PrefaceWhy is this book important for your preparation?

There are several books in the market pertaining to the World History, but none of them deals with the current pattern of the examination. Hence, there is an urgent

need to cater to the requirements of the aspirants of lAS, State Public Services, as well as other competitive examinations.

This book has been designed keeping in mind the pattern of Civil Services examination. Since there is a major change in the pattern of the questions of different examinations, especially UPSC, this book serves as an elixir to the aspirants.

This material is very comprehensive and covers all aspects of World History alongwith the objective and subjective practice questions.

The content has been designed in point format and in lucid language covering length and breadth of each topic.

Though it is a factual topic but it includes many underlined concepts and inter-linkages, thus material will help in constructing a time-line of events through ages.

Thus this book will enable students to understand the finer points as well the multi-di-mensional perspective of the subject.

Last but not the least; I would like to thank my parents, who supported me with love and understanding, my committee members, each one of them has provided patient advice and guidance throughout the research process.

Suggestions for improvement in the book are welcome.

Best Wishes

Amrit Singh Chopra Chief Educator

Unique Shiksha

About the Book

Thought behind the Book

The ever-changing pattern of Civil Services Examination and the evolving needs of aspirants drove us to create a new series of reference books following a Unique Pattern.

This has been designed to meet two basic needs of every Civil Services Aspirant:

• ContentRetentionManagement(Understanding of basic concepts and retention of facts); and

• TimeManagement(saving time by avoiding reading from different sources).

Pedagogical Assistance to be Found in the Book

The book covers – WorldHistorymaterialcomprehensively. The team comprising of the author, editors and publishing experts have followed the below mentioned concepts to ensure this book meets requirements like no other.

Salient features are:• Each chapter is broken into units to signify how much content an aspirant must cover daily.

• Though it is a factual topic but it includes many underlined concepts and inter-linkages. All topics and key points are broken down into bullet points to help with lucid and concise learning.

• The materials have been designed to give student a time-line of historical events so that the connection can be established.

• Every unit ends with Prelims and Mains oriented questions to ensure that the aspirants test themselves on what they have studied to ensure clarity of concepts.

How this book is One-Stop reference

• The book is the amalgamationofdifferentsources,editedbyexpertsto provide one stop solution for WorldHistory.

• The content has been designed by taking assistance of NCERT,NIOSandotherstandardbooks.Further deepanalysisofpreviousyearpapershave also been done to add more relevant topics.

• Hence it will act as a completeself-studymaterial.

UNIQUE SHIKSHA MASTER SERIES vs. Other Books

Specifications MASTERSERIES OTHERBOOKSStandard content referred from different Sources Yes Yes

Crisp and Concise concept with indepth analysis Yes No

Practice Questions Yes No

Pictorial representation of content for easy retention Yes No

Approach to the World History Section

In Prelims examination

• The UPSC specify the detailed syllabus related to the World History as. “History of the world will include events from 18th century such as industrial revolution, world wars, redrawal of national boundaries, colonization, decolonization, political philosophies like communism, capitalism, socialism etc. their forms and effect on the society”.

• Thesyllabusandquestionsaskedarestaticandfactualinnature.Hence,alittlepreparationand understanding of timeline of events can help in attaining good marks in the examination.

• The content hereby has been designed according to theUPSC syllabuswith proper inter-linkages of events which help in constructing a time-line of events through ages.

• Thetrendisasfollows:

Year No. of questions

2018 15

2017 10

2016 12.5

2015 25

2014 30

2013 40

• If we go through the questions, certain sub-sections are frequently asked in the paper such as– WorldWarIandII,Decolonization,IndustrialRevolution,etc.

ImportantNotes: 1. A student should focus on understanding the chronology of events for retaining the facts

in the history. He/She should read each chapter minutely, jot down the important points as designing Self study notes are very important for the revision.

2. TheTopicsandsub-topicsrelatedtoPreviousYearQuestionshavebeencateredin the book.

What makes this book special?

Prelude to the Age of REVOLUTIONS

WORLD HISTORY MASTER SERIES

UNIT 1Day-wise self study plan to

achieve reasonable targets with respect to different demensions of

the subject.

Course ● Growth of local loyalties at the cost of

national utility. ● Weak Central Government (a personal-

ized government that is most effective on the local level and has relatively little separation of political functions).

● Defective Military Organization (the existence of private armies and a code of honour in which military obligations are stressed).

Bullet format material for easy reading and high retention

of facts

Subjectve type questions for Main Examination

1. Comment: “The discovery of the new world, coinciding with the swift diffusion of printed books, taught the Europeans that “Truth” in Bacon’s Noble Phrase,” is the daughter, not of authority, but of time.”

Chapter end Subjective questions for enhancing the Art of Answer

Writing

How a Unique Shiksha foundation student should use this Book?

• ChaptersandContentareinsyncwiththeclasstohelpinachievingdesireddailyprogress.Thusstudentcanusethematerialfordailyrevisionandpracticingofquestions.

• ClassTestsaredrawnfromthebooktotestastudentforprogressivelearning.• Thesubjectivetypequestionscanbegivenforcheckingtoteachersonceinawhile,thismay

helpinimprovingAnswerWritingSkill.

ContentsUnit 1: Prelude to the Age of Revolutions 1-12

1.1. Geographical discoveries1.1.1 Causes1.1.2 Course1.1.3 Consequences

1.2. Feudalism1.3 Beginning of Capitalism1.4 Reformation in Europe1.5 New Absolute Monarchies1.6 Emergence of the Nation State1.7 The Commercial Revolution in Western Europe1.8 Age of Mercantilism1.9 The Thirty Year’s War1.10 Ascendancy of France1.11 The Emergence of Scientific View of the World1.12 The Age of Enlightenment1.13 Spread of Enlightenment

Unit 2: The American Revolution 13-162.1 Factors and Forces that led to the American War of Independence2.2 Declaration of Independence 2.3 The American Constitution2.4 Result2.5 Significance

Unit 3: The French Revolution 17-333.1 Introduction3.2 Causes of the French Revolution

3.2.1 Political Causes3.2.2 Social Causes3.2.3 Religious Causes3.2.4 Intellectual Causes3.2.5 Economic Causes3.2.6 Effects of the American War of Independence

3.3 Four Phases, 1789-17993.4 Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte3.5 Reforms of Napoleon3.6 Napoleonic Code3.7 Napoleonic Wars3.8 Downfall and the First Abdication3.9 Reasons behind Napoleon Failures

Unit 4: The growth of Liberalism and Democracy in Western Europe 34-404.1 Course4.2 Scientific and Technological Revolution4.3 The Industrial Revolution in Europe4.4 Industrialization in Britain and Germany

Unit 5: Unification of Italy and Germany 41-495.1 Introduction5.2 European Circumstances5.3 Course of Unification5.4 Contribution of Personalities5.5 Unification of Germany

Unit 6: American Civil War 50-526.1 Causes6.2 Course6.3 Consequences6.4 Significance

Unit 7: Colonialism and Imperialism 53-617.1 Factors and forces that helped the Growth of Imperialism7.2 Scramble for Africa7.3 Conquest of Asia7.4 Colonization of Egyptian Economy

Unit 8: First World War and Russian Revolution 62-788.1 Introduction8.2 The road to war8.3 The Alliance System8.4 Important event before the Great War8.5 Position of the Nations in 19148.6 The July Crisis8.7 What caused the Great War?8.8 Event during the war8.9 Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points8.10 Paris Peace Conference8.11 The Treaty of Varsailles8.12 The Treaty of Saint-Germaine8.13 War without an end8.14 Russian Revolution

Unit 9: Europe between the Wars 79-879.1 Fascism in Italy9.2 Nazism in Germany9.3 The world Depression of 1929-19329.4 The Emergence of the Soviet Union

9.5 China9.6 League of Nations9.7 Rise of Japan9.8 The Spanish Civil War

Unit 10: The Second World War 88-9710.1 Origins10.2 Hitler’s Policy towards the Countries10.3 Course of the war10.4 Impact of the Second World War10.5 Chinese Revolution10.6 Arab Nationalism

Unit 11: Decolonization: Break-up of Empires 98-12011.1 Why did the European Powers give up their empires?11.2 The West Indies, Malaya, Cyprus and Falkland Islands11.3 Impact of Colonialism on Africa and Asia11.4 British Decolonization of Africa11.5 British Decolonization of East Africa11.6 Decolonization of French Empire in Africa11.7 Spain Decolonization11.8 Portugal Decolonization11.9 Italy Decolonization11.10 Colonialism of East Indies11.11 Decolonization by Britain in Asia11.12 Egypt/Arab-Israel Conflict11.13 Decolonization of Middle East11.14 Iraq-Iran War11.15 Creation of Israel in 194811.16 Suez War 195611.17 Result of the Nationalization11.18 Backdrop of the Cold War11.19 Arab-Israeli Conflict

Unit 12: United Nations Organization (UNO) 121-12812.1 Background12.2 Founding of the UN12.3 Main Organs of the UN12.4 The UN Objective12.5 Initial Membership12.6 Reform of the UN after the Cold War12.7 Success and Failures of UN12.8 India and the UN Reforms 12.9 Global Issues of UN: Fast Facts

Unit 13: Cold War 129-14513.1 Introduction13.2 After the end of the Second World War13.3 The Emergence of two Power Blocs13.4 New International Economic Order13.5 NAM13.6 India and Cold War13.7 Disintegration of USSR13.8 India and Post Communist Countries13.9 Hegemony of USA13.10 Immediate implication of Unipolarity13.11 Aura of USA13.12 Alternative Power

Unit 14: Terrorism 146-15214.1 Causes14.2 Types14.3 Financing14.4 9/11: A Global Attack

Unit 15: Appendix 153-16115.1 Socialist Movement in Europe15.2 Globalization15.3 The New Imperialism (c.1875-1914) - Re-Emergence of colonial Rivalries15.4 World Economy15.5 Decolonization of Latin America

World History

Prelude to the Age of Revolutions 1

The 16th century marks a watershed in human history. Though human existence on our planet goes back to at least 3 million years, they were living largely in regional isolation till the 16th century. World History did not begin until the daring voyages of Columbus, Vasco Da Gama and Magellan. Till then, there was no common history of humanity.

During pre 16th century period, Western Europe can be described as an ‘under-developed area’. For even the Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and Arabs, not to speak of the Chinese, generally looked down upon the people of Western Europe as backward ‘natives’, ‘stupid’ and ‘uneducable’. Yet it was the descendants of these Western Europeans who discovered continents

Prelude to the Age of REVOLUTIONS

WORLD HISTORY MASTER SERIES

UNIT 1

unknown to the Greeks and Romans and ultimately became masters of the whole world.

Modern World History was marked by the Euro-pean expansion and eventually by the disintegration of European empires only during the 20th century. The unprecedented expansion of Europe was facil-itated greatly by a variety of historical forces and factors such as the decline of decadent feudalism, beginning of dynamic capitalism, geographical dis-coveries, Renaissance and Reformation, emergence of national monarchs, agricultural and commercial revolutions, technological progress, population increase and the resulting growth in economic pro-ductivity and resources.

Fig. 1.1. European Voyages Discovery

Geographical Discoveries

2 Master Series : World HistoryOne of the factors for gradual transformation of

the European society from a medieval to a modern one by the year 1500, was geographical discoveries. The late 15th and early 16th centuries are described as the “Age of Discovery” because of the numerous voyages undertaken to discover new sea routes, lands and continents. Consequently, civilization graduated from an inland-sea (Mediterranean) stage to an oceanic (Atlantic) stage.

Causes ● Prospects of new and more

Lucrative Markets: Muslim monopoly of European trade with the East till 11th century and gradual penetration by the Italians, resulting in prosperity for the Italian cities. The desire of other Europeans to have a piece of the cake, i.e., share in this profitable trade.

● Growing European demand for Eastern Products: Mainly due to the growth in population after the urban revolu-tion (12th and 13th centuries). The expense and hazards of the existing three major routes (northern, middle and southern), worsened by the Turkish capture of Constantinople in 1453 forced the Europeans to look for an all-water route to the east.

● European Renaissance: Its destruction of the prevailing socio-economic political system (feudalism), freeing Europeans from conservatism, narrow mindedness and superstitions. The resultant desire among Europeans to broaden their mental outlook made them enthusiastic and enterprising.

● Growth of Geographical Knowledge: Marco Polo’s writings – Merchant’s Handbook, Secrets of Faithful Crusader, the Far East, Holy lands etc. and the wide circulation of these books in the 14th and 15th centuries, resulted in the replacement of the medieval theory of earth being flat by the modern belief of earth being round.

● Scientific Developments: Introduction of mariner’s compass in Europe (13th cen-tury), improvements in ship building, more accurate map-making, etc.

● Demands of Religion: The desire to spread Christianity to foreign lands.

Course

A. Portuguese ● Prince Henry, “the Navigator” caused the

discovery of many islands on the west coast of Africa.

● Bartolomeu Dias reached the southern tip of Africa in 1487 and named it “the Cape of Storm”, later renamed “Cape of Good Hope”.

● Vasco Da Gama’s voyage to India (Calicut) in 1498, resulting in the discovery of new all water route to the east.

● Cabral’s accidental discovery of Brazil in 1500, while he was trying to follow Gama’s route.

B. Spanish ● Columbus’ westward voyage in 1492 and his

discovery of some islands which he named “Indies” thinking that they were a part of India.

● Amerigo Vespucci’s further exploration of the ‘New World’ already discovered by Columbus.

● Magellan’s first ever circumnavigation of the world (1519-1522)

C. English ● John Cabot’s exploration of North America,

particularly parts of the modern USA.

D. French ● Jacques Cartier’s exploration of the parts of

modern Canada.

Consequences ● Commercial Revolution and beginning of

capitalism in Western Europe. ● Transformation of the European society from

a feudal one into a modern one. ● Beginning of the slave trade. ● Propagation and spread of Christianity. ● Atlantic Ocean becoming the main highway

of international trade; increase in the impor-tance of European towns on the Atlantic; improvement in the living standards of the Europeans; severe competition among Euro-peans for colonial possessions and wealth.

Prelude to the Age of Revolutions 3

FeudalismFeudalism is a social system of rights and duties,

based on land tenures and personal relationships in which land is held in ‘fief’ by Vassals from Lords. Broadly, it means a ‘feudal society’ i.e., a form of civilization that flourishes especially in a closed agrarian economy and has general characteristics* besides the mere presence of lords, vassals and fiefs. So, the socio- economic political system that developed in the medieval period, first in Western Europe and later in other parts of Europe and the rest of the world, is called “Feudalism”.

Causes for its Rise ● Decline of Roman Empire (5th and 6th century)

and tribal invasions of Europe causing a severe setback to the European commerce and industry.

● Inability of the kings to realize enough taxes from the people and the consequent grant of ‘fiefs’ to the nobles, who in turn distributed them among their own subordinates.

● Insecurity among the people due to tribal invasions, and hence their willingness to accept the authority of the feudal lords.

● Thus, feudalism developed in Europe both from above and from below due to the socio-economic political change.

Period

Fig. 1.2 Period of Feudalism

Features ● Manorial or seigniorial system in which

landlords exercised over the peasantry a wide variety of polices judicialland, fiscal and other rights.

● Existence of private armies and a code of con-duct in which military obligations are stressed.

● Rigid class system with deep socio-economic gulf between nobles and common people.

● Growth of local loyalties at the cost of national utility.

● Weak Central Government (a personalized government that is most effective on the local level and has relatively little separation of political functions).

● Defective Military Organization (the existence of private armies and a code of honour in which military obligations are stressed).

● Defective Feudal Economy leading to economic stagnation.

Fig. 1.3 Features of Feudalism

Causes for its Decline ● Former vertical links were now replaced by

the new horizontal links as manorial disrup-tion brought drastic changes in social rela-tions and state organization. Different strata of society became crystallized in the patterns of “estates”, with each estate grouping people of the same social class.

● Gradual decrease of insecurity in the rural areas and decline in the powers of the local magnates. Rise of powerful monarchies, which were supported by the newly risen middle classes against feudal lords.

● Self-sufficient and localized nature of the feudal economy; its erosion by the “Urban Revolution” (12th and 13th century) which started the revival of money economy, renewal of city life, rise of the new social stratum of classes, etc. The consequent commutation of manorial service into money payments by

4 Master Series : World History

the peasants resulted in the disruption of the manorial economy.

Beginning of CapitalismHobson defines it as “the organization of busi-

ness on a large scale, by an employer or a company of employers, possessing an accumulated stock of wealth to acquire raw materials and tools and hire labour, for increased quantity of wealth, which shall constitute profit.”

Features ● Profit motive rather than just price (Price

mechanism means the free working of the supply and demand forces without any inter-vention).

● Money economy (In this economy, the desire to earn profit is the most important induce-ment for economic activity).

● Big market. ● Large scale operation of the privately-owned

means of production and distribution (The most important feature of capitalism is the

existence of private property and the system of inheritance).

● Intense competition (From this class-conflict arises. The society is normally divided into two classes-the “haves” and the “have-not’s”, that are constantly at war with each other).

● Rational and precise methods of business (Eech person is free to start any enterprise of his choice. People can follow occupations of their ability and taste).

CapitalismPros Cons

Incentives to be rich encourage innovation.

Firms can gain monopoly and exploit consumers.

Firms have incentives to be efficient.

Firms with monopsony power can pay low wages.

Consumers are free to choose the products they desire.

Externalities can damage the environment.

Prevents large bureaucratic government.

Tends to lead to large inequalities.

Better than alternatives. Prone to ‘boom and bust’ in economic cycles.

History of Capitalism

Fig. 1.4 History of Capitalism

s

Prelude to the Age of Revolutions 5

Renaissance in Europe

Fig. 1.5 Area under Renaissance

The term “Renaissance” denotes a new age in the history of Western Civilization at the end of the middle ages, though its literal meaning is rebirth or revival of learning or arts.

Causes ● Influence of the philosophers and thinkers

such as Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, Dante etc.

● Invention of Printing Press (With the spread of knowledge, the hold of superstitions and blind faith loosened and the people developed self-confidence. Hence, it is evident that the paper and the printing devices were the most influential causes of the Renaissance. It is true because the intellectual awareness increased in the real sense only after the invention of printing).

● Geographical Discoveries (New Cities like Milan, Venice, Florence, Lisbon, Amsterdam etc, flourished. They had more democratic set up which accorded more freedom to their citizens).

● Rise of towns and the middle class due to commercial revolution (The Commercial Revolution was a period of European eco-nomic expansion, colonialism, and mercan-tilism which lasted from approximately the late 13th century until the early 18th century.

It was succeeded in the mid-18th century by the Industrial Revolution).

● Patronage of wealthy and influential people. ● Crusaders brought new thoughts and beliefs,

which replaced the old thoughts, beliefs and institutions. The crusades took place in 1095 and 1291. As a result, the Europeans came in contact with the people of the east.

Consequences ● The condition of women, especially from the

upper class improved due to Renaissance. They started getting educated and showed interest in social, economic and political life.

● Under the influence of the Renaissance, peo-ple developed new table manners.

● One of the negative impacts of Renaissance was that the society experienced decline in the moral standards of the people. The people had started questioning the ways of church and became more materialistic.

● The Renaissance encouraged the vernacular and national languages. High class literature was produced in the languages of masses like Italian, French, English, Spanish, German, Dutch, etc.

● Renaissance inculcated the spirit of rationality and experimentation. It led to many scientific

6 Master Series : World Historydiscoveries and inventions. Kepler, Galileo and Copernicus made many geographical and space discoveries.

● With the rise of trade, commerce and industry, the European countries needed areas for procuring raw material and markets to sell their finished goods. It led to the rise of colonialism.

● Renaissance brought forth the ideal of strong Roman Monarchs. It led to the rise of strong monarchies in Europe. On one hand, it reduced the importance of Church and on the other hand, national states like England, France, Austria and Prussia emerged.

● With the discovery of gun powder and inven-tion of guns and mortars, the scene of battle field changed. The forts lost their importance as the secured places as they could not stand the barge of gun fires.

Reformation in EuropeIt was the Protestant Movement against certain

obnoxious practices of the Roman Catholic Church and an attempt to reform it. The protestors and reformers soon separated themselves from the Roman Catholic Church, and started new Protestants church in the 16th century. Therefore, Reformation was the final assault against the medieval order. By attacking the monopolistic power of the Universal Church (which was one of the greatest of all medieval institutions), it not only brought about a great religious change, but also proclaimed the dawn of a new era in Europe.

Causes ● Vulnerability of the Church (The Roman

Catholic Church, typical of the institutions of the Middle Ages, was monopolistic, absolute and uncompromising).

● Influence of the Renaissance (Renaissance bred the spirit of enquiry, developed critical attitude of mind and widened the mental outlook of men).

● Interference of the Church in political matters (The Pope thought himself to be the representative of God on earth. Regarding the kings to be his subjects, he claimed authority to throne or dethrone them).

● Resentment of the people against over taxation by the Church (Heavy religious taxation

alienated the growing capitalist class, the peasantry, the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy).

● Internal conflicts of the Church.

Consequences ● Reform within the Roman Catholic Church,

removal of some of the most glaring abuses from the Church by the Council of Treat and the invigoration of the Church through the establishment of several orders, such as the “Society of Jesus”.

● Breakdown in the unity of Christendom; division of the Christians into Catholics and Protestants; Establishment of national Churches in the place of the Universal Church.

● Strengthening of monarchies at the cost of the Papacy.

● Religious persecution of the followers of the minority sects by those of the majority sect in all the countries of Europe.

● Religious wars among the European countries, such as the Anglo-Spanish wars, the Thirty Years War, etc.

New Absolute MonarchiesThe history of Europe from the 16th century

onward is a story of people’s feeling their way darkly to some new method of government, better adapted to the new conditions that were arising. The search for a new method of government first manifests itself in the growing authority of kings and princes, i.e., in the new absolute monarchies. By 1789, most of the Europe was ruled by monarchs, little hindered by the existence of effective and continuing representative bodies, the main exception being Great Britain.

Causes for Rise ● Need for peace and order (the disorder,

anarchy and confusion which prevailed in Europe during the medieval period, greatly contributed to the growth of the absolute monarchies).

● Rise of the middle class (the enormous expansion in trade, commerce, industry and the consequent rise of towns and cities also greatly contributed to the growth of absolute monarchies in Europe).

● Changes in the military organization and

Prelude to the Age of Revolutions 7

method of warfare (the discovery of, gun-power also greatly facilitated the emergence of absolute monarchies).

● Rise of the spirit of nationalism (Fired by the spirit of patriotism and nationalism, people were willing to extend full support to the rulers who could provide position of pride to the country).

● Renaissance and Reformation (As a result of Renaissance, people took to the study of classical literature and discovered that ancient Romans thrived under the autocratic rule of one person and were willing to support auto-cratic rulers for the sake of the glory of the nation. Similarly, Reformation dealt a severe blow to the prestige of the Roman Church and in a number of countries, the king became the head of the church).

● Influence of political philosophers and think-ers (during this period, a number of political thinkers like Machiavelli, Bodin, Hobbes etc. greatly eulogised absolute monarchy and thus created a favourable climate for the growth of absolute monarchy).

● Efficient rulers (the decline of the empire and the Papacy led to the growth of a number of nations where rulers successfully asserted their authority and established absolute rule).

Causes of Decline ● Succession of weak and inefficient monarchs. ● Carrying on schemes of aggrandizement

against each other by all the rulers, resulting in destructive wars.

● Existence of the idea of a popular government and of the representative bodies.

● Attacks against the principle of Absolutism.

Emergence of the Nation States ● From the 13th century onwards, many rulers

were able to increase their power over their subjects for a variety of reasons. Their realms had increasingly well-defined frontiers. It marked a change in emphasis within government from a claim based on personal relationship to the one based on territory. Thus, territorial dependence was replacing personal dependence.

By the year 1500, Europe began to organize itself in a way that is similar to the present Europe. The relationship of Lord and Vassal which, with the vague claims of the Pope and the Emperor (Holy Roman Emperor) in the background, so long seemed to exhaust political thought, gave way to an idea of a princely power over all the inhabitants of a domain, i.e., the nation-state necessarily the change to such a state of affairs neither took place everywhere in the same way nor at the same pace. By the year 1800, France and England, for instance, had been for centuries unified in a way that Germany and Italy were still not.

Causes ● Decline of feudalism and rise of absolutist

monarchies. ● Spirit of nationalism enhanced the sense of

community and its symptoms such as national patron saints, national history, national heroes, national language, loyalty to nation-state instead of a Feudal Lord or to the Pope.

● Rise and growth of middle classes in the cities, along with the increased trade and commerce.

Consequences ● End of the extreme disorder and anarchy of

the feudal times. ● Destruction of serfdom along with feudalism. ● Boost to economic development. ● Growth of a strong feeling of Nationalism in

each of them, resulting in national jealousies, rivalries and conflicts over matters like trade and acquisition of colonies.

The Commercial Revolution in Western Europe

The massive revival of trade and commerce, both internal and external, between the 15th century and middle of the 18th century has been described as the “Commercial Revolution”. In this Atlantic, commerce became enormous, since the ‘New World’ (American) plantations produced huge quantities of tobacco, sugar, coffee, cotton etc., which were sold in Europe. The New World in turn imported European products like grain, fish, cloth and metal products, as well as African slaves.

8 Master Series : World History

Fig. 1.6 Discovery Routes

Causes ● Discovery of the new world by Columbus and

new all water routes to the east by Vasco Da Gama and flooding of European market with Eastern goods.

● Introduction of new crops and goods in Europe from the new world.

Consequences ● International division of labor and emergence

of global economy. ● Adverse effect of slave trade on Africa, loss of

about 48 million Africans, general disruption of her economy and society.

● Multi-fold benefits to Europe, particularly North Western Europe because of her dominant role in overseas trade, accumulation of capital facilitating Industrial Revolution, improvement in her general standards of living.

Age of Mercantilism ● Early Mercantilism or Crude Bullions (16th

century) means the development by the mod-ern nation state of a specific sort of interna-tional trade which would ensure the inflow of bullion and prevent its out flow.

● Later Mercantilism (17th and early 18th centu-ries) affected a change in emphasis; Importance of maintaining an excess of exports over imports in order to ensure a continuous net inflow of bullion, i.e. favourable balance of trade.

Features ● Framing and executing a policy in nationalistic

terms

● Giving maximum importance to the national stock of precious metals in appraising any element of national policy.

● Augmentation of national stock of precious metals through the attainment of a favorable balance of trade.

● Pursual of economic and political foreign policies with constant attention to both plenty and power.

Merits of Mercantilism Demerits of Mercantilism

Mercantilism leads to profits and that paves the way for a country to become prosperous.

The rich tend to get richer in a system of mercan-tilism and the working class gets to be stagnant at best. Eventually this creates resentment, which leads to rebellion, and ultimately it led to many colonies seeking out their own independence.

Mercantilism leads to more trade, which will lead to economic growth. The increasing trade will certainly spike demand and hence industrial growth will follow. It is not confined to any one industry.

Many colonies are also treated as a foreign nation in a system of mercan-tilism. This means the colonies are forced to sell their local raw materials for a bargain basement price and then be forced to purchase manufactured goods at a higher price than necessary. This cre-ates an even wider wealth gap between the different income classes.

Mercantilism will also boost entrepreneurship. With more trade and higher profits, more aspir-ing entrepreneurs will get the funds and have the ability to take risks to run their own businesses, also to expand and venture into new territories.

There is always a risk of local raw materials and resources running out. Because mercantilism is based on the complete use of natural resources, there will always be a day when those resources run out.

Conti...

Prelude to the Age of Revolutions 9

Mercantilism leads to greater influence in a region and across conti-nents. Nations depending on the goods and services of a country will be indebted in many ways. Foreign relations among countries will improve.

The system is ultimately quite inefficient. Because materials and goods are shipped back and forth between colonies and their mother nation, the price of goods is inflated more than it needs to be. Even with modern shipping methods, it costs less to manufacture goods locally where raw resources are available than it does to ship those items back and forth. Because of this, it also creates vulnerabilities in both economies should those shipments be inter-cepted by someone else.

The Thirty Year’s WarThe war began in 1618 as a local conflict in

Bohemie, but soon enveloped the whole of Ger-many, and developed into a mighty struggle between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. During the final stage, it lost its original character of a reli-gious war, and became a political contest between the Hapsburgs (ruling dynasty of Austria, Spain and some German states) and the Bourbons (of France).

Causes ConsequencesPolitical ambitions of the Hapsburgs

Total disintegration of the holy roman empire

Short–comings of the peace of Augsburg (1555) and irreconcilability of Roman Catholicism and protestantism

Heavy losses suffered by Germany, destruction of its many cities and ruin of industries.

Immediate cause- a small incident at Prague

The war ended in a draw in this matter, South and West Germany remained Catholic, while North Germany continued to be protestant; compromises both sides with regard to their disputes over the church property.

Ascendancy of FranceFrance became dominant not only in the political

life of Europe but also in its social, economic and

cultural life between the mid 17th and mid 18th centuries.

Causes ● Being the most populous state of Western

Europe, it became the strongest in military terms.

● Its possession of immense economic resources ● It had the fortune of being served by some

very efficient persons in the 17th and early 18th centuries, such as Richelieu (1624-42), Mazarin (1643-61), Louis XIV (1661-1715) and Colbert.

The Emergence of a Scientific View of the World

Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, a steady growth of scientific knowledge and a general clearing up of the man’s ideas about the world in which they lived was in progress in the European and Europeanized world.

Causes ● Growth of the philosophical thought like

supernaturalism (based on the concept that theistic authority rules of the forces of nature; not in conformation with scientific view), humanism (man was the measure of all things, emphasizing secularism rather than other worldliness. Not necessarily scientific, but encouraged scientific view) and naturalism (forces of nature operate according to fixed laws and life can be realized fully by controlling natural forces; thus, glorified science) on three different lines.

● Commercial Revolution and the expansion of Europe.

● Rise of Nation-States and the establishment of law and order giving security to the investigator.

● Patronage extended to science by the middle classes.

● Contribution of many pioneer scientists.

The Age of EnlightenmentLiterally it means the letting in of light upon what

was dark, but according to Kant it means “liberation

10 Master Series : World Historyfrom self-imposed tutelage”. The two basic concepts of progress and reason were popularized by a group of articulate men, called the “philosophes”. Holding the view that natural laws regulate not only the physical universe but also human society. So, the first basic feature of Enlightenment was the idea of progress, and the second, faith in reason.

CausesDuring the 18th century, Europeans were

changing, but Europe’s institutions were not keeping pace with that change. The Church insisted that it was the only source of truth, that, all who lived outside its bounds were damned, while it was apparent to any reasonably sophisticated person that most human beings on earth were not and had never been Christians- yet they had built great and inspiring civilizations.

Course ● Popularization of the “Laissez Faire” (let

alone) by Adam Smith and Mirabeau. This was in reaction to the strict regulation of economic life generally known as ‘Mercantilism”.

● Religion too underwent reform in this period. Raising the slogan of “Ecrasez l infame” or crush the infamous or stamp out religious fanaticism and intolerance.

● Propagation of ‘Social Contract’ theory by Rousseau who justified revolution as a legitimate thing and government merely as a ‘commission’.

Consequences ● Subversion of traditional institutions and

practices of Europe. ● Emergence of serious threats or challenges to

the status-quo or established order. ● Transformation of absolute monarchs into

enlightened or benevolent depots.

Spread of Enlightenment

a. Paris SalonsThe Enlightenment ideas started in the salons of

Paris. The wealthy women of Paris held gatherings in their homes, called salons, where their peers could hear inspiring music, view art and listen to ideas

and writings from great thinkers. These salonnieres supported artists, musicians, philosophers and writers and were responsible for making France the intellectual center of Europe. The most popular of all salonnieres was Marie-Therese Geoffrin, a member of the wealthy French middle class.

b. Diderot’s EncyclopediaThe ideas of Enlightenment reached a much

wider audience when Geoffrin helped to finance the writing of Denis Diderot’s Encyclopedia. The encyclopedia gathered all the most current ideas about music, art, writing, philosophy, government and science. It was widely published and made available to the French middle class. The first volumes of the Encyclopedia were published in 1751. Diderot persisted in requesting permission to print his work, even when the French government and church were angered by it. He was successful, and new volumes were published until 1771.

c. Newspapers and PamphletsThe thinkers responsible for the Enlightenment

ideas considered themselves part of an intellectual community. They produced printed materials in such quantity that the new ideas spread quickly from the wealthy to the middle class, who had enough money to support the intellectuals, who produced them by buying books and reading magazines. These people often didn’t have the clout to make a political difference, but they could put their money to good use. This fast spread of ideas via printed material helped to solidify the Age of Enlightenment and the ideas that formed it.

Kant: ● Kantian philosophy is rooted in balancing the

duality between the real and the ideal, and he makes serious strides in promoting a bal-anced perspective that emphasized reason as a form of intellectual freedom and liberation: “Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-incurred immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one’s own understanding without the guidance of another” (Kant). The emphasis on the word “own” from this quo-tation escalates the importance of subjectivity for Kant, which is then, in-turn, swiftly linked

Prelude to the Age of Revolutions 11

back to the populace in terms of governance. Kant says in regards to laws and obedience, “To test whether any particular measure can be agreed upon as a law for a people, we need only ask whether a people could well impose such a law upon itself.” Thus the people can will such subjective governance into the formation of Universal laws. Kant says that if this Enlightened progress were restricted, it “would be a crime against human nature, whose original destiny lies precisely in such progress.”

Rousseau: ● Rousseau’s “Discourse on the Origins of

Inequality” focuses on social constructs and inauthenticity muddling man’s natural, animal desires of self-preservation, pity toward suffering, and his social nature. He expresses a consistent and sincere concern for the instituted inequality of the people enduring the disparagement of, what he considers, their

natural and autonomous virtues. According to Rousseau, these meritable characteristics are being replaced by heightened anxieties stemmed from striving to sustain an outwardly perception that is susceptible and vulnerable to the opinion of others.

The philosophical writings from philosophers Kant and Rousseau both recognized that the Enlightenment and Modernity were inevitable. They both agreed that the Enlightenment would change civilization as they knew it, and both applied reason and rational thought to defend their perspectives; Kant advocated it would promote a gradual enhancement, and Rousseau feared it would lead to the degradation of society. Interestingly, with this closer examination of Kantian and Roussean philosophy, we recognize that this conversation regarding the perfectibility and corruptibility of man is still a relevant conversation a quarter of a century later; one which will continue to bring about philosophical and rational considerations for our contemporary present and imminent future.

12 Master Series : World History

1World History Master Exercise

Subjectve type questions for Main Examination

1. Comment: “The discovery of the new world, coinciding with the swift diffusion of printed books, taught the Europeans that “Truth” in Bacon’s Noble Phrase,” is the daughter, not of authority, but of time.”

2. Enumerate the main features of Feudalism. How did they prove to be the undoing of Feudalism in the long run?

3. What was the impact of the beginning of Capitalism on Europe?

4. Comment: “The Renaissance was the discovery of the world and of man.”

5. What is meant by the “rediscovery of ancient civilization? Show how the “New Learning” was a major element in the beginning of Modern Europe.

6. Account for the rise of Reformation in Europe and bring out its salient features.

7. Comment: “The legacy of the Reformation is rather ambiguous”.

8. Give critical estimate of the impact of the commercial Revolution in Western Europe.

9. “Mercantilism was a prelude to Industrial Capitalism.” Discuss.

10. Illustrate “The growth of Parliamentary Institutions in England was evolutionary rather than revolutionary in nature.”

11. What were the causes and consequences of Thirty Years’ War?

12. Do you agree with the view that enlightenment destroyed several old myths by which men lived and then proposed new myths of its own?