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INDEX

Chapter Page

CHAPTER1 1-3INTRODUCTION1.1PREFABICATED HOUSES

11.2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF PREFABRICATION

3

CHAPTER2 3-7CASE STUDIES IN PREFABRICATED BUILDINGS2.1 INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING SYSTEMS (EUROPEAN)

32.2 INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING SYSTEMS (JESPERSON)

32.3 INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING SYSTEMS (1960’S) 42.4 INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING SYSTEMS (BELFRY SYSTEM)

42.4A Load Bearing Perimeter Beam

52.4B ROOFING SYSTEM 52.4C PARTITION WALLS 5

2.4D TYPICAL HEATING DUCTS 6

2.4E SITE LAYOUTS 62.5 THE SYSTEM 7

CHAPTER3 13-25MATERIALS USED IN PREFABRICATION3.1STORM SHELTER

133.1A INTRODUCTION 13

3.1B INSTALLATION 143.1C BENEFITS/COSTS 143.2ECONOMY STAINLESS STEEL 143.2A SUMMARY 14

3.2B ADVANTAGE 15

3.2C COMPONENTS 15

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3.2D APPLICATIONS15

3.3BAMBOO SANDWICH COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS 15

3.3A INTRODUCTION15

3.4 COMPOSITE AS BUILDING MATERIALS15

3.4A INTRODUCTION15

3.4B INDIAN SCENARIO 16

3.5 FRP DOORS & DOOR FRAMES16

3.5A INTRODUCTION17

3.5B COST/WEIGHT 17

3.6 PULTRUDED PROFILES18

3.6A INTRODUCTION19

3.7 NATURAL FIBRE COMPOSITES (NFC)19

3.7A INTRODUCTION20

3.7B POLYESTER OR POLYPROPYLENE AND FIBRES 21

3.7C LIGNO-CELLULOSIC FIBRES 21

3.7D OLEFINIC AS MODIFIER 21

3.7E COIR FIBRE REINFORCED POLYETHYLENE22

3.7F STRENGTHENING MATERIALS23

3.7G SISAL & JUTE FIBRE COMPOSITES 23

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3.7H SISAL FIBRE AND WOLLASTONITE 23

3.7I JUTE PULTRUDED DOORFRAMES 24

3.8 PULTRUDED DOORFRAME 24

3.9 COIR-CEMENT ROOFING SHEET25

3.10 MEDIUM DENSITY COMPOSITE DOORS 25

3.11 CONCLUSION 26

3.12 ADVANCED COMPOSITES MISSION26

CHAPTER 4PREFABRICATED COMPONENTS 24-26

4.1WOOD-FRAME SYSTEMS 24

4.1A INTRODUCTION 24

4.2STRESSED-SKIN PANEL SYSTEMS 24

4.2A INTRODUCTION 24

4.3STRUCTURAL SANDWICH SYSTEMS 25

4.3A INTRODUCTION 25

4.4 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS 254.4A INTRODUCTION 254.4B WALLS 254.4C ROOF 254.4D FLOORING SYSTEM 264.4F DOOR AND WINDOW 264.4G WALL CLADDING PANELS 26

CHAPTER 5LIVE STUDIES 26-335.1PREFABRICATED UNIT BATHROOMS 26

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5.1A INTRODUCTION 26

CHAPTER 6ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES 33-366.1ADVANTAGES 336.1A MASS PRODUCTION OF UNITS 34 6.1B ADVANTAGES 356.2 LIMITATIONS 35 6.3 CRITERIAS 36

PANEL INDEX

Panel. Page

PANEL1- A COMPLETED JESPERSEN SYSTEM (DIPROSE, 1966)4

PANEL2 - A COMPLETED BELFRY SYSTEM (DIPROSE, 1966) 5

PANEL 3 VENTILATION SYSTEM 7

PANEL 4 SYSTEM CONCEPT7

PANEL 5 STORM SHELTER 8

PANEL 6 SALIENT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FRP LAMINATES10

PANEL7 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

USED FOR MANUFACTURING DOORS 12

PANEL 8 COMPARISON TABLE OF COST AND WEIGHT 12

PANEL9 Comparative Mechanical/Chemical Properties of FRP Pultruded Sections 13

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PANEL10 Pultruded Product Characteristics14

PANEL 11 Properties of Wooden and Pultruded Jute Composite Door Frame16

PANEL12 Properties of Coir-Cement Roofing Sheet17

PANEL 13 Revving joints (roof) 19

PANEL 14 Prefabricated room 20

PANEL 15 Prefabricated room 20

PANEL 16 Box garage21

PANEL 17 Prefabricated room 22

PANEL 18 Prefabricated houses 22

PANEL19 Building site , milano 23

PANEL20 Panel barracks, bologna23

PANEL 21 BUILDING SITE , MILANO23

Page No.PANEL 22 HOSPITAL, GERMANY 23

PANEL23 STEP1 HOUSES CONSTRUCTED OF LOW COST PREFAB23

G.I SHEETS OF WALLS

PANEL24 STEP2 INSTALLATION 23

PANEL25 STEP3 24

PANEL26STEP4JOINING 24

PANEL27 STEP5 PREFINISHED HOUSE 24

PANEL30 STEP7 DOORS AND WINDOWS24

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PANEL31 STEP8 OUTER FINISHING24

PANEL32 STEP 9 FINAL FINISH 25

PANEL 33 STEP 10 VIEW 25

PANEL34 STEP11 INTERIOR 25

PANEL35MODULAR BATH ROOM PREFAB 26

PANEL36 BATH MADE OF PREFAB P.V.C SHEET PANEL26

PANEL37 TRANSPORTABLE PREFAB UNITS27

PANEL38 LAYOUT OF MODULAR BATHROOM 27

PANEL39 INTERIORS28

CHAPTER1INTRODUCTION

1.1PREFABRICATED HOUSES

The components of the house are built and pre-assembled at a factory, then shipped to the building site by truck, lowered onto its foundation by crane, and then the structure is finished by connecting all the wiring and plumbing.The major benefit to prefabricated homes is that once workers build and create the foundation, the actual house can be constructed in a matter of days. However, the major disadvantage is that typically there are limitations to changes in the design of the house. Many prefabricated home builders combine both quality and affordability in the off-site built homes that they sell.

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1.2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF PREFABRICATION1.2AThe concept of prefabrication is born out of logic and predates industry bythousands of years. It finds roots in hunting, warfare, art, construction, and many otheractivities that are intrinsically linked to the existence and survival of homo sapiens.Prefabrication originally took the basic form of developing systems, either conceptualor actual, that led to the production of parts that could be used in a variety of ways.Eventually, prefabrication became necessary for meeting the demand for products,food, and entertainment of the growing masses. Early examples would be thespecialized production of forks, glassware, horse shoes, and arrows.In the period when architecture was becoming a major form of culturalexpression, prefabrication found a conceptual role in the hands of Andrea Palladio.Palladio found himself inundated with commissions for palaces and villas, anddecided early in his career that standard optimal forms, such as column proportionsand stair arrangements, were desirable. His work was founded on a set ofconceptually prefabricated building elements. This allowed him to handle the workload as well as provide a variety of creative alternatives to a single design.Soon after a revival of interest in classical architecture, the architect Jean-Nicholas-Louis Durand published a book called Lessons of Architecture, in which heset out rules and a systematic grammar for the development of architectural designs.Durand was a student of the neoclassical theorist and architect Etienne-Louis Boullee.Boullee and Durand parted on the critical issue of the purpose of architecture.Durand felt that the aim of architecture was, rather than aesthetic, the welfare of theusers and an architect’s greatest organizer for composition was the floor plan. In thevane of prefabrication, Durand sought to rationalize the architectural process.Starting in the early 18th century, The Industrial Revolution had animmeasurable influence on architecture and prefabrication. All design was affectedby the common use of new materials such as steel and glass. Design changes werefundamental in some cases and gave rise to new styles whose roots were solidlyplanted in the concept of industry. Later, in the 20th century, this style found a voice in

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the work of the European modernists Le Corbusier, Gropius, Mies van der Rohe, AlvarAalto, and JJP Oud.1.2BThe post WWI era in Europe saw a major increase in the industrialization ofbuilding. Due to the destruction of existing buildings and the lack of new constructionduring the intra-war years, there was an acute demand for economical and simplebuilding systems. Housing saw the greatest progress in prefabrication as architectsbegan to more widely accept the use of standard parts, steel, and glass. One issuewith many of the building systems developed during this time was that flexibility wasnot part of the overall design. These systems did not provide room for a creativeresponse to an architectural problem.At this point in history, prefabrication found a niche in a world that needed todeal with an increasing number of new technologies. For example, the Orly AirshipHangars outside of Paris were made of prefabricated concrete arches whoserepetitive use and high volume of enclosure allowed for the storage of such massiveunits as blimps.1.2CThis period also saw the founding of the Bauhaus, a haven for the internationalstyle. This school was founded by Walter Gropius in 1919 and became a place wherehe spread and taught his beliefs concerning the need for new design to be based onmass production. Stark white walls, industrialized parts, and machined detailsbecame the hallmark of this style.World War II was concluded with another housing crisis both in the UnitedStates and Europe. Though United States territories had not seen any action, therewas a need for housing due to the number of returning soldiers who quickly startedfamilies. A population explosion accompanied the end of the war. Once again,prefabrication was used to meet the demand for housing. Entire communities, suchas the one in Levittown, NY), appeared with row after row of prefabricated,largely identical houses. Thus, the “mushroom farms” were born.In the 1960’s, there was a more theoretical exploration of industrialized buildingsystems. Much of this research took place in Europe, but never caught on as amainstream idea. Part of the reason for this was the relatively slow housing market atthat time in many European countries. Other countries, however, had a great

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demand for housing, and industry promised low cost success in solving the problem.As usual, the presence of a market drove the development of industrialized housing inthose countries. However, this development was driven by profit and lacked anyaesthetic attention other than what was afforded to it in order to create market value.As a result, manufactured housing took the form of commonly accepted traditionalstyles such as the gable roofed colonial. In the worlds two largest housing markets,the United States and Japan, there are extensive examples of this reality.A typical suburban street in Japan includes a number of traditional westernstyle houses that are almost identical, each delivered direct from the factory.Prefabrication in Japan has advanced to the stage where manufacturing, ordering,stock, and delivery are almost completely automated. Sekisui, the largest prefabcompany in Japan has automated warehouses where parts are produced, storedand shipped by robotic arms that move on tracks. Although nowhere near Japan inproduction technology, the United States builds almost 20% of the new houses viaprefabricated processes. This is not to mention the innumerable new constructionprojects that use prefabricated parts such as roof trusses and wooden I-beams.Virtually every new project in the United States has some prefabricated element to it.There are a number of reasons for the success of industrialized housing in thesetwo countries, the first of which is the demand. Other factors are the benefits thatcome with factory manufacturing such as energy efficiency, speed of erection, andlow cost. This is why many customers choose industrialized housing over conventionalconstruction.1.2D Unfortunately, the result of the proliferation of a purely profit based attitude isthe creation of an unfortunate environment where once beautiful and innovativedesigns are stamped out like cars off an assembly line. The style from which thesedesigns are taken is no longer alive in this type of construction. These houses nowrepresent a human refusal to let go of the past at the cost of compositional styles that

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were at one time beautifully and carefully constructed. My system is intentionallyexpressive of its own construction and logic in an attempt to state the real processesand ideas that are involved in the creation of a modern building.

CHAPTER2CASE STUDIES IN PREFABRICATED BUILDINGS

2.1 INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING SYSTEMS (EUROPEAN)European examples of industrialized building systems from the 1960’scelebrated the potential of the factory and embraced styles that expressed themechanical nature of modern buildings. They also sought to explore the implicationsthat industry would have on existing architectural styles.

2.2 INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING SYSTEMS (JESPERSON)Specifically, the Jesperson system of industrialized building includes a framemade of precast concrete wall panels. These panels bear the load of pre-cast floorand roof slabs. The rules of the system follow a planning module which includes crosswall paneling in every other bay. The modules are four feet deep by a minimum ofone foot wide. The maximum width is eighteen feet. The cross wall panels are placedfor the purpose of handling wind loads. Aside from these constraints, the designermay use any form of external infill or cladding. The cladding may also become standardized for the sake of costs. Interior floor finishes in this system are often vinyl on the first floor and timber boarding across battens on the upper floors. The wood on the upper floors is in response to the unpredictable nature of the finish on concrete floor panels, whereas the ground slab is much more controlled.

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PANEL1- A COMPLETED JESPERSEN SYSTEM (DIPROSE, 1966)

The Jespersen wall has a butt joint between panels which can be finished toobtain a flat surface. Internal partitions are faced with plasterboard. These partitionsare brought to the site finished and assembled in panels. The openings for doors andwindow have pre-drilled screw holes to allow for easy installation. The partitioningsystem is not considered to be demountable.The Jespersen system does not favor the use of electric lighting on the ceiling,but rather in the spaces between the plasterboard wall panels. The panel itself, beinghollow, will also accept lighting fixtures. Wiring to the partitions is placed either in arecessed timber skirting or in the space between battens under the floor.

2.3 2 INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING SYSTEMS (1960’S)Another system that became well known in the 60’s and whose ideas are stillapplicable today is the 5M system. The essential criterion in the design of the 5Msystem was flexibility of layouts and capability for application by local architects and

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builders. The frame consists of steel stanchions with plywood box beams on theperimeter and timber beams internally. The system itself is based on a twentyinch grid and standardized components are all based on the carrying capacity oftwo men.The 5M System itself has not been hugely successful, although some of itscomponents and ideas have become standard in industrialized building. The mostsuccessful component was what became known as the “5M party wall”. This wall isconstructed of two skins of plasterboard sandwiching a fiber glass curtain.2.4 INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING SYSTEMS(BELFRY SYSTEM)The Belfry system demonstrates a design that allows for ventilation ofstructure and provides flexibility in the use of mechanical systems and interior design.The system is based on pre-cast concrete cross walls which support load bearingbeams at the center and perimeter. The beams carry floor slabs, roof slabs, andexternal cladding. The internal planning depth of a given unit is twenty seven feetand the width, or distance between cross walls, may be anywhere from sixteen feet tothirty six feet.

PANEL2 - A COMPLETED BELFRY SYSTEM (DIPROSE, 1966)

2.4A Load Bearing Perimeter Beam

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The load bearing perimeter beam has a depth limited to twelve inches, so anyspans greater than twelve feet include intermediate support from a structuralconcrete panel. This panel becomes part of the structural expression on the façade.Infill is made of timber framed panels which may house windows and doors, andinclude timber weatherboard cladding.2.4B ROOFING SYSTEMThe roof of the system is a waterproof concrete slab which requires no finishing.This allows interior work to go forward quickly. This roof slab is exposed on top andinsulated underneath by a suspended quilt and plasterboard ceiling. The cavity isventilated against condensation. End walls of concrete and brick provide anadequate insulation value as do the timber cladding panels. These panels areventilated internally.2.4C PARTITION WALLSThe partition walls are faced with plasterboard and cut to a height slightlyshort of the ceiling. They are wedged into blocks on the ceiling and some space is leftbetween wall and block for electric wiring. Demounting of walls is possible, but verydifficult.2.4D TYPICAL HEATING DUCTSTypical heating ducts feed through the ceiling space of the ground floor.The system may support a variety of heating applications and provisions are made inthe roof panels to allow for this flexibility.Electrical installations may be placed on ceiling or wall as the chases areformed when the concrete is poured. Erection of the building is intended to behandled by a four ton crane for the structural elements, and a lighter crane for thepartition walls and cladding panels.2.4E SITE LAYOUTSThe Site layouts for this system will be restricted by the abilities of a crane, but therate of construction can be as high as one unit per day for large multiple residencedwellings.

2.5 THE SYSTEMThe general aim of this project is to design an economically efficientprefabricated building system that is not dependant on highly repetitious spaces orforms, and therefore provides a viable alternative to conventional construction.

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Current prefabricated systems utilize a fair amount of repetition in order toeconomically compete with conventional methods of construction. This enforcedrepetition tends to create relentlessly uniform designs without any room for variation ora spatial organization in response to site and programmatic issues. I have developeda prefabricated building system that provides some of the design flexibility of platformframing but lacks the heavily layered development that accompanies this techniqueof construction. The proposed building system uses a stick frame structure thatprovides support for an interior, insulated enclosure, and an exterior, ventilated shell.The shell takes the form of a rain screen. The volume of the enclosure is lifted a fewfeet from the ground, creating minimal site impact and building/ground interaction.Mechanical systems may reside in zones created by the standardized structural frameand run through the space between shell and enclosure. Due to an arrangement ofindividual panels, the cavity that exists between the rain screen and enclosure is easilyaccessible, without any damage to the building, from the interior or exterior. The mainadvantages of the proposed system over conventional 2x4 constructions are that it ischeaper to build, has easier maintenance, and greater long term performance. Thisperformance can be measured in energy efficiency, moisture resistance, andecological impact. The main advantage the system has over typical prefabricatedsystems is its ability to conform to a variety of design demands, both functionally andspatially.PANEL 3 VENTILATION SYSTEM

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PANEL 4 SYSTEM CONCEPT

The system demonstrates a form of low cost, prefabricated construction thatefficiently deals with vapor and thermal issues without using the typical layeredsystems. This is accomplished through the use of modular panels that will be built atlow cost in a factory and used as infill/insulation. Doors and windows may bemounted into the infill panels. These modular pieces are interchangeable, allowingfor easy, low cost maintenance.The developed project includes a catalog of interchangeable parts whichcan be assembled by a client into a building (Appendix I). There are design choicesfor different arrangements within certain parameters set by the basic structuralelements. The structural system is able to stand alone without any material orcomponent imports. However, most of the catalog components and materials areinterchangeable with custom parts. The system may be used to create its ownbuilding or additions that may interface with other forms of construction.The two systems from which this system is derived are also its greatestcompetitors. My proposed system must show some advantages over traditional 2x(stick built) construction and standard Structural Insulated Panel (SIP) construction inorder to be viable. The panels that make up the enclosure walls are derived from the SIP concept.However there are two major differences between standard SIPs and the panels I have designed. First, all major panels in my system are sized at 4’x 8’, which minimizeslabor in the prefabrication process as plywood and polystyrene is distributed in this sizeinitially. Any off-size panels are simply cut in the factory and belong to a limited set ofstandard sizes. On-site cutting is unnecessary and waste should be almost nonexistent.The second difference is that wall panels are constructed of typical polystyrene boards and plaster board – window or door mountable wall panels have an exterior face of ¼” plywood providing stability. The simple enclosure wall panels possess insulation that is exposed in the ventilated cavity, allowing evaporation of any condensed water that may form at the dew point in the wall. The plaster may serve as interior finish, thereby eliminating further material and labor consumption. The structure of my system is derived from a stick frame platform framing system. Essentially, beams have been replaced with trusses and floor joists have been replaced with the SIP floor panel. The greatest difference is that the structure is mostly

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separate from the enclosure wall and exists in its own ventilated cavity. This would increase the lifetime of the structure by protecting it from mold and rot

CHAPTER3MATERIALS USED IN PREFABRICATION3.1STORM SHELTER

3.1A INTRODUCTIONReady-to-install exterior concrete and fiberglass structures with economical and low profile in-ground installation

PANEL 5 STORM SHELTER

Storm shelters can help reduce the number of deaths caused by tornadoes, hurricanes, and typhoons each year. These ready-to-install exterior concrete, metal and fiberglass storm shelters feature economical and low profile in-ground installation on flat or sloped terrain.

The 5,000 psi concrete shelters measure 6'x8'x6'2" (WxLxH) on the inside and have a capacity of 6 to 8 persons or 4 to 6 wheelchairs and 2 to 3 able-bodied persons. The standard concrete shelters feature 4" reinforced walls, floors, and ceilings. In addition, the shelter also has 3/8" rebar every 12", a 10-gauge leak-proof steel access door, a 28" metal stair with 6" treads and two handrails, and a 8" turbine ventilator. Except for a vertical access door (made of poly-core aluminum with an insulated steel panel for level wheel chair and walker access), specifications for the handicap-accessible shelter are the same.The fiberglass, low profile in-ground shelter measures 6'x8'x6' (WxLxH) on the inside and also has a capacity of 8 to 10 persons. The standard package features water-, mildew-, and moisture-proof construction. It also contains a horizontal, vented sliding door; fully carpeted, skid-resistant treads; and a 7,000 lb. emergency jack to remove obstructions from the exit door. Additional options include handrails, seating, and storage boxes.

3.1B INSTALLATION

The angled access door design of the standard concrete shelter provides for both flat and hilly terrain installation. In either case the shelter is placed 4' into finished grade. On flat terrain the excavated soil can be used to cover the remaining exposed 2' of the shelter. The unit can be installed flush with hilly terrain. Upon excavation and (depending on soil conditions) preparing a

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sand and gravel base, the 13,000 lb. concrete shelter is lifted into place and backfilled. Because of its own weight, no additional anchoring system is necessary.The 1,500 lb. fiberglass shelter is placed in a 8'x10'x90" (WxLxD) excavation on a 8" concrete slab, where it is chained down with a 3/8" zink chain and backfilled.Other shelters are made to be installed in your home or as an addition to your home. They can be done by the homeowner, but often a professional should be consulted for modifications to your home.

3.1C BENEFITS/COSTS

In the midwest or any other areas where dangerously high winds and storms come annually, these shelters would prove a good investment if there is not already a storm shelter on the property. These shelters are resistant to varying environmental conditions and will last for several years.

3.2ECONOMY STAINLESS STEEL

3.2A SUMMARYA low-cost prefabricated construction system using sheets of expanded polystyrene insulation reinforced with corrosion resistant steel and coated with concrete is described. Panels of expanded polystyrene of 115 mm thickness are sandwiched between sheets of 3.2 mm 3CR12 stainless steel ( 12%Cr ) mesh, placed over 3CR12 rebar embedded in a concrete foundation, and fastened to each other. Window and door openings are cut, and electrical supply and plumbing fittings inserted between the wire mesh and the foam. The structure is then sprayed with concrete to create a monolithic structure. The system is rapid, requiring less skill and personnel than other building systems. The structures are low maintenance and thermally efficient.

3.2B ADVANTAGE

The use of an economical stainless steel and polystyrene pre-fabricated building system for commercial, residential and industrial buildings results in construction that is cheaper, faster, stronger, and more versatile than any other wall panel system including wood frame or concrete block. The resultant monolithic structure has been tested to show that the system is adaptable to virtually any structural requirement or climatic, environmental and seismic condition. It offers design flexibility and adapts easily to curved or arched design applications and little equipment is needed for installation. Labour costs are also dramatically reduced as specialised fitters, framing, masonry, insulation and drywall trades are all largely eliminated. The system also has significant environmental benefits. It is an excellent thermal and sound barrier and the component materials are environmentally intelligent. 3CR12 is recyclable, the polystyrene does not contain CFCs and it is an inherently passive solar design.

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3.2C COMPONENTS

The components are also simple - a 4-5 inch core of non-CFC expanded polystyrene, clad with 3.2mm welded 3CR12 stainless steel mesh and coated with the desired thickness of concrete or plaster. The lightweight panels are placed over 3CR12 rebar in a concrete foundation and fastened to one another with 3CR12 wire mesh reinforcing seams and corners. Windows and door openings can be cut for any type of framing material and electrical conduit and plumbing are placed between the mesh and the foam.

3.2D APPLICATIONS

Applications include commercial office buildings, factories, warehouses, low-cost housing, sound barrier, fire and partition walls.

3.3BAMBOO SANDWICH COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

3.3A INTRODUCTION

Over the last thirty years composite materials, plastics, and ceramics have been the dominant emerging materials. The volume and number of applications of composite materials have grown steadily, penetrating and conquering new markets relentlessly. Modern composite materials constitute a significant proportion of the engineered materials market ranging from everyday products to sophisticated niche applications.Today high performance fibre reinforced plastics (FRP) are starting to challenge those ubiquitous materials such as steel & aluminium in everyday applications as diverse as automobile bodies and civil infrastructure. However, continuous advances in the manufacturing technologies and performance of FRP have intensified the competition in a growing range of applications leading to significant growth in its market acceptance. Each type of composite brings its own performance characteristics that are typically suited for specific applications.Lightweight corrosion resistant materials such as FRP could provide an important contribution to the safe, economical development of resources. The need for new markets has spurred renewed efforts in reducing the cost of both raw materials and manufacturing processes, making composites more competitive to use in civil infrastructure applications. The mechanical properties of composite laminates are

PANEL 6 Salient Mechanical Properties of FRP Laminates 

Tensile Strength

Flexural Strength

Impact Water

Water Absorptio

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(MPa) (MPa)Strength

(Joules/m)Absorption: 24 Hrs. Room Temp. (%)

n:

4 Hrs. Boiling (%)

88.97 175.86 609.44 0.08 0.92

3.4 COMPOSITE AS BUILDING MATERIALS

3.4A INTRODUCTION

Composites present immense opportunities to play increasing role as an alternate material to replace timber, steel, aluminium and concrete in buildings. Their benefits of corrosion resistance and low weight have proven attractive in many low stress applications. The use of high performance FRP in primary structural applications, however, has been slower to gain acceptance although there is much development activity. Composite is being used for the manufacture of prefabricated, portable and modular buildings as well as for exterior cladding panels, which can simulate masonry or stone. In interior applications, composites are used in the manufacture of shower enclosures and trays, baths, sinks, troughs and spas. Cast composite products are widely used for the production of vanity units, bench tops and basins.

3.4B INDIAN SCENARIO

Indian efforts centre around developing cost effective building materials as well as for catering to the housing needs of urban & rural poor. In this context, certain developments concerning glass fibre reinforced polymer composites, natural fibre composites, industrial waste based composites have assumed importance. The key restricting factors in the application of composites are initial costs due to raw materials and also inefficient conventional molding processes. Industry & design experts are of the view that with the adoption of advanced technologies and some extent of standardization, these problems could be easily taken care of. Various key product applications being developed in the building & construction industry are prefabricated, portable & modular buildings, exterior cladding panels, interior decorations, furniture, bridges and architecture mouldings. Various proven composite products being used in the housing sector are bathtubs & basins, drainage channels, manhole covers, pits, farm buildings, doors, door frames & windows, cabinets, housing modular, sheeting roof and flat, structural members, portable toilets, ponds & fountains, water storage tanks etc.The following section deals with the development activities being carried out in various academic Institutions/R&D laboratories in India in partnership with industries.

3.5 FRP DOORS & DOOR FRAMES

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3.5A INTRODUCTION

With the scarcity of wood for building products, the alternative, which merits attention, is to promote the manufacturing of low cost FRP building materials to meet the demands of the housing & building sectors. The doors made of FRP skins, sandwiched with core materials such as rigid polyurethane foam, expanded polystyrene, paper honeycomb, jute/coir felt etc. can have potential usage in residential buildings, offices, schools, hospitals, laboratories etc. Sandwich composite construction is popular in door fabrication due to their critical advantages such as high specific strength & stiffness, low weight, impact resistance and uniform smooth surfaces. The core in sandwich construction stabilizes the facings and carries most of the shear load. A low-density core made of honeycomb or foam materials provides a structural performance with minimum weight. Other considerations such as sound insulation, heat resistance, vibration-damping etc. dictate the particular choice of material used as core material. The FRP doors & doorframes have been designed & developed using the aforesaid technology by the RV-TIFAC Composite Design Centre (CDC) at Bangalore under a project launched by the Advanced Composites Mission of the Technology Information, Forecasting & Assessment Council (TIFAC) under the Department of Science & Technology (Govt. of India).

PANEL7 Mechanical Properties of Materials used for Manufacturing Doors

MaterialDensitygms/CC

Young’s Modulus N/mm2

Tensile Strength N/mm2

Shear Modulus N/mm2

Shear Strength N/mm2

GFRP 1.44 6890 74.40 2970 16.40

PUF 0.035 4.10 0.30 1.50 0.172

WOOD 1.013 10000 80 4000 40

XPS 0.02062 - - 5.6245 -

EPS 0.01615 - - 2.1092 -

3.5B COST/WEIGHT

A cost and weight analysis of FRP doors as well as conventional wooden doors was carried out by RV-TIFAC CDC and it was noted that replacing salwood door with FRP door could result in cost & weight savings of 44.72% and 61.04% respectively. Table – III presents the cost & weight comparison of FRP doors with conventional wooden doors.

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PANEL7 Cost/Weight Comparison of FRP Doors with Conventional Wooden Doors

Materials

FRP Salwood

Teak Wood

% Saving vs. Salwood

% Saving vs. Teakwood

Weight (Kgs.) 19.35 49.67 26.72 61.04 27.58Cost (Rupees)

2502 4526 8855 44.72 71.74

PANEL 8 COMPARISON TABLE OF COST AND WEIGHT

The FRP sandwich composite door designed and developed by the Centre was subjected to all the 18 tests and conforms to IS: 4020 standards.

3.6 PULTRUDED PROFILES

3.6A INTRODUCTIONAmong a wide array of composite products, pultruded profiles are used in many structural applications. Pultruded sections are well-established alternative to steel, wood and aluminium in developed countries and are fast catching up in other parts of the world. Structural sections have ready markets in oil exploration rigs, chemical industries etc. The amount of energy required to fabricate FRP composite materials for structural applications with respect to conventional materials such as steel & aluminium is lower and would work for its economic advantage in the end. The pultruded products are already being recognized as commodity in the international market for construction. Under a project launched by the Advanced Composites Mission, FRP Pultruded Profiles with excellent surface finish and flame retardancy as per international standards have been developed by M/s. D K Fibre Forms Ltd., Pune. Products such as industrial gratings, solid rods for electrical insulation, cable-trays, ladders etc. have been fabricated.

PANEL9 Comparative Mechanical/Chemical Properties of FRP Pultruded Sections

Mechanical Properties

Pultruded FRP

Mild Steel

Wood

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Rigid PVC

Stainless Steel

Polyester

Vinyl Ester

Tensile Strength(N/mm2)

382 401 44 340 340 80

Flexural Strength(N/mm2)

468 508 70 380 380 12

Flexural Modulus(N/mm2)

22489 48260 2400 196000 196000 700

Izod Impact (Kg-m/cm) 1.36 1.63 0.09 1.5 0.53 -Specific Gravity 1.80 1.80 1.38 7.8 7.92 0.52Safe Working Temp. (° C)

120 170 55 600 600 160

(Sour ce

PANEL10 Pultruded Product Characteristics

SOURCE:(Product Information Brochure, M/s. DK Fibre Forms, Pune)

3.7 NATURAL FIBRE COMPOSITES (NFC)

3.7A INTRODUCTION

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Size Forming guide system and equipment pulling capacity influence size limitation

Shape Straight, constant cross sections, some curved sections possible

Length No limitReinforcement Fibre glass, aramid fibre, carbon fibre,

thermoplastic and natural fibresMechanical Strength

Medium to high, primarily unidirectional approaching isotropic

Labor intensity

Low to medium

Mould cost Low to mediumProduction rate

Shape and thickness related

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Natural fibres, as a substitute for glass fibres in composite components, have gained interest in the last decade, especially in the housing sector. Fibres like jute, sisal, coconut fibre (coir), ramie, banana, flax, hemp etc. are cheap and have better stiffness per unit weight and also have a lower impact on the environment. Structural applications are rare since existing production techniques are not applicable for such NFC products and non-availability of semi-finished materials with adequate quality. The moderate mechanical properties of natural fibres prevent them from being used in high-performance applications (e.g. where carbon reinforced composites would be utilized), but for many reasons they can compete with glass fibres. Advantages and disadvantages determine the choice of their consideration. Lower specific weight of NFCs results in higher specific strength & stiffness compared to glass fibre and is a benefit especially in parts designed for bending stiffness.

3.7B POLYESTER OR POLYPROPYLENE AND FIBRES

Many components are now produced in natural composites, mainly based on polyester or polypropylene and fibres like flax, jute, sisal, banana or ramie. Until now however, the introduction in this industry is lead by motives of price and marketing (‘processing renewable resources’) rather than technical demands. It can be moulded into sheets, boards, gratings, pallets, frames, sections and many other shapes. They can be used as a substitute for wood, metal or masonry for partitions, false ceilings, facades, barricades, fences, railings, flooring, roofing, wall tiles etc.

3.7C LIGNO-CELLULOSIC FIBRES

The wide usage of ligno-cellulosic fibres as reinforcement in thermoplastic such as polyethylene, polypropylene is due to their low cost, low density, high specific strength, flexibility and reduced wear of processing machinery. Studies have been carried out by the Indian Jute Industries’ Research Association (IJIRA), Kolkata on the effect of compatibilizers, impact modifiers and fibre loading on jute-fibre reinforced polypropylene composites.

3.7D OLEFINIC AS MODIFIER

In an attempt to improve the impact strength of composites, it was found that olefinic based impact modifier (containing carboxylic functions) resulted in increase in mechanical, flexural and impact strengths than the elastomer based modifier. This has been due to presence of carboxylic functional group having better bonding with jute fibre and homogeneity with polypropylene matrix.

3.7E COIR FIBRE REINFORCED POLYETHYLENE

Regional Research Laboratory, Thiruvananthapuram carried out detailed analysis of the effect of fibre length, fibre content on the tensile properties of coir fibre reinforced polyethylene composites. It was observed that the

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strength modulus and failure strain of the composites increased with fibre length upto the maximum fibre length of 20 mm and fibre volume fraction of 0.26. Further increase of fibre length resulted in decrease in fibre-fibre interaction and poor compaction of fibre in the matrix. Although coir fibre processes 60-70% low tensile strength than sisal & pineapple fibres, coir-polyethylene composites show comparable tensile strength and higher failure strain to those of sisal & pineapple fibre based composites. This is due to presence of natural waxy layer on the fibre resulting in better interfacial bonding between coir and polyethylene.

3.7F STRENGTHENING MATERIALS

Due to the inherent advantages of these composites, some composite products such as natural fibre based panels, corrugated/foamed core sandwich door materials & frames, pultruded GRP shuttering system, roofing sheet & tiles, artificial marble, repair materials for strengthening concrete structures etc. have been developed by Central Building Research Institute (CBRI), Roorkee.

3.7F SISAL & JUTE FIBRE COMPOSITES

A systematic study has been carried out at CBRI on sisal & jute fibre composites for their application in construction sector. Various coupling agents (silane, titanate, N-substituted methacrylamide) have been used to improve the wettability of these fibres. Process know-how for fabricating these natural fibre composites has been established by CBRI. The sandwich composite panels are lightweight and have excellent bending stiffness besides good thermal & sound insulation. For semi-structural applications hybrid composites have been developed with glass fibre, sisal fibre & polyester resin. The tensile strength of hybrid composites is 56 MPa with an elastic modulus of approx. 2 GPa.

3.7G SISAL FIBRE AND WOLLASTONITE

Further, CBRI has carried out developmental efforts using sisal fibre and wollastonite as synergistic reinforcement alternative to glass fibres in dough & bulk moulding compounds to widen their usage in the housing sector. The physico-mechanical properties such as thickeners, monomer type, sisal/wollastonite/glass fibre content of the moulding are studied as a function of various constituents. Sisal based dough moulding compound can be used for developing building materials such as checker floor plate, roof tile, sanitary ware etc.

3.7H JUTE PULTRUDED DOORFRAMES

An attempt has also been made by CBRI to fabricate jute pultruded doorframes using woven jute cloth and phenolic resin. Phenolic resins is often used for fabrication of jute-composite products mainly because of its high

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heat resistance, low smoke emissions excellent fire retardance properties and compatibility with jute fibres.

3.8 PULTRUDED DOORFRAME

The pultruded doorframe (2140 x 920 mm) can accommodate 35 mm thick door. The density of these profiles fabricated has been 873 ± 10 Kg./m3. The comparative properties of wooden door frame and pultruded jute doorframe have been given in Table VI. CBRI has also evaluated the mechanical properties of these pultruded doorframes. It was observed that the variation in tensile & flexural strength of profiles at low humidity condition has been marginal while a progressive deterioration is observed at high humidity levels. The pultruded doorframe was performance tested for 2-3 years. There was no sign of warping, bulging, discolouration etc.

PANEL 11 Properties of Wooden and Pultruded Jute Composite Door Frame

(Source : CBRI, Roorkee)

3.9 COIR-CEMENT ROOFING SHEET

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Property Wooden door frame Specified Value (IS:4021-83)

Pultruded JRP Door Frame-Experiment

Moisture content (%)

8-15 4.40

Seasoning/treatment

Preventing from warping and mould growth

Not required

Dimensions/size (cm)

H-199-209, W 79-99

H-214, W-92

Hold fasts 3 3Gluing of joints BWR adhesive Reinforced adhesiveInstallation Solid Inside frame is filled

by concrete/foamFinish Priming followed by

varnish/ paintPU paint/varnish/melamine

Weathering A1 priming required

Resin rich layer

Dimensional stability

No warping/twisting

Exposure 2-5 years, no defects

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CBRI has developed another technology for production of coir-cement roofing sheet having a thickness of 6-8 mm. The manufacturing process involves soaking of coir fibre in mineralized water and then mixing with dry cement in the ratio of 1:5 by weight. A sheet is made with this wet mix of cement coated fibres and is held under pressure for 4-8 hrs. The long-term performance under actual conditions has been ascertained. Another type of roofing sheets with a thickness of 3-4 mm fabricated using chopped fibre strand mats, fibrous reinforcing filler, anti-aging agent and unsaturated polyester resin.

PANEL12 Properties of Coir-Cement Roofing Sheet

Property Natural Fibre Sheet

Asbestos Sheet

Density (gms/cm3)1.02 2.0

Water Absorption 24 Hrs. (%) 3 - 5 25Thickness (mm)

3.31 6Pitch Length (mm)

75 146Pitch Depth (mm)

19.25 48Weight (Kgs./m2)

3 – 4 13.50Bending Strength (MPa)

45 – 58 25 – 30Deflection (mm)

30 – 40 -Thermal Conductivity (K Cal/m2/Hr./0C) 0.12 – 0.15 0.24

(Source : CBRI, Roorkee)

3.10 MEDIUM DENSITY COMPOSITE DOORS

CBRI has developed medium density composite doors containing coir fibre, cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) as natural resin and paraformaldehyde as major constituents. Coir fibre contributes mechanical strength to the composite while the CNSL with paraformaldehyde act as a binder. Coir is impregnated with CNSL and is compression moulded under high temperature. The pressure required during casting of the board/sheet depends upon the required density of the final product. These boards can be used as wood substitute for paneling, cladding, surfacing and partitioning and other interior

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applications. The boards have density between 0.5 – 0.9 gms/cm3 and can be cut, sawed, nailed & screwed. The boards have very low water absorption and negligible swelling.

3.11 CONCLUSION

India with an excellent knowledge-base in various resins, catalysts & curing systems coupled with an adequate availability of various raw materials can certainly carve out a niche in the emerging technology of composite fabrication.

3.12 ADVANCED COMPOSITES MISSION

Assessing the importance of composites as an advanced performance material in various sectors such as railways, automobiles, building & construction, marine, bio-medical etc., the Advanced Composites Mission programme for composite technology development & commercialization was launched by the Department of Science & Technology (DST), Govt. of India. The Mission-mode activities are being implemented by the Technology Information, Forecasting & Assessment Council (TIFAC), an autonomous organization under DST.  The Advanced Composites Mission aims to improve upon the laboratory-industry linkages towards application development & commercialization. The Mission has been successful in launching 22 projects across the country in active collaboration with the industry and national laboratories. Some of the important projects launched by the Mission in the building & construction sector include FRP pultruded profiles, FRP doors & doorframes, jute-coir composite boards etc. The Mission has been quite instrumental in bridging the knowledge gaps and bringing together the industries & the users for technology development, transfer & subsequent commercialization. Such an objective oriented, demand driven and time bound programme on composite technology with the involvement of stake holders would go a long way in developing innovative composite applications meeting international quality and wider acceptance by the users thus contributing to the growth of knowledge-based business in India. An efficient mechanism such as the Advanced Composites Mission can be instrumental for achieving the desired objectives and can help in synergising the users & industry thus reaching the products to the market with a shorter gestation period.

CHAPTER 4PREFABRICATED COMPONENTS

4.1WOOD-FRAME SYSTEMS 4.1A INTRODUCTION

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A typical prefabricated wood-frame system consists of stud-framed wall sections. These have insulation installed and protected with exterior grade plywood sheathing or siding on the outside, and plywood, fibreboard or other sheathing material on the inside, but without the final interior cladding. Hand holes at the sides of each panel allow the wall sections to be bolted together.

4.2STRESSED-SKIN PANEL SYSTEMS4.2A INTRODUCTIONStressed-skin designs use light, strong sheet materials as structural skins which are bonded to stabilizing webs to form an enclosed panel.The panels act as groups of i-beams or h-columns. The framed stressed-skin panel offers high rigidity and a strength-to-weight ratio which can only be surpassed by the structural sandwich type of stressed-skin design.

4.3STRUCTURAL SANDWICH SYSTEMS 4.3A INTRODUCTIONStructural sandwich panel design represent a further advancement from the framed stressed-skin concept. The structural skins are bonded over their full area to a light core sandwiched between them.The core acts both as the stabilizing web and as insulation. True stressed-skin action is achieved over the whole panel and the structural sandwich allows the highest possible strength/weight ratio with given materials. Skins may be of plywood, hardboard, wood-cement board or metal; honeycomb or plastic foam is normally used as core material.

4.4 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

4.4A INTRODUCTIONIt is composed of electrosoldered contours of galvanised steel 30\10. Insulated floor: it is composed of 3 stratas of galvanised sheet, in the middle fibre glass of 100 mm, water repellent and antiboiling fibre according to the din norms 68763. On the same is a sheet of linoleum.

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PANEL 13 RIVVING JOINTS (ROOF)

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PANEL 14 PREFABRICATED ROOM

4.4B WALLS

Built with sandwich panels (thickness: 50 mm), which have on the outside a prepainted galvanized sheet, in the middle self-extinguishing polyurethane and in the inside a sheet like the outside roof. Roof built with sandwich panels (thickness 50 mm), the outside of ribbed galvanized sheet and the inside of prepainted sheet.

4.4C ROOF

Roof built with sandwich panels (thickness 50 mm ), the outside of ribbed galvanized sheet and the inside of prepainted sheet.

PANEL 15 PREFABRICATED ROOM

4.4D FLOORING SYSTEMThe floor may be precut beams supporting stressed-skin plywood panels or conventional construction with precut joists and sheathing. Precut roof trusses or prefabricated box beams are used to support site-applied roof and ceiling cladding.Much of the work of applying interior finish is done on the site, so careful on-site supervision is required.

4.4F DOOR AND WINDOW

Door and windows are are made of white painted anodized aluminium. The doors are usually blind and insulated (dim 97x205 h). The windows with side and base hinges have a double glass and rolling-shutters

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97x120 h or 197x120h. In addition to prefabricated joinery in kitchens, prefabricated bay windows, and proprietary door sets are initiatives of the housing authority intended to reduce construction waste and other costs.

4.4G WALL CLADDING PANELS

Prefabricated wall cladding panels will closely govern the storey heights and the length of the building, or part of a building where they are used.The structural frame is usually erected by site work methods, e.g. insitu reinforced concrete, and the prefabricated units, whether mass produced to standard sizes or specially made for the particular building project, are fitted to it.

CHAPTER 5LIVE STUDIES

PANEL 16 BOX GARAGEBuilt with sandwich panels 50 mm, which have on the outside and on the inside a prepainted sheet in color

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PANEL 17 PREFABRICATED ROOM

PANEL 18 PREFABRICATED HOUSES

Structures are also built in the middle self extinguishing polyurethane; structures with a roof of one or two sloping, provided with a ceiling and built on a existent base. They are ideal for standing constructions; they can utilize for everything for example: box for cars, offices, dressing-room, bar, sporting centre.

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PANEL19 BUILDING SITE , MILANO BARRACKS, BOLOGNA

PANEL20 PANEL

PANEL 21 BUILDING SITE , MILANO PANEL 22 HOSPITAL, GERMAN

PANEL23 STEP1 HOUSES CONST PANEL24 STEP2 INSTALLATION RUCTED OF LOW COST PREFAB G.I SHEETSOF WALLS

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PANEL 25 STEP3 PANEL26 STEP4JOINING

PANEL 27 STEP5 PREFINISHED HOUSE

PANEL30 STEP7 DOORS AND WINDOWS PANEL31 STEP8 OUTER

FINISHING OF WOOD

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PANEL 32 STEP 9 FINAL FINISH PANEL 33 STEP 10 VIEW

PANEL34 STEP11 INTERIOR

5.1PREFABRICATED UNIT BATHROOMS 5.1A INTRODUCTIONThe bathroom fittings are functional, practical and have sanitary regulations. They can be placed very fast. These bathroom fittings toilets can be utilized in the industry site and in the building site . They can be easily transported and can be used in critical places

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PANEL35MODULAR BATH ROOM PANEL36 BATH MADE OF PREFAB

P.V.C SHEET PANEL

PANEL37 TRANSPORTABLE PREFAB UNITS

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PANEL38 LAYOUT OF MODULAR BATHROOM

5.2 FEATURES:

PVC portable toilets WITH DIMENSIONS O F waste tank 310 liters dim. 113x113x241 cm; weight 80 kg. 

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PANEL39 INTERIORS

ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

CHAPTER 6

6.1ADVANTAGES 6.1A MASS PRODUCTION OF UNITS

Automation of the manufacturing process can save labour and reduce price Designers can get used to the standards units and have ready access to details Reduction of costs and construction time on site Less work to be done on site

6.1B ADVANTAGES1 Saving in the use of formwork on site 2 Precast units can be erected in bad weather 3 Effective use of formwork 4 Steel formwork is normally used and increases the number of use to 200 times 5 Precast units can be shaped so that they are self-stripping and this means the6 Reduction in labour and wear on moulds 7 Improved quality of units

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8 Factory production under strict quality control 9 Precast units can be closely checked after manufacture 10 Special shapes and surface finishes 11 Units can be cast in any position, such a upside down, on their sides, etc12 Coloured concrete can be produced by using white cement and a colour pigment 13 Casting under cover 14 Protection from hot or drying winds 15 Demountable structures 16 Bolted connections can be easily dismantled and re-erected in other places 17 Construction over and under water 18 No or little formwork is required 19 Falsework is not required 20 Minimal disruption to traffic 21 Precast bridge can be constructed without falsework 22 Casting of units before the site becomes available 23 Units can be casted and stocked before the site becomes available which can shorten the construction time 24 Built-in services and insulation 25 Services and insulation can be built into precast units accurately in the factory 26 Use of semi-skilled labour27 Accelerated curing techniques 28 Higher turnover per mould and plant 29 Controlled curing results in more durable units 30 Solution to the problem of lack of local resources and labour 31 Units can be produced thousands of kilometres away from the site 32 Greater loading of points which results in less heaving; 33 Cheaper foundations; and34 Easier levelling.35 Easy transportation36 Easy to installation

6.2 LIMITATIONS 

1 A small number of units required may prove to be uneconomical 2 Special connections, such as special bearings to transmit the vertical and horizontal loads, can add cost to the system 3 Waterproofing at joints 4 Transportation difficulties 5 Need for cranes 6 However, it is easy to make the whole unit into a rigid box by using either a stressed-skin structure. 7 The rigid box also simplifies foundation design. 8 The number of support points for a dwelling is usually dictated by the span of the structure, not the loading capacity of the support.

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9 When units are made rigid in order to survive transportation, it is possible to support the structure on three or four rather than a dozen points.

6.3 CRITERIASStandardised components are joined together to form building elements. Co-ordination shall be based upon a suitable module.That is a certain unit length which shall form the increment of change of size, and so the overall dimensions of the building will be a multiple of these modules or units of length. The dimension of the individual component need not be that of the module, it may extend over a number of modules, or possibly be a sub-multiple of a module, but must be directly related to it.

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BIBLIOGRAPHYINTERNET:

http://www.cromweld.com/?subject=KIBT%20Enquiry%20

http://www.FreePatentsOnline.com

http://www.Azobuilt.com

http://www ADVCOMP@TIFAC.ORG.IN

BOOKS:

BUILDING MATERIALS IN INDIA : 50 YEARS – A PUBLICATION BY THE BUILDING MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY PROMOTION COUNCIL (BMTPC), GOVT. OF INDIA

HOUSING & KEY BUILDING MATERIALS IN INDIA : A LONG-TERM PERSPECTIVE 1991-2011– A PUBLICATION BY BMTPC

INDUSTRIAL & MINERAL WASTES FOR COMPOSITE MATERIALS– A PUBLICATION BY BMTPC

ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY MATERIALS & TECHNOLOGY – A PUBLICATION BY BMTPC

DIRECTORY OF INDIAN BUILDING MATERIALS & PRODUCTS 1998-99 – A PUBLICATION BY BMTPC

BUILDING MATERIALS NEWS, OCTOBER 2000 – A PUBLICATION BY BMTPC

PRODUCT INFORMATION BROCHURE, DK FIBRE FORMS, PUNE

JUTE FIBRE REINFORCED POLYESTER COMPOSITES – B GOVARDHAN REDDY, VVS PRASAD, D NAGESWARA RAO, NRMR BHARGAVA; DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, ANDHRA UNIVERSITY, VISHAKAPATNAM

COIR FIBRE REINFORCED POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITES – M BRAHMAKUMAR, C PAVITHRAN; REGIONAL RESEARCH LABORATORY (RRL), THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

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