . a n d R y a n , J . " I m p r o v e d A i r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l f o r a K r a f t R e c o v e r y B o i l e r : M o d i f i e d R e c o v e r y B o r d e r No. 3 " , E P A 65012-74-071-a , A u g u s t , 1 9 7 4 .

B h a t i a , S . P . , e t a l . , "Removal o f S u l f u r Compound f r o m K r a f t R e c o v e r y S t a c k w i t h A l k a l i n e S u s p e n s i o n o f A c t i v a t e d C a r b o n " , TAPPI, V o l . 5 6 , December 1 9 7 3 , p p . 164-167 .

C l e m e n t , J . L . a n d E l i o t , J . S . " K r a f t R e c o v e r y B o i l e r D e s i g n f o r Odor C o n t r o l " , P u l p a n d P a p e r M a g a z i n e of C a n a d a , Vo l . 7 8 No. 8 , F e b r u a r y 7 , 1 9 6 9 , p p . 47-52 .

C o o p e r , H.B .H. a n d R o s s a n o , A . T . , J r . " B l a c k L i q u o r O x i d a t i o n w i t h M o l e c u l a r Oxygen i n P l u g F low R e a c t o r " , TAPPI, V o l , 5 6 , J u n e 1 9 7 3 , p p . 100-103 .

D o u g l a s , I . B . " S o u r c e s o f Odor i n t h e K r a f t P r o c e s s : Odor F o r m a t i o n i n B l a c k L i q u o r M u l t i p l e E f f e c t E v a p o r a t o r s . " TAPPI, V o l . 5 2 , S e p t e m b e r 1 9 6 9 , p p . 1 7 3 8 - 1 7 4 1 .

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C H A P T E R 7

T H E P R I M A R Y A L U M I N I U M INDUSTRY

I N T R O D U C T I O N

The p r i m a r y a l u m i n i u m i n d u s t r y c o n s i s t s o f p r o c e s s i n g b a u x i t e o r e t o p r o d u c e a l u m i n a ( a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y a l u m i n i u m h y d r o x i d e ) , a n d p r o c e s s i n g t h e a l u m i n a t o p r o d u c e a l u m i n i u m . A p p r o x i m a t e l y , 7.6 x l o 6 t o n s o f a l u m i n a w e r e r o d u c e d i n U.S. f r o m p r o c e s s i n g a b o u t 15.4 x lo! t o n s o f b a u x i t e i n 1 9 7 2 a n d 9 4 p e r c e n t o f t h e a l u m i n a w a s u t i l i z e d t o make a l u m i n i u m [ S a x t o n a n d Kramer, 19751 .

B A U X I T E PROCESSING

B a u x i t e i s composed m a i n l y o f m e t a l l i c o x i d e s , w i t h a l u m i n i u m o x i d e c o m p r i s i n g f r o m 20 t o 6 0 p e r - c e n t o f t h e o r e as m i n e d . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 87 p e r c e n t o f t h e b a u x i t e o r e i s i m p o r t e d , m a i n l y f r o m J a m a i c a a n d S u r i n a m . The e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b a u x i t e m i n i n g a n d s h i p p i n g a r e c a u s e d b y f u g i t i v e d u s t a n d w a t e r r u n o f f . B a u x i t e o r e may c o n t a i n up t o 3 0 p e r c e n t m o i s t u r e , a n d s h o u l d b e d r i e d a t 110°C b e f o r e s h i p p i n g . An o v e r v i e w o f t h e b a u x i t e p r o c e s s i n g i s shown i n F i g u r e 7.1.

The r a w b a u x i t e o r e i s b e n e f a c t e d b y g r i n d i n g t o a b o u t 1 0 0 mesh , d i g e s t e d i n c ~ u s t i c a t e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d p r e s s u r e s ( 1 4 5 C a n d 60 p s i g ) , and t h e n f i l t e r e d o r t h i c k e n e d i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f f l o c - c u l a n t s . T h e s e o p e r a t i o n s y i e l d a s o d i u m a l u m i n a t e l i q u o r , and a w a s t e s t r e a m o f " r e d mud" w h i c h c o n t a i n s t h e i m p u r i t i e s f o u n d i n t h e b a u x i t e o r e .

The a l u m i n a t e l i q u o r i s d i l u t e d a n d c o o l e d t o h y d r o l y z e t h e s o d i u m a l u m i n a t e , f o r m i n g a p r e c i p i - t a t e o f a l u m i n i u m h y d r o x i d e w h i c h i s f i l t e r e d a n d c a l c i n e d t o a l u m i n a . The a l u m i n a i s t h e n s h i p p e d t o a l u m i n i u m s m e l t i n g . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e o f b a u x i t e p r o c e s s e d , 1 1 3 t o 2 kg of r e d mud i s p r o - d u c e d p e r e a c h k i l o g r a m o f a l u m i n a p r o d u c t . T a b l e

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PRIMARY ALUMINIUM 119

7.1 g i v e s t h e c h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s o f r e d mud s l u r r i e s f r o m d i f f e r e n t b a u x i t e o r e s [ U . S . E P A , 19741 . The pB o f t h i s s l u r r y i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 12.5.

T a b l e 7 . 1 C h e m i c a l A n a l y s i s o f Red Muds

Component A r k a n s a s S u r inam J a m a i c a

Fe 0 55-60 30-40 5 0 . 5 4 2 3

12-15 16-20 11 -13

S i o 2 4- 5 11 -14 2.5- 6

A120 3

T i 0 2 4- 5 10 -1 1

C a 0 5-10 5- 6 6 .5-8 .5

Na 0 2 6- 8 1 .5 -5 .0 2

I n t h e c o m b i n a t i o n p r o c e s s , u s e d f o r b a u x i t e o r e s w i t h h i g h s i l i c a c o n t e n t s u c h a s t h o s e f r o m A r k a n s a s , t h e r e d mud r e s i d u e i s t r e a t e d t o e x t r a c t a d d i t i o n a l a m o u n t s o f a l u m i n a and t o r e c o v e r s o d i u m v a l u e s . T h i s a d d i t i o n a l e x t r a c t i o n s t e p i s accom- p l i s h e d b y m i x i n g r e d mud w i t h l i m e s t o n e and s o d a a s h , and t h e n s i n t e r i n g t h i s m i x t u r e a t 1 1 0 0 t o 1200'C. The i m p o r t a n t r e a c t i o n s a r e t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f s i l i c a t o c a l c i u m s i l i c a t e , and r e s i d u a l a l u m i n a t o s o d i u m a l u m i n a t e . The s i n t e r e d p r o d u c t s a r e l e a c h e d t o p r o d u c e a d d i t i o n a l s o d i u m a l u m i n a t e s o l u t i o n , v-h ich i s e i t h e r f i l t e r e d and a d d e d t o t h e m a i n s t ream f o r p r e c i p i t a t i o n o r p r e c i p i t a t e d s e p a - r a t e l y . By t h e a d d i t i o n o f s e e d m a t e r i a l and c a r e - f u l c o n t r o l o f c o m p o s i t i o n a n d a g i t a t i o n , a l u m i n a t r i h y d r a t e i s p r e c i p i t a t e d .

The i d e a l s o l u t i o n t o t h e r e d mud p r o b l e m w o u l d b e t o d e v e l o p a u s e f o r i t . A p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n u t i l i z e s t h e h i g h i r o n c o n t e n t o f t h e r e d mud ( T a b l e 7 . 1 ) . F u r s m a n , e t a l . ( 1 9 7 0 ) d e s c r i b e d a p r o c e s s b a s e d on s i n t e r i n g t h e r e d mud w i t h c a r b o n and l i m e s t o n e , and m e l t i n g t h e s i n t e r i n a n e l e c t r i c o r e f u r n a c e t o p r o d u c e a l o w g r a d e i r o n w h i c h c o u l d b e f u r t h e r p r o c e s s e d i n t o s t e e l .

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120 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

T h i s p r o c e s s was f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d [ G u c c i o n e , 1 9 7 1 1 b u t h a s n o t y e t f o u n d c o m m e r c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n . O t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e e x a m i n e d t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f r e d mud t o m a n u f a c t u r e p o r t l a n d c e m e n t , b r i c k , and r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n [ P u r s m a n , &. 1 9 7 0 ; So lyman a n d B r i u d o s o , 1 9 7 3 1 .

T h e r e i s a l s o a n e e d t o d e v e l o p a n e c o n o m i c a l - l y v i a b l e l e a c h i n g and e x t r a c t i o n p r o c e s s f o r t h e r e c o v e r y o f m i n e r a l v a l u e s f r o m r e d mud wastes .

D u r i n g t h e h a n d l i n g a n d s h i p p i n g o f a l u m i n a , d u s t i s f o r m e d . The t e n d e n c y o f a l u m i n a s t o f o r m d u s t d u r i n g h a n d l i n g d e p e n d s on t h e d e g r e e o f c a l - c i n a t i o n a n d o n t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n . The s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d a d s o r p t i o n c a p a b i l i t y o f c a l c i n e d a l u m i n a a r e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n t h e re - d u c t i o n and d r y g a s c l e a n i n g s t a g e s o f a l u m i n i u m m a n u f a c t u r e , a s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r .

W i t h h i g h l y c a l c i n e d , f l o w i n g a l u m i n a s , t h e f o r m a t i o n o f d u s t i s p r e v e n t e d b y t h e s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s , w h i c h i n c r e a s e s a s t h e a - a l u m i n a c o n t e n t r i s e s . I f f i n e g r a i n e d h y d r o x i d e i s c a l c i n e d t o a l o w e r d e g r e e , i t w i l l s t a r t d e v e l o p i n g d u s t . The t e n d e n c y o f w e a k l y c a l c i n e d a l u m i n a s t o c a u s e d u s t - i n g i s c o u n t e r a c t e d b y m i n i m i z i n g t h e amoun t o f f i n e s . T h i s i s n o r m a l l y d o n e i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n a r e a o f t h e p r o c e s s , w h e r e t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s - t r i b u t i o n o f t h e h y d r o x i d e i s c o n t r o l l e d .

D e c i s i v e f o r t h e m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h a c q u i r e d b y t h e i n d i v i d u a l h y d r o x i d e p a r t i c l e s a r e [ S c h m i d t , 1 9 8 0 1 :

The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e a p p l i e d f o r c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n , i.e., n u c l e a t i o n , c r y s t a l g r o w t h , o r a g g l o m e r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s .

I n f l u e n c e o f l i q u o r i m p u r i t i e s s u c h a s CaCO 3, o x a l a t e s e t c .

The m e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s e s t o w h i c h t h e h y d r o x i d e s a r e e x p o s e d d u r i n g p r e c i p i t a t i o n .

S c h m i d t , d. ( 1 9 8 0 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e g a s l s o l i d v e l o c i t i e s a n d t h e r m a l s t r e s s e s i n t h e f l u i d b e d c a l c i n e r a n d i n t h e r o t a r y k i l n h a v e a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e o n t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n

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PRIMARY ALUMINIUM 1 2 1

o f t h e c a l c i n e d a l u m i n a .

T h u s , a r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m t o i m p r o v e t h e m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h , a d s o r p t i o n c a p a b i l i t y and p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c a l c i n e d a l u m i n a b y m o d i f y i n g t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n and c a l c i n i n g o f a l u m i n a i s i n d i c a t e d .

S t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d i n R u s s i a a n d e l s e w h e r e i n d i c a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g n i t r i c a c i d s t r i p p i n g f o r t h e e x t r a c t i o n o f a l u m i n a f r o m o r e s c o n t a i n i n g h i g h a m o u n t s o f s i l i c a . S u t y r i n and Z v e r e v ( 1 9 7 6 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t s t r i p p i n g a t 1 6 0 ° C l o w e r e d a c i d u s a g e and p r o d u c e d s o l u t i o n s l e s s c o n t a m i n a t e d b y i r o n . A c i d s t r i p p i n g o f d o m e s t i c U.S. o r e s w h i c h c o n t a i n h i g h a m o u n t s o f s i l i c a s h o u l d b e o p t i m i z e d by p r o p e r c o n t r o l o f t h e s t r i p - p i n g temp e r a t u r e .

The e n r i c h m e n t o f h i g h s i l i c a b a u x i t e o r e s u s i n g h e t e r o t r o p h i c b a c t e r i a i s r e p o r t e d b y A n d r e e v , & d. ( 1 9 7 6 ) . I t was p o s s i b l e t o p r o d u c e a c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i t h 48.4 p e r c e n t A 1 2 0 3 c o n t e n t a t a r e c o v e r y o f 7 4 p e r c e n t . T h u s , a d d i t i o n a l r e - s e a r c h i s i n d i c a t e d , t o d e v e l o p a c i d s t r i p p i n g a n d b a c t e r i a l e n r i c h m e n t t e c h n i q u e s f o r d o m e s t i c baux- i t e o r e s .

P R I M A R Y A L U M I N I U M SMELTING

The l a r g e s c a l e , e c o n o m i c a l p r o d u c t i o n o f p r i m a r y a l u m i n i u m became p o s s i b l e when, i n 1 8 8 6 , C.M. H a l l and P. H e r o u l t i n d e p e n d e n t l y d e v e l o p e d t h e e l e c t r o l y t i c p r o c e s s w h i c h h a s r e m a i n e d e s s e n - t i a l l y u n c h a n g e d , e x c e p t f o r i m p r o v e m e n t s i n e q u i p - men t d e s i g n and o p e r a t i n g p r a c t i c e s . It i s u s e d i n a l l t h e c o m m e r c i a l p r o c e s s e s i n t h e U.S. p r o d u c i n g p r i m a r y a l u m i n i u m . T h e r e a r e 31 a l u m i n i u m r e d u c - t i o n p l a n t s i n t h e U.S%, w i t h a t o t a l a n n u a l c a p a - c i t y o f a b o u t 4.5 x 1 0 t o n s . The e n e r g y consumed a n n u a l l y a t f u l l p r o d u c t i o n i s e s t i m a t e d t o b e i n t h e r a n g e o f 8 0 t o 1 0 0 b i l l i o n K.W.H.

The b a s i c p r o c e s s f o r r e d u c i n g a l u m i n a t o a l u m i n i u m i s shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 7.2. The raw m a t e r i a l s u s e d i n a l u m i n i u m p r o d u c t i o n i n c l u d e a l u m i n a , c r y o l i t e ( a d o u b l e f l o u r i d e o f N a and A l ) , p i t c h , p e t r o l e u m c o k e , and a l u m i n i u m f l o u - r i d e . F o r e v e r y kg o f a l u m i n i u m p r o d u c e d , a b o u t 2 k g a l u m i n a , 0.25 k g p i t c h , 0 .05 k g c r y o l i t e , 0.5 k g p e t r o l e u m c o k e , 0.04 kg a l u m i n i u m f l o u r i d e , 0.6 kg

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PRIMARY ALUMINIUM 123

b a k e d c a r b o n a n d 2 2 K.W.H. o f e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y a r e n e e d e d .

The h e a r t o f t h e a l u m i n i u m p l a n t i s t h e e l e c - t r o l y t i c c e l l , w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f a s t e e l c o n t a i n e r l i n e d w i t h r e f r a c t o r b r i c k , w i t h a b o t t o m i n n e r l i n i n g o f c a r b o n . The c e l l s a r e a r r a n g e d i n rows i n a n o p e r a t i n g u n i t ( p o t l i n e ) a n d a s many as 1 0 0 t o 2 5 0 c e l l s a r e e l e c t r i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d i n s e r i e s . The e l e c t r i c a l s u p p l y i s d i r e c t c u r r e n t , and i s on t h e o r d e r o f s e v e r a l h u n d r e d v o l t s and 6 0 , 0 0 0 - 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 a m p e r e s . The c a r b o n l i n i n g a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e c e l l a c t s a s a c a t h o d e when c o v e r e d w i t h m o l t e n a l u m i n i u m . The a n o d e o f t h e c e l l i s b a k e d c a r b o n . The e l e c t r o l i t e c o n s i s t s o f a m i x t u r e o f c r y o l i t e (80-85 p e r c e n t b y w t . ) , c a l c i u m f l o u r i d e ( 5 - 7 p e r c e n t ) , and a l u m i n a ( 2 - 8 p e r c e n t ) . A l u m i n a i s a d d e d t o t h e b a t h i n t e r m i t t e n t l y , t o m a i n t a i n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f d i s s o l v e d a l u m i n a w i t h i n t h e d e s i r e d r a n g e . t e m p e r a t u r e o f 900" C.

T h e f u s e d s a l t b a t h i s u s u a l l y a t a

The r e a c t i o n i n t h e a l u m i n i u m r e d u c t i o n c e l l i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r s t o o d [ K i r k - O t h m e r , 19631 . A p p a r e n t l y a l u m i n i u m i s r e d u c e d f r o m t h e t r i v a l e n t s t a t e ( a s s u m i n g i o n i z a t i o n i n t h e m o l t e n s a l t ) , t o t h e l i q u i d m e t a l s t a t e a t t h e c a t h o d e . Oxygen, a s s u m e d p r e s e n t i n t h e b a t h i n t h e d i v a l e n t s t a t e , a p p e a r s a t t h e c a r b o n a n o d e and i m m e d i a t e l y r e a c t s w i t h t h e a n o d e and f o r m s a m i x t u r e o f C$ ( = 7 5 p e r c e n t ) a n d C O ( " 2 5 p e r c e n t ) .

T h u s , t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e l e c t r o l y t i c a l u - minium r e d u c t i o n c e l l r e s u l t s i n t h e c o n t i n u o u s c o n s u m p t i o n o f a l u m i n a and t h e c a r b o n a n o d e , and t h e e v o l u t i o n o f g a s e o u s r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s . The a l u m i n i u m i s w i t h d r a w n i n t e r m i t t e n t l y f r o m t h e b o t t o m o f t h e m o l t e n b a t h , and i s c o l l e c t e d i n l a d l e s and c a s t i n t o i n g o t s .

The v a r i o u s a n o d e mak ing o p e r a t i o n s a r e con- d u c t e d i n t h e a n o d e p a s t e p l a n t . The a n o d e p a s t e c o n s i s t s m a i n l y o f h i g h g r a d e c o k e ( p e t r o l e u m a n d p i t c h c o k e ) and p i t c h , w i t h a maximum o f 0.7 p e r - c e n t a s h , 0.7 p e r c e n t s u l f u r , 8 p e r c e n t v o l a t i l e s , 0.5 p e r c e n t a l k a l i and 2 p e r c e n t m o i s t u r e . The two t y p e s o f p i t c h h a n d l i n g s y s t e m s a r e , s o l i d p i t c h h a n d l i n g and l i q u i d p i t c h h a n d l i n g ( u s i n g o r g a n i c l i q u i d s as a h e a t t r a n s f e r medium). D u s t and t o x i c e m i s s i o n s a r e t h e ma in p o l l u t a n t s f r o m t h e s e s y s t e m s .

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124 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

The two d i f f e r e n t a n o d e s y s t e m s u s e d d i f f e r i n t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e a n o d e .

1. P r e b a k e d s y s t e m - t h e a n o d e i s r e p l a c e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y ,

2 . S o l d e r b e r g s y s t e m - t h e a n o d e i s r e p l a c e d c o n t i n u o u s l y by t h e a n o d e p a s t e d e s c e n d i n g f r o m t h e a n o d e s h e l l s u s p e n d e d a b o v e t h e e l e c t r o l y t i c c e l l .

The c a r b o n c a t h o d e h a s a n a v e r a g e l i f e o f b e t w e e n 2-3 y e a r s . The s p e n t c a t h o d e l i n i n g i s r e m o v e $ by d r i l l i n g a n d / o r s o a k i n g i n w a t e r . 1 2 0 0 m o f s h e l l w a s t e i s g e n e r a t e d e a c h y e a r i n t h e U.S.

About

The m a j o r p o l l u t a n t s g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g t h e sme 1 t i n g o f a l u m i n a i n c l u d e p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s , i n o r g a n i c f l u o r i d e s , o x i d e s o f s u l f u r , B 2 S , c a r b o n d i s u l f i d e , c a r b o n y l s u l p h i d e , C O and C 0 2 , and s p e n t c a r b o n c a t h o d e .

E m i s s i o n s f r o m t h e h o r i z o n t a l - s t u d S o l d e r b e r g c e l l and v e r t i c a l - s t u d S o l d e r b e r g c e l l [ K o t a r i , et - a l . 1 9 7 4 1 a r e shown i n T a b l e 7.2

T a b l e 7 . 2 E m i s s i o n s From S o l d e r b e r g C e l l

C e l l Type E m i s s i o n s l b . p e r t o n o f A lumin ium

Vert i c a l - s t u d P a r t i c u l a t e s 9 8 . 4 G a s e o u s F l u o r i d e s (HF) 26 .6 P a r t i c u l a t e F l u o r i d e 1 5 . 6

H o r i z o n t a l - s t u d P a r t i c u l a t e s 7 8 . 4 S o l d e r b e r g G a s e o u s F l u o r i d e s (HF) 3 0 . 4

P a r t i c u l a t e F l u o r i d e 1 0 . 6

T h e p a r t i c u l a t e s c o n t a i n Al203, NazC03 a n d c a r b o n d u s t . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r t i c u l a t e s a r e l e s s t h a n 5 pm i n s i z e . I n c r e a s i n g t h e me- c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h o f A l 203 b y m o d i f y i n g p r e c i p i t a - t i o n and c a l c i n a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s ( a s d i s c u s s e d e a r - l i e r ) may l e a d t o a r e d u c t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a t e A $ 0 3 e m i s s i o n s .

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The e m i s s i o n s o f b o t h p a r t i c u l a t e a n d f l u o r i n e compounds f r o m t h e b a t h i n c r e a s e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e , d e c r e a s i n g a l u m i n ? c o n t e n t , a n d d e - c r e a s i n g b a t h r a t i o o f N a F / A l F [ K o t a r i , et &. 1 9 7 4 1 . The h y d r o g e n f l u o r i d e e m i s s i o n s a r e g e n e - r a t e d p r i m a r i l y a s a r e s u l t o f m o i s t u r e t r e a t i n g w i t h A1F c o n t a i n i n g m a t e r i a l s . The HF e m i s s i o n s i n c r e a s e d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t [ B e l l a n d Dawson, 1 9 7 1 1 . The s o u r c e s o f m o i s t u r e a r e t h e a t m o s p h e r e , and t h e m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f A $ 03.

T h e f l u o r i d e p a r t i c u l a t e s r a n g e i n s i z e f r o m a b o u t 0.05 - 0.75 u m , w i t h t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e p a r t i c l e s s m a l l e r t h a n 0.25 u m [McCabe , 1 9 7 5 1 . The f l u o r i n e c o n t e n t o f t h e t o t a l g a s e s , w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e p o t s o r p o t rooms may v a r y f r o m 2 t o 40 m g / f t 3 , o r b e t w e e n 18.97 - 25.63 k g / t o n o f t h e r a w m a t e r i a l [ K o t a r i , e t a l . 19741 . C o o l i n g t h e p r o c e s s b y 5 C w i l l r e d u c e f l u o r i n e c o n s u m p t i o n b y 0.2 k g l t o n o f raw m a t e r i a l [ K o t a r i , a. 1 9 7 4 1 . An o p t i m i z a t o n o f t h e o p e r a t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e e l e c t r o l y t i c c e l l i s n e e d e d t o m i n i m i z e t t .e g e n e r a t i o n o f h y d r o - g e n f l u o r i d e . F i f t e e n p e r c e n t o f t h e f l u o r i d e p r e s e n t i n t h e e m i s s i o n s f r o m p r e b a k e d p o t s o c c u r s a s HF, w h i l e 9 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e f l o u r i d e i n S o l d e r b e r g p o t e m i s s i o n s o c c u r s a s HF [Less a n d W a d d i n g t o n , 19711 .

H e n r y ( 1 9 6 3 ) r e p o r t e d o n e x p e r i m e n t a l work w h i c h e s t a b l i s h e d c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h r e e c e l l o p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s a n d e f f l u e n t q u a l i t y . The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 7.3. I t was t h u s shown t h a t b y i n c r e a s i n g h e b a t h r a t i o ( N a F / A l F a n d t h e a l u m i n a c o n t e n t o f t h e b a t h , a n d d e c r e a 3 8 i n g t h e c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e , a d e c r e a s e was s e e n i n t h e f l u o r i d e c o n t e n t o f t h e c e l l e f f l u e n t . E f f o r t s s h o u l d b e d i r e c t e d t o e v a l - u a t e t h e s e a n d o t h e r c e l l o p e r a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s , i n o r d e r t o m i n i m z e f l u o r i d e r e l e a s e .

T h e r e h a v e b e e n s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s d i - r e c t e d a t a d s o r b i n g HF o n a l u m i n a . I n v e s t i g a t i o n s p e r f o r m e d u n d e r p r o d u c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s [ C o l p i t t s , 1 9 7 2 ; C h a v i n e a n a n d M u h l r a d , 1 9 7 3 ; C o c h r a n , 1 9 7 4 1 show t h a t t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e a d s o r p t i o n p r o c e s s f a l l s o f f o n c e a c e r t a i n q u a n t i t y o f g a s e o u s f l u o - r i n e h a s b e e n a d s o r b e d , a n d t h i s q u a n t i t y i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e a r e a o f A 1 0 . I n a r e c e n t s t u d y , B a v e r e z a n d DeMarco ( 1 9 8 0 3 showed t h a t BF i s a d s o r b e d o n A1203 a s two b imo 1 e c u l a r l a y e r s .

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126 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

T a b l e 7.3 E f f e c t of C e l l O p e r a t i n g P a r a m e t e r s a s F l u o r i d e Ef f l u e n t

Range o f V a r i a b l e s E f f e c t on F l u o r i d e

C r y o l i t e B a t h A l u m i n a Temp. E f f l u e n t R a t i o ( N a F / A l F C o n t e n t "C

1 . 4 4 t o 1 . 5 4 4% 975°C 31% d e c r e a s e

1 .50 3% t o 5% 975°C 20% d e c r e a s e

1 . 5 0 4% 9 8 2 ° C 24% d e c r e a s e

I n o t h e r s t u d i e s o n HF c o n t r o l b y a d s o r p t i o n o n t o a l u m i n u m o x i d e , i t was f o u n d t h a t t h e maximum a d s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y d e t e r m i n e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y i s r o u g h l y t w i c e t h e o b s e r v e d u n d e r p r o d u c i t o n c o n d i - t i o n s . R e s e a r c h e f f o r t s a r e n e e d e d t o e x p l a i n t h i s d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n l a b o r a t o r y and p r o d u c t i o n t e s t s a n d t h e r e b y i m p r o v e t h e a d s o r p t i o n o f HF o n A 1 2 0 3 i n i n d u s t r i a l p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l d e v i c e s . Any i n - c r e a s e i n t h e s u r f a c e a r e a o f A 1 2 0 wou I d i n c r e a s e i t s HF a d s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y .

p e r u n i t w e i g h t

S u l f u r o x i d e s i n t h e f u m e s f r o m e l e c t r o l y t i c c e l l s a r e g e n e r a l l y r e m o v e d b y w e t s c r u b b i n g ( i n l i m e s c r u b b e r s ) a n d / o r by d r y s c r u b b i n g ( b y a d s o r p - t i o n o n A 1 2 0 3 ) . I t i s r e p o r t e d [ U . S . E P A , 1 9 7 3 1 t h a t a v e n t u r i t y p e l i m e s c r u b b i n g s y s t e m a t t h e M i t s u i A l u m i n i u m Company, L t d . h a s o p e r a t e d a t S O 2 r e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c i e s o f 86-93 p e r c e n t f o r more t h a n a y e a r . I t may b e n e c e s s a r y t o i m p r o v e on t h e v e n t u r i c o n t a c t i n g d e v i c e t o i m p r o v e SO r e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c i e s , o r t o u s e a d d i t i o n a l d r y s c r u b b i n g u n i t s t o f u r t h e r r e m o v e S O T

The l o w e q u i l i b r i u m v a l u e o f SO2 a d s o r p t i o n on s m e l t e r g r a d e Alp3 i s a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r i n t h e r e m o v a l o f S O 2 f r o m c e l l g a s e s i n a d r y s c r u b b e r . I t was shown b y Lamb ( 1 9 7 9 ) t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f a d s o r b e d f l u o r i d e f r o m c e l l g a s w o u l d r e d u c e e q u i - l i b r i u m a d s o r p t i o n o f S O 2 e v e n f u r t h e r . T h i s e f - f e c t w i l l b e m o s t i m p o r t a n t w i t h v e r t i c a l s t u d So l d e r b e r g c e 1 Is, w h e r e HF l o a d i n g and c o n c e n t r a - t i o n i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e h o r i z o n t a l s t u d S o l d e r b e r g o r p r e b a k e d e l e c t r o l y t i c e l l s . I t is n e c e s s a r y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f S O 2 a n d HF o n A 1 2 0 3

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PRIMARY ALUMINIUM 127

i n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p d r y s c r u b b e r s y s t e m s t o more e f f i c i e n t l y r e m o v e S 0 2 .

T s c h o p p , F r a n k e and B e r n h a u s e r ( 1 9 7 9 ) r e p o r t t h a t a d d i t i o n s o f l i t h i u m r e d u c e d t h e o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e e l c t r o l y t i c c e l l b y 1 4 ° C and r e d u c e d f l u o r i n e e v o l u t i o n b y 25 p e r c e n t , b a s e d o n t h e i r s t u d i e s a t a S w i s s a l u m i n i u m p l a n t a t E s s e n .

The u s e d c e l l l i n i n g s c o n s i s t l a r g e l y o f c a r - bon ( t h e c a t h o d e ) , b u t a l s o c o n t a i n c r y o l i t e , a l u - min ium c a r b i d e , and a l u m i n i u m n i t r i d e . NaOH a n d s o d i u m c y a n i d e a l s o a p p e a r i n w a t e r s r e s u l t i n g f r o m l e a c h i n g o f c e l l l i n i n g s . The c a r b i d e s r e a c t w i t h w a t e r v a p o r i n t h e a i r t o p r o d u c e m e t h a n e (CHq 1, h y d r o g e n , C 2 H 2 and o t h e r h y d r o c a r b o n s . The n i t r i d e y i e l d s ammonia. T h i s c a t h o d e m a t e r i a l , i n t h e p a s t , had b e e n dumped o r u s e d a s l a n d f i l l . However , e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e g u l a t o r s now c o n s i d e r t h e f l u o r i d e c o n t e n t t o p o s e a p o s s i b l e p o l l u t i o n h a z - a r d . O v e r 30 p e r c e n t o f t h e f l u o r i d e i n s c r a p p e d c e l l l i n i n g s i s w a t e r s o l u b l e . Lu and S h e l l e y ( 1 9 7 0 ) d e s c r i b e e l e v e n t r e a t m e n t m e t h o d s t o t r e a t c e l l l i n i n g s . They c o n c l u d e d t h a t a p a r t f r o m t h e two m e t h o d s ( s o d i u m h y d r o x i d e l e a c h i n g and s t e a m h y d r o l y s i s ) a l r e a d y i n c o m m e r c i a l u s e , t h e m o s t p r o m i s i n g a p p r o a c h seems t o b e t h e u s e o f h o t water h y d r o l y s i s a n d r e c y c l e o f t r e a t e d c a t h o d e m a t e r i a l . However , s i n c e i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t a l l t h e c a t h o d e c a r b o n c a n b e r e c y c l e d , t h e p r o b l e m o f f l u o r i d e s a n d c y a n i d e s i n s c r a p c a t h o d e s t i l l r e m a i n s . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e l o p l e a c h i n g m e t h o d s t o r e m o v e f l u o r i d e s and c y a n i d e s , t o f a c i l i t a t e d i s p o s a l o f c a t h o d e l i n i n g s .

T a b l e 7.4 l i s t s t h e m a j o r p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e P r i m a r y Alumin ium I n d u s t r y .

R E C O M M E N D E D RESEARCH STUDIES FOR P O L L U T I O N C O N T R O L I N T H E P R I M A R Y A L U M I N I U M INDUSTRY

A f t e r e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s t e c h n o l o g y , t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s a r e recommended f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t .

L e a c h i n g a n d e x t r a c t i o n o f r e d mud t o r e c o v e r m i n e r a l v a l u e s .

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Tab le 7 - 4 . Suppested P r o c e s s M o d i f i c a t i o n s f o r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l i n t h e Primary Aluminium I n d u s t r y .

Hand l ing and Sh ipp ing

Primary A l u r r i nium

P r o c e s s 1 ~ o ~ l u t a n t s

Alumina

Alumina

Rauxi t e P r o c e s s i n g

P a r t i c u l a t e s

P a r t i c u l a t e s

Ped Mud I Opt imiz ing p r e c i p i t a t i o n and c a l c i n a t i o n t o improve mechan ica l s t r e n g t h and p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n of a lumina .

Op t imiz ing p r e c i p i t a t i o n and c a l c i n a t i o n t o improve mechan ica l s t r e n g t h and p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a lumina .

Pr i r rary A1ur"iniiim Smel t ing F l o u r i d e s

I

Source i n LLwspqs

Cre D i p e s t i o n

_____------

E l e c t r o l y t i c C e l l

E l e c t r o l y t i c C e l l

Na tu re o f Sugges t ed P r o c e s s P o l l u t a n t s M o d i f i c a t i o n s

Recovery of m i n e r a l v a l u e s , Developing a l t e r n a t i v e I Uses f o r r e d mud.

Fe203, A P 2 Q 3 .

e t c . o x i d e s

HF Improvinp c a l c i n a t i o n o f AI. 0

t o d e c r e a s e r r o i s t u r e c o n t e n t ; o p t i m i z i n p c r y o l i t e b a t h r a t i o , a lumina c o n t e n t and t e m p e r a t u r e of c e l l ; u s e of l i t h i u m a s a d d i t i v e ; and , i n c r e a s i n g a d s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y o f AQ 0

2 3

2 3'

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T a h l e 7 - 4 . Supges t ed P r o c e s s M o d i f i c a t i o n f o r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l i n t h e P r imarv Aluminium I n d u s t r v . ( C o i i t ' d )

Primary Aluminium Snir 1 t i n p

Prirrarv A lumin i iim Smf 1 t i n g

Sugges t ed P r o c e s s S o u r r e i n Na tu re of - P r o c e s s P o l l u t a n t s e m

I ~- r v s s I I

Trprovine. a d s o r p t i o n of SO on A P 2 0 3 i n the p r e s e n c r

s u l f u r i n c o a l a s slag.

E l r c t r o l v t i c

X IIF; Usr of a d d i t i v e s t o rcmovc. -__---___-- SO Cell

E 1 er L ro 1 v t i c Carhon, c r y o l i t e . Lea rh ing t o remove cyanide.; Spen t Cathode C F 1 1 a luminium c a r b i d e and f l o u r i d e s ; and h o t - w a t e r / L i n i n g s aluminium n i t r i d e , steam h y d r o l y s i s and sodium

c y a n i d e s and hydrox ide l e a c h i n g to r e c y r l e f l o u r i d e s sprn: c a t h o d e .

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130 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

I m p r o v i n g t h e m e c h a n i c a 1 s t r e n g t h , a d s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y and p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c a l c i n e d a l u m i n a , b y o p t i m i z i n g p r e c i p i t a t i o n and c a l c i n a t i o n o f a l u m i n a .

O p t i m i z i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e f o r a n d s t r i p p i n g o f h i g h s i l i c a U.S. b a u x i t e o r e s .

E n r i c h m e n t o f h i g h s i l i c a U.S. b a u x i t e o r e u s i n g b a c t e r i a l a c t i o n .

I m p r o v i n g c a l c i n a t i o n o f A 1 O3 i t s m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t , t h e r e i y r e d u c i n g f o r m a t i o n o f HF i n e l e c t r o l y t i c c e l l s .

O p t i m i z a t i o n o f t h e c r y o l i t e b a t h (NaF/A1F3) r a t i o , a l u m i n a c o n t e n t and c e 11 t e m p e r a t u r e , t o r e d u c e f l u o r i d e e m i s s i o n s .

t o r e d u c e

I n c r e a s i n g t h e a d s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y o f A 1 2 0 3 t o r e m o v e €IF i n t h e f u m e s f r o m e l e c t r o l y s i s .

U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f BF a n d SO, o n A l 2 0 3 , t o i m p r o v e d r y s c r u b b i n g e f f i c i e n c y o f SO g a s e s f r o m t h e e l e c t r o l y t i c c e l l .

E f f e c t o f a d d i n g l i t h i u m o n c e l l o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e a n d €IF e m i s s i o n s .

L e a c h i n g o f c a t h o d e l i n i n g s t o r e m o v e f l u o r i d e s a n d c y a n i d e s .

REFERENCES

A n d r e e v , P . I . , e t a l . L i g h t M e t a l A a g , a ( 3 - 4 1 , 5-6, A p r i l , ( 1 9 7 6 ) .

B a l l , D.F. a n d Dawson, P.R. A i r P o l l u t i o n f r o m A l u m i n i u m Smelters, Chem. P r o c . Eng., 52, ( 1 9 7 1 ) .

B a v e r e z , M . a n d D e m a r c o , R . p . 10-14, J a n . (1980).

J . o f M e t a l s , 3 2 ( 1 ) ,

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C h a v i n e a n , A. a n d M u h l r a d , W. Drv P r o c e s s f o r C o n t r o l of F l u o r i n e ComDounds R e l e a s e d A l u m i n a R e d u c t i o n Pots, P a p e r P r e s e n t e d a t A I M E A n n u a l M e e t i n g , C h i c a g o , I l l i n o i s , ( 1 9 7 3 ) .

C o c h r a n , C .N. E n v i r o n . S c i . T e c h . , 8 (11, p. 6 3 - 6 6 . ( 1 9 7 4 ) .

C o l p i t t s , J . W . E v o l u t i o n o f A l u m i n a s f o r t h e A l c o a - 3 9 8 P r o c e s s , P a p e r P r e s e n t e d a t A I M E A n n u a l M e e t i n g , S a n F r a n c i s c o , C A , ( 1 9 7 2 ) .

F u r s m a n , & al. U t i l i z a t i o n o f Red Mud R e s i d u e s f r o m A l u m i n a P r o d u c t i o n , U . S . Dept . o f t h e I n t e r i o r , B u r e a u o f M i n e s , R e p o r t o f I n v e s t i g a t i o n s , No. 7 4 5 4 , ( 1 9 7 0 ) .

G u c c i o n e , E. Red Mud, a S o l i d Waste Can Now C o n v e r t e d t o a H i g h - Q u a l i t y S t e e l , Enp. 6 Mining . J.. 1 7 2 , 9 , 1 3 6 - 7 , ( 1 9 7 1 ) .

H e n r y , J.L. A_ S t u d y of F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g F l u o r i d e E m i s s i o n s f r o m I O K A E x p e r i m e n t a l A l u m i n i u m R e d u c t i o n C e l l , i n " E x t r a c t i v e M e t a l l u r g y o f Aluminium", Vol. 2 , pp. 67-81 , I n t e r s c i e n c e P u b l . , N e w Y o r k , ( 1 9 6 3 ) .

K i r k - O t h m e r , Encyc l o p e d i a of C h e m i c a l T e c h n o l o n v 0, I n t e r s c i e n c e , ( 1 9 6 3 ) .

K o t a r i , V., et T r a c e P o l l u t a n t E m i s s i o n s f r o m t h e P r o c e s s i n g of M e t a l l i c Ores , U.S. E P A / 6 5 0 / 2 - 7 4 / 1 1 5 , PB-238 2 6 5 , O c t . , ( 1 9 7 4 ) .

Lamb, W.D. J. o f M e t a l s , 3 1 ( 9 ) , p p . 3 2 - 3 7 , S e p t . , ( 1 9 7 9 ) .

L e s s , L.N. a n d W a d d i n g t o n , J. The C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n - o f A l u m i n i u m R e d u c t i o n C e l l Fume, A I M E , N e w Y o r k , ( 1 9 7 1 ) .

McCabe, L.C. A t m o s p h e r i c P o l l u t i o n , IhEC, 4 7 ( 8 ) , A u g u s t , ( 1 9 5 5 ) .

S a x t o n , J. a n d K r a m e r , M . EPA F i n d i n % o n S o l i d Wastes f r o m I n d u s t r i a l C h e m i c a l s . A p r i l 28 , ( 1 9 7 5 ) .

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132 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

S c h m i d t , H.W., e t a l . J . o f M e t a l s , 101 3 2 ( 2 ) , 31- 3 9 , F e b . , ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

So lyman , K., a n d B r i j d o s o , E. P r o D e r t i e s o f Red Mud i n the Baver P r o c e s s a n d I t s U t i l i z a t i o n , P a p e r No. A73-56, M e t a l l u r g i c a l S o c i e t y o f A I M E , F e b . 2 8 - Mar. 1, ( 1 9 7 3 1 , C h i c a g o , I l l i n o i s .

S u t y r i n , Yu. E. a n d Z e r e v , L.V. L i g h t Meta l A&, - 34 ( 1 - 2 1 , 9-10 , F e b . , ( 1 9 7 6 ) .

T s c h o p p , Th., F r a n k e , A . a n d B e r n h a u s e r , E . J . of M e t a l s , 31 ( 6 1 , p p . 1 3 3 - 1 3 5 , J u n e , ( 1 9 7 9 c

U.S. EPA. O ~ e r a t i o n and P e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e L i m e S c r u b b i n g S y s t e m M i t s u i A l u m i n i u m Co., m. U.S. EPA 45012-73-007, Dec., ( 1 9 7 3 ) .

U.S. EPA. T race P o l l u t a n t E m i s s i o n f r o m t h e P r o c e s s i n q o f M e t a l l i c Ores. EPA 65012-74- 1 1 5 , O c t . , ( 1 9 7 4 ) .

West, C.E. L i g h t M e t a l A x , 38 ( 9 - 1 0 ) , p p . 1 6 - 1 8 , O c t o b e r ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

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CHAPTER 8

PHOSPHATE FERTILIZER I N D U S T R Y

I N T R O D U C T I O N

F e r t i l i z e r s i n g e n e r a l c a n b e c a t e g o r i z e d b y t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n o f p l a n t n u t r i e n t s . The f e r t i l i - z e r s d i f f e r p r i m a r i l y i n t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n o f n i t r o g e n , p h o s p h o r o u s , a n d p o t a s s i u m . Normal s u - p e r p h o s p h a t e c o n t a i n s o n l y o n e n u t r i e n t , p h o s p h o - r o u s . Ammonium p h o s p h a t e c o n t a i n s p h o s p h o r o u s and n i t r o g e n . G e n e r a l l y , t h e s o l i d a n d l i q u i d mix f e r t i l i z e r s c o n t a i n a l l t h r e e n u t r i e n t s , i n v a r y i n g amoun t 8 .

O v e r 44 m i l l i o n m e t r i c t o n s o f p h o s p h a t e r o c k were m i n e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d u r i n g 1975 . Ap- p r o x i m a t e l y 22.75 m i l l i o n m e t r i c t o n s were consumed b y t h e f e r t i l i z e r i n d u s t r y d u r i n g t h e same p e r i o d [ N y e r s , & &. 1 9 7 9 1 . The p h o s p h a t e b a s e d f e r t i l i - z e r s a r e p r o d u c e d b y c o n v e r s i o n o f i n s o l u b l e p h o s - p h a t e o r e i n t o t h e s o l u b l e f o r m n e c e s s a r y f o r p l a n t c o n s u m p t i o n . The p h o s p h o r i c a c i d , b a c k b o n e o f p h o s p h a t e f e r t i l i z e r , i s f o r m e d b y m i x i n g p h o s p h a t e r o c k w i t h s u l f u r i c a c i d .

T h i s c h a p t e r c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f p h o s p h o r i c a c i d , n o r m a l s u p e r p h o s p h a t e , a n d ammo- n i u m p h o s p h a t e . The p r e p a r a t i o n o f p h o s p h a t e r o c k i s n o t d i s c u s s e d .

WET PROCESS PHOSPHORIC A C I D PRODUCTION

M o s t o f t h e p h o s p h o r i c a c i d i n t h e f e r t i l i z e r i n d u s t r y i s p r e p a r e d b y t h e w e t p r o c e s s . I n t h i s p r o c e s s , p h o s p h a t e r o c k r e a c t s w i t h s u l f u r i c a c i d t o f o r m p h o s p h o r i c a c i d a n d gypsum. The o v e r a l l c h e m i s t r y o f t h i s r e a c t i o n i s shown i n e q u a t i o n 8.1 [ C o r b r i d g e , 1 9 7 8 1 :

Ca (PO ) F + 10 H 2 S 0 4 + 20H, 10 4 6 2 L

6H PO + 2HF + 10CaS04 + 2H2 3 4 (gypsum)

( 8 . 1 )

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134 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

P h o s p h o r i c a c i d i s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n t e r m e d i a t e i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f p h o s p h a t e f e r t i l i z e r . I n a d d i t i o n t o i t s u s e i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f ammonium p h o s p h a t e a n d c o n c e n t r a t e d s u p e r p h o s p h a t e , i t i s a n i n t e r m e d i a t e f o r m i x e d f e r t i l i z e r s , b o t h l i q u i d a n d s o l i d [ N y e r s , et &&. 1 9 7 9 1 .

A s i m p l i f i e d f l o w d i a g r a m o f t h e w e t p r o c e s s f o r p h o s p h o r i c a c i d p r o d u c t i o n i s g i v e n i n F i g u r e 8.1. The p r o c e s s c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e s t e p s : ( 1 ) r e a c t i o n o f p h o s p h a t e r o c k , ( 2 ) s e p a r a t i o n o f a c i d f r o m t h e s u l f a t e , a n d ( 3 ) c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e a c i d . I m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s f o r a s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a - t i o n a r e t y p e o f p h o s p h a t e r o c k u s e d , t h e t e m p e r a - t u r e o f t h e r e a c t i o n , a n d t h e s l u r r y d e n s i t y a s c o n t r o l l e d b y r e c y c l i n g weak a c i d t o t h e d i g e s t e r s t e p .

M o s t w e t p r o c e s s p l a n t s e m p l o y t h e c r y s t a l l i z a - t i o n o f c a l c i u m s u l f a t e i n t h e d e h y d r a t e d s t a t e , as o p p o s e d t o h e m i h y d r a t e o r a n h y d r a t e . T h i s i s d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d e h y d r a t e p r o c e s s d o e s n o t i m p o s e a s many o p e r a t i n g p r o b l e m s a s t h e hemi- h y d r a t e o r a n h y d r a t e p r o c e s s . A c i d p r o d u c e d b y t h e d e h y d r a t e p r o c e s s c o n t a i n s a b o u t 13 p e r c e n t p h o s - p h o r u s (30 p e r c e n t a s P 0 a n d i s g e n e r a l l y c o n - 2 5 c e n t r a t e d t o 1 7 t o 24 p e r c e n t P (40 t o 54 p e r c e n t P 05) b e f o r e u s e . a c i d i s f a c i l i t a t e d b y c o n t i n u o u s h e a t e d vacuum e v a p o r a t o r s [ O l s o n , et d. 19711 .

2 The c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p h o s p h o r i c

T h e r e a r e s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t s o f p o l l u t a n t s e v o l v e d b y t h e w e t p r o c e s s . A l a r g e p o r t i o n o f r e a c t a n t s become b y - p r o d u c t s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e p o l l u t i o n . The m a i n b y - p r o d u c t o f t h e d e h y d r a t e p r o c e s s i s t h e i m p u r e gypsum, o f l i t t l e p r a c t i c a l u s e . P h o s p h a t e r o c k i s composed o f 2 1 3 gypsum, t h u s m a k i n g t h e d i s p o s a l o f t h e b y - p r o d u c t s a f o r - m i d a b l e p r o b l e m . T h e o t h e r b y - p r o d u c t i s f l u o r i d e , w h i c h e v o l v e s d u r i n g d i g e s t i o n o f p h o s p h a t e r o c k a n d c a n b e r e c o v e r e d w i t h w a t e r b y a r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e s c r u b b i n g p r o c e d u r e .

The e v o l u t i o n o f g a s e o u s f l u o r i d e i s d u e t o t h e v a p o r p r e s s u r e o f h y d r o g e n f l u o r i d e . The e m i s - s i o n r a t e v a r i e s w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e , c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a b s o l u t e p r e s s u r e , a n d e x p o s e d a r e a o f t h e l i q u i d s u r f a c e on t h e d i g e s t e r . F l u o r i d e e m i s s i o n s i n - c l u d e s i l i c o n t e t r a f l u o r i d e , w h i c h i s f o r m e d b y t h e r e a c t i o n o f h y d r o g e n f l u o r i d e i n t h e r e a c t o r . T e t r a f l u o r i d e f o r m a t i o n i s f a v o r e d a t t e m p e r a t u r e

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PRODUCT A C I D rl Fi ,cure 8.1. Wet P r o c e s s P h o r i c ~ c i d P r o d u c t i o n Process

(Nyers, et &. 1 9 7 9 ) .

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136 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

b e l o w 100°C [ N y e r s , d. 19791 .

P o o r l y c o n t r o l l e d w e t p r o c e s s p h o s p h o r i c a c i d (WPPA) p l a n t s may h a v e e m i s s i o n s a s h i g h a s .07 pound o f f l u o r i d e / t o n o f P 2 0 ~ On t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e l l c o n t r o l l e d p l a n t s u s i n g p a c k e d s c r u b b e r s o r o t h e r e q u a l l y e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l d e v i c e s c a n a c h i e v e f l u o r i d e e m i s s i o n s b e l o w .02 p o u n d / t o n o f P 2 0 5 i n - p u t [U .S . E P A , 19741 . D a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e emis- s i o n f a c t o r s f o r p l a n t s t h a t u s e f l u o r i d e r e c o v e r y a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e p l a n t s t h a t d o n o t e m p l o y r e c o v e r y . The r e c o v e r y r e f e r s t o f l u o r i n e , r e c o v e r e d a s f l u o r o s i l i c i c a c i d , f l u o - r i d e s , f l u o r o s i l i c a t e s , o r o t h e r b y - p r o d u c t s [ N y e r s , - e t -- a l . 1 9 7 9 1 .

The f i n a l f l u o r i n e e m i s s i o n i s s t r o n g l y d e p e n - d e n t o n t h e t y p e o f s c r u b b e r u s e d , s c r u b b e r o p e r a - t i o n , a n d u s e o f f r e s h water t a i l g a s s c r u b b e r s . P l a n t s t h a t u s e f l u o r i n e r e c o v e r y may d i s p o s e l e s s v o l a t i l e f l u o r i n e t o t h e i r pond s y s t e m , t h u s h a v i n g f e w e r e m i s s i o n s f r o m t h e p o n d s .

The m o s t i m p o r t a n t e m i s s i o n s o u r c e i n t h e t y p i c a l WPPA p r o c e s s i s t h e v e n t i l a t i n g a i r f r o m t h e d i g e s t e r . The d i g e s t e r v e n t g a s e s c o n t a i n wa te r v a p o r , p a r t i c u l a t e d u s t , a n d S i F . The re - m o v a l o f f l u o r i n e c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d Lby t h e w e t p r o c e s s o r a d s o r p t i o n ( s o l i d r e a g e n t o f a d s o r p t i o n s y s t e m ) o f t h e v e n t i l a t i n g a i r . The w e t p r o c e s s h a s b e e n u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y . However , t h e a d v a n t a g e s a n d c a p a b i l i t i e s o f t h e a d s o r p t i o n p r o c e s s s h o u l d b e e v a l u a t e d [U .S . EPA, 1 9 7 3 1 .

The d e s i g n o f t h e s c r u b b i n g e q u i p m e n t i s l i m i t e d b y t h e c h e m i s t r y o f t h e r e a c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e gypsum pond w a t e r a n d t h e f l u o r i n e c o n t a i n i n g g a s e s d i s c h a r g e d f r o m t h e WPPA p l a n t r e a c t o r . The f o l l o w i n g r e a c t i o n s o c c u r i n t h e r e a c t o r :

CaFi + H 2 S 0 4 2 CaS04 + 2HF

o r

2HF + SiF4 2 H2SiF6

( 8 . 2 )

( 8 . 3 )

F u r t h e r m o r e , h y d r o l y s i s o f S i F c a n o c c u r a t h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , a s f o l l o w s : 4

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PHOSPHATE FERTILIZER 137

3 S i F + 4H20 2 Si(0H) + 2H2 + SiF6 4 4 ( 8 . 4 )

A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s r e a c t i o n , a g e l a t i n o u s d e p o s i t o f p o l y m e r i c s i l i c a i s f o r m e d , w h i c h t e n d s t o p l u g t h e s c r u b b e r p a c k i n g s [ U . S . EPA, 19731 .

The t h r e e m o s t e f f e c t i v e s c r u b b i n g t e c h n i q u e s f o r r e m o v a l o f f l u o r i n e a re : (1) c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t , ( 2 ) c o - c u r r e n t , a n d ( 3 ) c r o s s - f l o w s c r u b b i n g . C o u n t e r - c u r r e n t s c r u b b e r s h a v e t h e h i g h e s t p o t e n - t i a l r e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c y s i n c e t h e y c o n t a c t t h e g a s l e a v i n g t h e s c r u b b e r w i t h i n c o m i n g c l e a n l i q u o r . However , c o - c u r r e n t s c r u b b i n g i s l e s s p r o n e t o p l u g g i n g , and r e q u i r e s a l o w e r g a s p r e s s u r e d r o p t o o p e r a t e . The c r o s s - f l o w s c r u b b e r i s a c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n t h e c o u n t e r a n d c o - c u r r e n t s c r u b b e r s . I t c o m b i n e s t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e f o r m e r w i t h t h e m e c h a n i c a l a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e l a t t e r . The c r o s s - f l o w s c r u b b e r h a s b e e n u s e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h s p r a y t o w e r s , v e n t u r i , o r we t c y c l o n e s i n p h o s p h o - r i c a c i d p l a n t s [ U . S . E P A , 1 9 7 3 1 .

The e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e s c r u b b e r i s d e p e n d e n t on t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e s c r u b b e r medium. The gypsum pond w a t e r u s e d i n t h e s c r u b b e r c o n t a i n s 3000 t o 1 0 , 0 0 0 ppm o f f l u o r i n e [ N y e r s , et - a l . 19791 . E f f i c i e n t r e m o v a l o f f l u o r i n e f r o m t h e g a s s t r e a m i s r e d u c e d , d u e t o t h e h i g h p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e o f h y d r o g e n f l u o r i d e i n t h e pond w a t e r . The mass t r a n s f e r r a t e a l s o d e c r e a s e s as t e m p e r a - t u r e i n c r e a s e . T h u s , f r e s h w a t e r s h o u l d b e u s e d a s t h e s c r u b b i n g medium i n t h e l a s t s t a g e o f s c r u b - b i n g .

O x i d e s o f s u l f u r a r e a l s o e m i t t e d i n t h e WPPA p r o c e s s . T h e i r p r o d u c t i o n r a n g e s f r o m 0.00777 t o 0 .058g /kg P2O5. However , t h e o r i g i n o f SO, f o r m a - t i o n i s n o t c l e a r i n t h e WPPA p r o c e s s [ N y e r s , & - a l . 19791 . The c a u s e o f i t s e m i s s i o n m u s t f i r s t b e d e t e r m i n e d b e f o r e m e a s u r e s r e g a r d i n g i t s r e d u c t i o n w i t h i n t h e p r o c e s s a r e t a k e n .

R E C O M M E N D E D AREAS OF P O L L U T I O N C O N T R O L RESEARCH: WET PROCESS PHOSPHORIC A C I D P R O D U C T I O N

A f t e r e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s t e c h n o l o g y , t h e f o 1 l o w i n g a r e a s a r e recommended f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t :

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138 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

S t u d i e s on p u r i f i c a t i o n o f p h o s p h a t e f e e d t o r e a c t o r , t o r e d u c e i m p u r i t i e s w h i c h c a u s e b y - p r o d u c t f o r m a t i o n .

C o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s on a d s o r p t i o n a n d a b s o r p t i o n o f f l u o r i n e , t o d e t e r m i n e t h e m o s t e f f i c i e n t t e c h n i q u e t o a l l e v i a t e f l u o r i n e e m i s s i o n .

R e s e a r c h on t h e d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e s c r u b b e r , t o r e d u c e p l u g g i n g a n d i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e o f f l u o r i n e t r a n s f e r f r o m t h e v e n t g a s e s t o s c r u b b i n g medium.

NORMAL SUPERPHOSPHATE PRODUCTION

Normal s u p e r p h o s p h a t e (NS) i s p r o d u c e d b y t h e r e a c t i o n o f p h o s p h a t e r o c k w i t h s u l f u r i c a c i d . The p h o s p h a t e r o c k a n d H2S04 a r e mixed i n a c o n e mixe r ( r e a c t o r v e s s e l ) , t h e a c i d u l a t e i s t h e n t r a n s f e r r e d t o a n e n c l o s e d a r e a ( d e n ) t o s o l i d i f y . The s o l i d i - f i e d p r o d u c t i s t h e n s t o r e d f o r c u r i n g . A schema- t i c d i a g r a m o f t h i s p r o c e s s i s shown i n F i g u r e 8.2.

NS p r o d u c t i o n c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d b y b o t h c o n t i n u o u s and b a t c h p r o c e s s e s . F o r t h e b a t c h p r o c e s s , a p a n m i x e r ( i n s t e a d o f c o n e m i x e r f o r t h e c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s ) i s u s e d . However , b o t h p r o c e s - s e s c o n v e r t f l u o r a p a t i t e i n t h e r o c k t o s o l u b l e m o n o c a l c i u m p h o s p h a t e . The m a j o r r e a c t i o n i n t h i s p r o c e s s i s :

[Ca3(P04)213 + CaF2 + 7H2S04 + 3H20 2 ( 8 . 5 )

3[CaH4(P0 ) H 01 + 7CaS04 + 2HF 4 2 2

The s o u r c e s o f p o l l u t i o n e m i s s i o n s f o r a NS p l a n t a r e t h e m i x e r s , d e n , a n d c u r i n g b u i l d i n g . Be tween 1.5 k g a n d 9.0 kg o f f l u o r i d e s / m e t r i c t o n o f NS a r e r e l e a s e d d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n and c u r i n g [ N y e r s , e t a l . 19791 . The f l u o r i d e e m i s s i o n s o c c u r i n t h e f o r m o f f l u o r i d e v a p o r , e v o l v i n g a s h y d r o g e n f l u o r i d e and s i l i c o n t e t r a f l u o r i d e . The f l u o r i d e e m i s s i o n s r a n g e f o m 0.07 g F / k g P 2 O 5 t o 0 . 4 5 g F / k g P2O5. I n d i v i d u a l e m i s s i o n r a t e s f r o m e a c h u n i t a r e h a r d t o d e t e r m i n e s i n c e a l l g a s e s a r e u s u a l l y v e n t e d t o t h e same s t a c k .

A s p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d , s c r u b b i n g i s i n h i b i t e d b y t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a g e l a t i n o u s mass ,

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SULFURIC A C I D

Figure 8 . 2 . Flow Chart of Normal S u p e r p h o s p h a t e P r o d u c t i o n Process (Nyers, ft &. 1 9 7 9 ) .

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140 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

g e n e r a t e d b y t h e r e a c t i o n o f t e t r a f l u o r i d e a n d wa te r . T h u s , t h e u s e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l s c r u b b i n g , f o r p o l l u t i o n a b a t e m e n t , i s g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h i s r e a c t i o n . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e f l u o r i d e r e d u c t i o n b y a s c r u b b e r i s d e t e r m i n e d b y i n l e t f l u o r i n e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , o u t l e t s a t u r a t i o n t e m p e r a - t u r e , c o m p o s i t i o n a n d t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e s c r u b b i n g l i q u i d , s c r u b b e r t y p e a n d t r a n s f e r u n i t s , a n d e f - f e c t i v e n e s s o f e n t r a i n m e n t s e p a r a t i o n [ H e l l e r , et -- a l . 1 9 6 8 1 .

The b e s t s t r a t e g y f o r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l i s t o u s e a c r o s s - f l o w s c r u b b e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , f l u o r i n e r e m o v a l i s e n h a n c e d b y u s e o f f r e s h w a t e r i n t h e l a s t s t a g e a n d i n c r e a s i n g t h e number o f s t a g e s i n t h e s c r u b b e r [ N y e r s , et &. 1 9 7 9 1 .

R E C O M M E N D E D AREAS FOR POLLUTION C O N T R O L RESEARCH: NORMAL SUPERPHOSPHATE PRODUCTION

A f t e r e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s t e c h n o l o g y , t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a i s recommended f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t :

S t u d i e s o n t h e s c r u b b e r d e s i g n a n d o p t i m a l o p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s t o r e d u c e f l u o r i n e e m i s s i o n s .

A M M O N 1 U M PHOSPHATE PRODUCT1 O N

The p r o d u c t i o n o f ammonium p h o s p h a t e (AP), m o s t l y d iammonium p h o s p h a t e (DAP), h a s i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y i n t h e p a s t 3 d e c a d e s . The t o t a l o f ammo- n i u m p h o s p h a t e p r o d u c e d i n t h e U.S. i n 1 9 7 9 r e a c h e d n e a r l y 3.7 m i l l i o n t o n s P 0 , w h i c h i s 63.4 p e r c e n t o f a l l p h o s p h a t e f e r t i l i z & ? s p r o d u c e d i n t h e U.S. [ K i r k - O t h m e r , 19801. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 99 p e r c e n t o f AP i s u s e d a s f e r t i l i z e r [ N y e r s , e t a l . 19791 .

The d i s c u s s i o n t o f o l l o w i n c l u d e s t h e g r a n u l a - t i o n o f p h o s p h o r i c a c i d w i t h a n h y d r o u s a m m o n i a t i o n - g r a n u l a t i o n t o p r o d u c e g r a n u l a r f e r t i l i z e r . Ammo- n i u m p h o s p h a t e i s p r o d u c e d b y t h e r e a c t i o n o f p h o s - p h o r i c a c i d w i t h a n h y d r o u s ammonia. I n 1 9 7 5 , 8 4 p e r c e n t o f AP p r o d u c e d i n t h e U.S. was o f DAP g r a d e ( i . e p e r c e n t a g e o f a v a i l a b l e N-K-P i s 16-0-48, [ N y e r s , &al. 1 9 7 9 1 .

Ammonium p h o s p h a t e [(N&+ >2 HPO 41 i s p r o d u c e d b y t h e r e a c t i o n o f 1 m o l e o f p h o s p h o r i c a c i d w i t h 2 m o l e s o f ammonia, f o r m i n g a p r o d u c t w i t h 21.1

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PHOSPHATE FERTILIZER 141

p e r c e n t n i t r o g e n a n d 54 p e r c e n t a v a i l a b l e p h o s p h o - r o u s . Monoammonium p h o s p h a t e ( M A P ) c a n a l s o r e a c t w i t h ammonia t o y i e l d DAP. The DAP p r o d u c t i o n c a n b e p e r f o r m e d i n e i t h e r a p u g m i l l o r r o t a r y drum a m m o n i a t o r . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 95 p e r c e n t o f ammonia- t i o n g r a n u l a t i o n p l a n t s i n t h e U.S. u s e a r o t a r y d rum-mixe r d e v e l o p e d b y T V A [ R a w l i n g s and R e z n i k , 1 9 7 6 I .

The p o l l u t i o n s o u r c e s a r i s e f r o m f o u r o p e r a - t i o n s i n t h e ammonium p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s : (1) r e a c t o r , ( 2 ) a m m o n i a t o r , (3) d r y e r , a n d ( 4 ) c o o l - i n g . T y p i c a l e m i s s i o n s i n c l u d e , ammonia, f l o u r i d e , p a r t i c u l a t e s , a n d a n e g l i g i b l e amount o f c o m b u s t i o n g a s e s . The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n i s f o r t h e T V A p r o c e s s d e p i c t e d i n F i g u r e 8.3.

The r e a c t o r o r p r e n e u t r a l i z e r i s a v e s s e l i n t o w h i c h 7 0 p e r c e n t o f a m m o n i a a n d a l l o f t h e p h o s p h o - r i c a c i d i s i n t r o d u c e d . The r e a c t o r o p e r a t e s a t a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e a n d 100-120 "C. r a t i o i s m a i n t a i n e d a t 1.3 t o 1 .5: l f o r maximum s o l u b i l i t y o f M A P , w h i c h i s t h e m a i n p r o d u c t o f t h e r e a c t o r [ N y e r s , &. 19791 .

The NH3:H3 P O 4

The e m i s s i o n s f r o m t h e r e a c t o r i n c l u d e g a s e o u s ammonia and f l u o r i d e s . The e m i s s i o n s a r e c a u s e d b y v o l a t i l i z a t i o n d u e t o i n c o m p l e t e c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s and e x c e s s f r e e ammonia. C o l l e c t i v e e m i s s i o n s f o r t h e r e a c t o r a n d a m m o n i a t o r - g r a n u l a t o r a r e a s f o l l o w s :

F l u o r i d e s ( a s P) P a r t i c u l a t e

Ammonia e m i s s i o n d a t a i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e AP p r o - d u c t i o n a s a w h o l e [ N y e r s , et al. 19791 .

The r e a c t o r e m i s s i o n s c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d w i t h a more e f f i c i e n t d e s i g n o f t h e r e a c t o r . I n t h e o r y , t h e r e a c t o r c a n b e d e s i g n e d w i t h o u t a n y v e n t i l a - t i o n , b u t i n p r a c t i c e t h e y a r e o p e r a t e d a t a 57-76 c f m v e n t i l a t i o n r a t e [ U S . EPA. 19731 .

The r e a c t o r d e s i g n c a n b e m o d i f i e d t o r e d u c e t h e v e n t i l a t i o n r a t e a n d t h e a t m o s p h e r i c e m i s s i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , e x c e s s ammonia s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d i n t h e r e a c t o r v e s s e l . The r a t e o f r e a c t i o n c o u l d b e i n c r e a s e d c a t a l y t i c a l l y b y c h a n g i n g t h e p r o c e s s c o n d i t i o n s , a n d / o r t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e s h o u l d b e i n c r e a s e d i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e c o m p l e t e r e a c t i o n .

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I S t a c k Gases

F i l t e r e d Phosphor i c Acid

Primary Primary Primary A Scrubber Scrubber Scrubber -

4

d

fn t t t , - I I

1 Ammoniator G r a n u l a t o r

t--- M i l l - Y U -Cooling A i r

Ro ta ry Dryer

P roduc t t o S to rage

o r Bulk Shipment

Bagging.

F i g u r e 8.3. Flow Diagram f o r TVA Ammonium Phosphate P rocess . (Nyers , &. 1979) .

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PHOSPHATE FERTILIZER 143

The g r a n u l a t i o n b y a g g l o m e r a t i o n a n d b y c o a t - i n g p a r t i c l e s w i t h s l u r r y f r o m t h e r e a c t o r t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e r o t a t i n g drum. Ammonia i s s u p p l i e d b y a s p a r g i n g a c t i o n u n d e r n e a t h t h e b e d , t o b r i n g t h e NH3:H3P04 r a t i o t o 1.8 t o 2.0:l.O [ U . S . EPA, 1 9 7 3 1 . The g r a n u l a t i o n c a n , t h e o r e t i c a l l y , b e p e r f o r m e d w i t h no v e n t i l a t i o n . The v e n t i l a t i o n i s m a i n l y a f u n c t i o n o f d e s i g n o f t h e g r a n u l a t o r . T h u s , d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e emis- s i o n s o f ammonia.

The e m i s s i o n s f r o m t h e r e a c t o r a n d g r a n u l a t o r a r e s c r u b b e d f o r p o l l u t i o n r e d u c t i o n s . Any o n e o f t h e v a r i o u s s c r u b b i n g t e c h n i q u e s c a n b e a p p l i e d t o t h e s e o f f g a s e s . However , p a c k e d s c r u b b e r s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d d u e t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f g e l a t i n o u s s i l i - c o n o r DAP, w h i c h t e n d t o p l u g t h e s c r u b b e r . The b e s t s c r u b b i n g t e c h n i q u e o f p r i m a r y s c r u b b i n g i s a v e n t u r i c y c l o n e s c r u b b e r , w h i c h h a s g o o d c a p a b i l i - t i e s f o r a b s o r p t i o n o f ammonia a n d c a p t u r e o f p a r - t i c u l a t e mat te r .

M o i s t g r a n u l e s o f DAP a r e d r i e d t o 2 p e r c e n t m o i s t u r e i n a c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t g a s o r o i l f i r e d d r y e r u n i t . The c o n t r o l l e d e m i s s i o n s f r o m t h e d r y e r a n d c o o l e r a r e 0 .015g lkg 4 0 5 f l u o r i d e a n d 0 .75g/kg P 2 0 p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s [ N y e r s , et d. 1 9 7 9 1 .

The f l u o r i d e e m i s s i o n s a r e d u e t o t h e d i s s o - c i a t i o n o f t h e f e r t i l i z e r p r o d u c t , a n d p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s a r e c a u s e d b y e n t r a i n m e n t o f DAP a n d MAP d u s t s i n t h e v e n t i l a t i o n a i r s t reams. The p a r t i c u - l a t e e m i s s i o n s may c o n t a i n b o t h ammonium f l u o r i d e a n d ammonium p h o s i l i c a t e s [U .S . EPA, 19731 . T y p i - c a l l y , t h e p r i m a r y s c r u b b e r i s d e s i g n e d t o c a p t u r e t h e p a r t i c u l a t e s . T h u s , t h e d e s i g n o f t h e p r i m a r y s c r u b b e r m u s t a c c o u n t f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a t e a s w e l l a s r e m o v a l o f o f f g a s e s f r o m t h e v e n t i l a t i o n s t reams. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s c r u b b i n g medium, i n t h e p r i m a r y s c r u b b e r , s h o u l d b e a c i d i c e n o u g h t o a b s o r b t h e ammonium d i s c h a r g e . F o r t h i s p u r p o s e 30 p e r - c e n t p h o s p h o r i c a c i d s o l u t i o n i s u s e d f o r t h e p r i - mary s c r u b b i n g medium, t o r e c o v e r ammonia [ U . S . EPA, 1 9 7 3 1 .

When t h e u s e o f o n l y o n e s c r u b b e r i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o r e m o v e p a r t i c u l a t e s a n d g a s e s , c o m b i n a t i o n o f s c r u b b e r s mus t b e c o n s i d e r e d .

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Tab le 8-1. P o l l u t a n t s and Suggested S t r a t e g y f o r S e l e c t e d Phospha te Rack F e r t i l i z e r

Reac to r v e s s e l , f i l t e r a t i o n , 1 v a p o r a t i o n , L gypsum pond

I

Sources i n I n d u s t r y P r o c e s s P o l l u t a n t s "",.̂ ""?

Ket p r o c e s s phosphor i c a c i d

Phospha te F l o u r i d e s Rock r r o c e s s i n g P a r t i c u l a t e s ,

SOx, & Gypsum.

~

Normal Phosphate Super- (Rock Pl iosphate P r o c e s s i n g P r o d u c t i o n

Ammonium Phospha te P r o d u c t i o n

F l o u r i d e s , P a r t i c u l a t e s

D i ammon ium Ammonia. Phospha te F l o u r i d e s , P r o d u c t i o n and

P a r t i c u l a t e s

Mixers . den , and c u r i n g .

R e a c t o r , awmoniator , d r y e r , and c o o l e r .

Na tu re of P o l l u t a n t s

I n o r g a n i c g a s e s , and s o l i d s

I no rgan i c g a s e s , and s o l i d s

I n o r g a n i c g a s e s , and s o l i d s

P o l l u t a n t C o n t r o l S t r a t e e v

Cross f low s c r u b b i n g w i t h f r e s h w a t e r i n t h e l a s t s t a g e , a n d / o r u s e combi- n a t i o n of s c r u b b e r s .

Sc rubb ing t h e o f f g a s e s , c r o s s f low s c r u b b i n g , a n d / o r u s e combinat ion s c r u b b i n g

Use combinat ion p r imary and secondary s c r u b b i n g improve t h e d e s i g n on t h e r e a c t o r and ammoniator t o r educe v e n t i l a t i o n r a t e .

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PHOSPHATE FERTILIZER 145

T a b l e 8.1 c o n t a i n s a summary o f p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i h t t h e p h o s p h a t e r o c k i n d u s - t r y a n d t h e s u g g e s t e d s t r a t e g y .

R E C O M M E N D E D AREAS FOR POLLUTION C O N T R O L RESEARCH: A M M O N I U M PHOSPHATE PRODUCTION

A f t e r e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s t e c h n o l o g y t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s a r e recommended f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t :

R e s e a r c h a n d k i n e t i c s o f r e a c t i o n o f ammonia w i t h p h o s p h o r i c a c i d t o e n h a n c e t h i s r e a c t i o n , e i t h e r c a t a l y t i c a l l y o r b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e i n t h e r e a c t o r v e s s e l , w h i c h w o u l d r e d u c e t h e e m i s s i o n .

S t u d i e s o n d e s i g n o f t h e r e a c t o r v e s s e l a n d g r a n u l a t o r s t o m i n i m i z e t h e v e n t i l a t i o n r a t e , w h i c h w o u l d l e a d t o s m a l l e r v o l u m e s o f g a s e o u s e m i s s i o n ,

R e s e a r c h on t h e d e s i g n a n d s e l e c t i o n o f o p t i m a l o p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s f o r t h e s c r u b b i n g u n i t , t o r e d u c e t h e ammonia, f l u o r i d e , a n d p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s .

REFERENCES

C h e m i s t r y T e c h n o l o n ~ of F e r t i l i z e r . V . S a u c h e l l i , ed . R i e n h o l d P u b l i s h i n g Corp . , N e w Y o r k , N e w York 1 9 6 0 .

C o r b r i d g e , D . P h o s p h o r o u s , E l s e v i o r S c i e n t i f i c P u b l i s h i n g Company, N e w Y o r k , 1 9 7 8 .

H e l l e r , A.N. , C u f f i , S.T. a n d G o o d w i n , D.R. I n o r g a n i c C h e m i c a l I n d u s t r y , A& P o l l u t i o n . V o l . 111: S o u r c e o f A i r P o l l u t i o n a n d T h e i r C o n t r o l , A.C. S t e r n , ed., Academic P res s , N e w Y o r k , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 6 8 .

--

L u t z , W.A. a n d P r a t t , C.J. P r i n c i p l e s of D e s i g n a n d O p e r a t i o n in: P h o s p h o r i c A c i d , No. 1, A.V. S l a c k , ed . Marcel D e k k e r , I n c . , N e w Y o r k , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 6 8 .

N y e r s , J., e t a 1 S o u r c e A s s e s s m e n t : P h o s p h a t e F e r t i l i z e r I n d u s t r y . EPA-600/2-79-019C, May 1 9 7 9 .

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O l s o n , R., e t a l . F e r t i l i z e r T e c h n o l o n v S o i l S c i e n c e S o c i e t y o f Amer ica , I n c . , W i s c o n s i n , 1 9 7 1 .

R a w l i n g s , G.D. a n d R e z n i k , B.B. S o u r c e A s s e s s m e n t : -I- F e r t i l i z e r M i x i n g P l a n t s . EPA-600/2-76-032C. March 1 9 7 6 .

S l a c k , A.V. C h e m i s t r y and T e c h n o l u of F e r t i l i z e r s . J o h n W i l e y a n d S o n s , I n c . , N e w Y o r k , N e w York 1 9 6 7 .

U.S. EPA. A i r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l T e c h n o l o g y C o s t s i n S e v e n S e l e c t e d Areas. I n d u s t r i a l Gas C l e a n i n g I n s t . , Inc . , S t a n f o r d , C T , EPA-45013- 73 -010 , M a r c h , 1 9 7 3 .

U.S. EPA. B a c k g r o u n d I n f o r m a t i o n for S t a n d a r d s of P e r f o r m a n c e : P h o s D h a t e F e r t i l i z e r I n d u s t r y , E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency , R e s e a r c h T r i a n g l e P a r k , N.C. O f f i c e o f A i r Q u a l i t y P l a n n i n g a n d S t a n d a r d s . EPA-450/2-74-019A, Oct . 1 9 7 4 .

SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES

G a r t r e l l , F.E. a n d B a r b e r , J .C. P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , C h e m i c a l E n p i n e e r i n g P r o g r e s s , 6 2 ( 1 0 ) : 4 4 - 7 7 , 1 9 6 6 .

X u f f s t u f l e r , K.K. P o l l u t i o n P r o b l e m s in P h o s p h o r i c A c i d -on in: P h o s D h o r i c A c i d , u. I , A . V . S l a c k , e d . , M a r c e l D e k k e r , I n c . , N e w Y o r k , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 6 8 .

I l l a r i o n o v , N.W., e t a l . Zh. P r i k l - K h i m . V o l 3 6 , 1 9 6 3 .

K i rk -Othmer E n c y c l o p e d i a o f C h e m i c a l T e c h n o l o g y , T h i r d E d i t i o n , Volume 1 0 1 , J o h n W i l e y a n d S o n s , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 8 0 .

L e h r , J .R. P u r i f i c a t i o n of W e t P r o c e s s A c i d In: P h o s D h o r i c A c i d . Vo lume I_, A.V. S l a c k , ed . M a r c e l D e k k e r , I n c . , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 6 8 .

M u e h b e r g , P.E., R e d i n g , J . T . a n d S h e p h e r d , B.P. D r a f t ReDor t : The P h o s p h a t e Rock a n d B a s i c F e r t i l i z e r M a t e r i a l s I n d u s t r y . C o n t r a c t 68- 02-1324, T a s k 8, EPA, R e s e a r c h T r i a n g l e P a r k , N o r t h C a r o l i n a , May 1 9 7 6 .

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S h r e v e , R.N. C h e m i c a l P r o c e s s I n d u s t r i e s , T h i r d E d i t i o n . M c G r a w - H i 1 1 Book Company, N e w Y o r k , 1 9 6 7 .

U.S. EPA. A t m o s p h e r i c E m i s s i o n s f r o m Wet P r o c e s s P h o s p h o r i c A c i d M a n u f a c t u r e , U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h , E d u c a t i o n a n d W e l f a r e , NAPLA. No. AP-57, A p r i l 1 9 7 0 .

U.S. EPA. F i n a l G u i d e l i n e Document : C o n t r o l of F l u o r i d e E m i s s i o n s f o r m E x i s t i n p ; P h o s p h a t e F e r t i l i z e r P l a n t s . EPA 45012-77-0051 M a r c h 1 9 7 7 .

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I N D E X

a c i d p i c k l i n g comb i n a t i o n 89 h y d r o c h l o r i c 8 9 s u l f u r i c 8 9

a l u m i n i u m 11 7 ammonia 54 ammonium p h o s p h a t e 1 4 0

b a u x i t e 1 1 7

c a r b o n c a t h o d e 1 2 4 c a t a l y s t 36 c e m e n t a t i o n 1 3 c o k e 71 c o m b u s t i o n 1 0 7

d e z i n c i n g 8 3 d i g e s t e r s y s t e m

b a t c h 1 0 1 c o n t i n u o u s 1 0 1

d r y 8 3 w e t 8 3

d u s t

e l e c t r o p l a t i n g 25 e l e c t r o r e f i n i n g 7 e x p l o s i v e s

n i : r o c e l l u l o s e 5 1 t r i n i t r o t o l u e n e 5 1

f e r t i l i z e r s 1 3 3 f i n i s h i n g 6 1 f l o t a t i o n 5

c o m m i n u t i o n 5 f r o t h 5

g a s a c i d 36 p u r i f i c a t i o n 41 u p g r a d i n g 41

g a s i f i c a t i o n 3 9

h y d r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l 11

i r o n m a k i n g 79

l e a c h i n g 1 2 a g i t a t e d 1 2 dump 1 2 i n s i t u 1 2 v a t 1 2

l i m e k i l n 1 1 0 l i q u e f a c t i o n 31

m e r c a p t a n t s 1 0 1 m e t h y l 1 0 1

n i t r a t i o n 5 8 n i t r i c a c i d 5 1

c o n c e n t r a t i o n 5 5 p r o d u c t i o n 5 1

n i t r o g e n o x i d e 37 n o n f e r r o u s m e t a l s 3 norma 1 s u p e r -

p h o s p h a t e 1 4 0

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150 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS

p h o s p h o r i c a c i d 1 3 3 p i n k w a t e r 6 0 po 1 l u t a n t s

d i s s o l v e d m e t a l s a l t s 3 p a r t i c u l a t e s 3 s l a g 3 so 3

p r o d & c t ion c o p p e r 3 u r a n i u m 3

p u l p wood 9 9 c e l l u l o s e 9 9 l i g n i n 9 9

p u l p i n g 9 9 p u r i f i c a t i o n 6 0

r e c o v e r y f u r n a c e s y s t e m 105 r e d w a t e r 6 0

s l a g s 8 4 s m e l t i n g s 5 s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n 13 s o l v e n t r e f i n e d c o a l 3 2 s t e e l 7 1 s t e e l m a k i n g 85

b a s i c o x y g e n f u r n a c e 86 o p e n h e a r t h f u r n a c e 87 e l e c t r i c a r c f u r n a c e 87

w a s h e r s p r e s s u r e 1 0 3 vacuum 1 0 3

y e l l o w w a t e r 6 0

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