Procedures and Data Collection Methods

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Procedures (Methodology)Probably more attention has been given

to this part of research than to any other. It includes experimental design, measurement, statistical analysis and computer programming. It is often the chief section looked at in order to judge whether to fund a proposal. It should contain the following:

Procedures (Methodology) An outline of the overall research design

accounting for each objective – variables to be considered, conditions to be controlled and conditions to be eliminated

Operationalization of the variables, conditions,etc. if this has not already been done.. Usually variables are operationalized in terms of the instruments which are used to measure them. If you are going to use a particular instrument, specify it. If you are going to develop an instrument, state how and give sample items.

Procedures (Methodology) You must state how you are going to protect

human subjects. Letters you are going to send for approval, statements you will have subjects sign, etc. must be shown. Include how you will obtain informed consent and how anonymity will be preserved.

Describe data analysis methods. If possible show how your data tables will be set up. If you are using statistics, be sure to specify your level of significance (Usually p< .05), This must be done before the data are collected.

Procedures (Methodology) Briefly discuss internal and external validity

of the design State any special conditions in the design

that will affect the conclusions or generalizations

Be sure to state what samples are involved, what are the sources of the data, what processes will be used to gather the data and analyze it, what conditions will be controlled

Procedures (Methodology) Pilot studies should be conducted:

If the technique is unfamiliar to the researcher If the instrument is newly constructed If the instrument has not been used with this

population To see if the subjects can handle the instrument To give the staff experience in administration and

analysis As a trial run for the data collection technique To provide some data on which to test analysis

techniques

Data Collection Methods Physiological and Physical Measures

Five sources Physical Chemical Microbiological Anatomical Observation through the senses

Data sources In vivo In vitro

Instrument systems Subject, stimulator, sensor, signal, display, record

Data Collection Methods Use

Physical outcomes – as criteria against which nursing actions can be assessed

Exploration of ways in which nursing actions, including measuring and recording physiological functioning, can be improved

Advantages objectivity, precision, sensitivity

Disadvantages device may change measurement high energy concentration

Data Collection Methods Types

Circulatory Respiratory Neurological Muscular-skeletal GI function GU function Glandular function

Data Collection MethodsObservational Methods

Phenomena amenable to observations Characteristics and conditions of individuals Verbal communication behaviors Non-verbal communication behaviors Activities Skill attainment and performance Environmental characteristics

Data Collection Methods Units of analysis – decide what a unit is

Molar approach – observe large units of behavior and treat as a whole

Molecular approach– observe smaller and highly specific behaviors as units

Observer/observed relationship Concealment/no intervention No concealment/no intervention No concealment/intervention Concealment/intervention

Data Collection Methods Observational methods

Unstructured observation Participant observation – observer lives in the

situation and tries not to interject his views and meanings – takes field notes on

Subjects, setting, behaviors, frequency and duration of events

Use of anecdotes in an illustrative fashion Advantages – deeper understanding Disadvantages –observer bias and influence

Data Collection Methods Structured observations – look at absence,

presence or frequency of a phenomenon Categories

Careful, explicit definitions of behavior or characteristics to be observed

No overlapping categories – mutually exclusive Observer interference – no. and skill of observers

Checklists Talley behaviors (watching called sign analysis) Categorize at regular intervals

Data Collection Methods Rating scales

Observer rates some phenomenon in terms of points along a descriptive continuum

May be used at intervals or to summarize an entire event

Observational sampling Time sampling – select a time period during which

observation will take place Event sampling – select an event to sample,

especially if it is infrequent

Data Collection Methods Training observers – even when researcher does

most of the research him/herself Need a dry run to familiarize with nature of the things to

be observed and the tools to be used Results from observers recordings should be compared

for inter-rater reliability

Advantages Captures and directly records behaviors

Disadvantages Ethical problems, human perceptual errors, demanding

of time and emotions, anticipation, hasty decisions

Data Collection Methods Interview schedules and questionnaires

Their format can be anything from rigid standardization to structure absence

Form of questions Open ended – the subject responds in his/her

own words – less bias but hard to analyze Close ended – the researcher provides fixed

alternatives

Data Collection Methods Close ended questions cont.

Dichotomous – two alternatives Multiple choice – three to five alternatives Cafeteria question – choose responses that most

adequately state your view Rank order questions – rank your responses on a

continuum from most to least Graphic rating scales – bipolar – specify two

opposite ends of a continuum. Respondents give a judgment of something along this ordered dimension

Data Collection Methods Question content

Facts about the respondent Facts about persons known to the respondent Facts about events and conditions known Beliefs about what the facts are: risk of Ca Attitudes, feelings and opinions Reasons for or influences on attitudes, etc. Level of knowledge about policies, practices,

conditions or situations Intentions or statements about future actions

Data Collection Methods How to develop questions

Draw up a table of specifications – types of information you are interested in

Weigh how much emphasis to give each area – this gives you an idea of the number of questions you need to cover the variables

Data Collection Methods Question wording

Clarity – clarify in your own mind, avoid double-barreled questions, state in lay rather than technical terms if respondents are lay, state in the affirmative

Ability of the respondent to reply or give information Use language of the least educated Don’t assume a level of information a person “ought to

have” Define technical words Use filter questions – if answer is no, skip to question— Don’t take for granted that a person remembers something

even though he/she was present when it happened

Data Collection Methods Bias - a serious problem on self-report

instruments Assume that the respondent is honest and

minimize the bias introduced by the researcher. Don’t suggest answers. Don’t identify a position or attitude with a prestigious group. Avoid emotionally-loaded words. Try to counterbalance the “slant” of questions

Response sets – things that bias responses such as social desirability, extreme responses

Data Collection Methods Sensitive or personal information

Try to develop more objective wording or offer a close ended question with a range of alternatives

If dealing with unacceptable behavior – try to create an atmosphere of non-judgment – use alternatives – they are easier to check off than to respond to in an open-ended manner

Use impersonal wording – not I’m pleased Be polite – “Please respond” ask whole

sentences – “What is your sex?”

Data Collection MethodsResponse alternatives

Cover all significant alternatives and usually have an “other – please specify”

Don’t have overlapping alternatives – 1-2, 3-5, 5 or more.

Place alternatives in some kind of rational order or, if no order, place alphabetically

Don’t make alternatives too long

Data Collection Methods Question sequence

Should be psychologically meaningful Put open-ended questions first so that

respondents give their own opinions before seeing the wording of other questions

Put demographic information at the end

Data Collection Methods Format

Introduction and instructions What is the purpose the researcher is trying to

accomplish How did the researcher get the name of the

respondent What will be done with the information –

confidentiality, anonymity, copies of results Deadline for returning – how to return Researcher’s name and how to reach Answering implies consent

Data Collection Methods Format cont.

Don’t put too many questions in too small a space

Set off the alternatives from the stem of the question and align them vertically – ask the respondent to circle, check, or use a separate answer sheet

Set off the subsets of a filter question so they are not confusing

Data Collection Methods Steps in construction

Make preliminary decisions as to form and the type of information needed. Set up mock tables to see how to analyze

Draft the questionnaire – monitor the words, look at existing questionnaires, decide on the order of the questions

Pre-testing and revising – discuss the draft with someone knowledgeable, pre-test to determine clarity

Data Collection Methods Administration of the instrument

Questionnaire Distribution – the best way is to give it to the whole

group at one time, then collect it. Next best is to personally deliver it and/or pick it up. The last resort is to mail it – if the response rate is above 50%, the return is probably sufficient. A return envelope helps.

Follow-up reminders – 2-3 weeks after the first mailing send a letter with a second copy of the questionnaire, or a telephone call is made. Kep a log of incoming receipt of mail on a daily basis

Data Collection Methods The interview

Put the respondent at ease so he expresses hones opinions – be neat, punctual, courteous, friendly, unbiased and permissive

Accept all opinions as natural Don’t read the instrument schedule, but follow the

wording precisely If there are many alternatives, hand the respondent a

card with them on Don’t paraphrase or summarize the respondent’s reply If he gives only partial answers or “beats around the

bush” probe, but do so neutrally – “Explain?” “Anything else?”

Data Collection Methods Advantages of questionnaires

Less costly than interviews More anonymity and no interviewer bias

Advantages of interviews Have a high response rate Get people who cannot fill out questionnaires Less ambiguous, deeper Fewer “I don’t knows” Control over the order of presentation Additional non-verbal data can be gathered

Data Collection Methods Scales and psychological measures

Likert scale –several declarative statements expressing a viewpoint on a topic are generated. There should be an equal number of favorable and unfavorable statements - which need to be identified. One concept should have 10-20 items.

Originally there were 5 categories of agreement-disagreement, but many people use seven:

SA – A – SlA - ? – SlD – D – SD . Depending on agreement with the concept being studied, the scoring can be 1 thru 7 or 7 thru 1. No responses are treated as ? or given a value of 4.

Data Collection Methods Semantic Differential

A technique to measure the psychological meaning of concepts or objects to an individual.

The subject rates a concept on a series of seven point bipolar scales such as fair-unfair, good-bad, important-unimportant, strong-weak, beautiful-ugly, worthless-valuable, pleasant-unpleasant, cold-warm, responsible-irresponsible, successful-unsuccessful. Adjectives should apply to the concept. Should have some that are evaluative, some related to potency, some related to activity. The pairs should be randomly reversed

Data Collection MethodsOther scales

Existing psychological scales – attitude scales, personality measures

Intelligence, aptitude and achievement tests

Value scales Interest scales

Data Collection MethodsContent analysis

An objective, quantitative description of a communication or a document

Select variables to be recorded Select the unit of content – words, themes,

entire items, space/time measure Develop a category system for classifying units

of content: yes/no or present/absent Train coders

Data Collection Methods Projective techniques

Pictoral methods – Themic Apperception Test, Rorschach Inkblot Test,

Verbal methods Ambiguous verbal stimulus – person is asked to respond

with first thing that comes to mind (word association) Sentence completion – elicit attitudes

Expressive methods Play technique –drawing, painting, role playing Psychodrama – subjects play themselves Sociodrama – subjects play the part of others

Among the most controversial techniques

Data Collection Methods Indirect measures

Letters to the editor, to the Right to Life Association, to the Music Association, etc.

Responses to vignettes – who is the main character – male/female

Records and available data

Data Collection Methods Q-sort methodology

Sort a deck of 60-100 cards according to specified criteria – most like me/least like me or approve/disapprove

9-11 stacks of cards are placed on a table with the number of cards to be in each stack determined by the researcher. The subject is forced to choose where to place the cards. Items put in one place force or influence where others are placed – called a forced choice or ipsative measure (A Likert scale is a normative measure – each item is independent

Data Collection Methods least approved of most approved of1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

category

2 4 7 10 14 10 7 4 2

number of cards

Data Collection MethodsSociometry

Information is gained about social choice and interaction patterns of individuals in groups

Who do you like, which three people would you like to work with

Sociograms

Data Collection Methods Delphi Technique

Several rounds of questionnaires are sent out. After the first round, the respondents answers, comments, opinions arguments etc. are summarized and analyzed and sent to the group along with a redesigned questionnaire. The respondents re-rate, re-vote or re-rank items or make other responses, comments etc. The idea is to obtain consensus and the rounds keep going until it is reached

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