An introduction to Progressive Achievement Tests in Mathematics (PATMaths) Fourth Edition
Predicting Academic Achievement in Fourth Grade form ...
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Volume 6, Fascicle 1, December 2011 Predicng Academic Achievement in Fourth Grade from Kindergarten Cognive, Behavioural and Motor Skills I, 1 By Linda S. Pagani, Caroline Fitzpatrick, Luc Belleau and Michel Janosz 2 I. Porons of this content originally appeared in PAGANI, L. S., FITZPATRICK, C., ARCHAMBAULT, I., & JANOSZ, M. (2010). School readiness and later achievement: A French Canadian replicaon and extension. Developmental Psychology, 46 (5), 984-994. doi:10.1037/a0018881. Copyright © 2010 by the American Psychological Associaon. Adapted with permission. No further reproducon or distribuon is permied without wrien permission from the American Psychological Associaon. QLSCD 1998-2010 in brief This fascicle is based on data from the Québec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD 1998-2010) which is being conducted by the Instut de la stasque du Québec (Québec Instute of Stascs) in collaboraon with various partners (listed on the back cover). The goal of this study is to gain a beer understanding of the trajectories which, during early childhood, lead to children’s success or failure in the educaon system. The target population of the QLSCD comprises children (singleton births) born to mothers residing in Québec in 1997-1998, with the excepon of those whose mother, at the me of the child’s birth, were living in certain administrave regions of the province (Nord-du-Québec, Terres-Cries-de- la-Baies-James and Nunavik) or on Indian reserves. Certain children were also excluded because of constraints related to the sample frame or major health problems. The inial sample eligible for longitudinal monitoring comprised 2,120 children. The children were monitored annually from the age of about 5 months to 12 years, when they finished elementary school. A round of data collecon was conducted this year (2011), with most of the children now in their first year of high school (Secondary 1). The QLSCD employs a variety of data collecon instruments to gather data on the child, the person most knowledgeable of the child (PMK), her or his spouse/partner (if applicable), and the biological parent(s) not residing in the household (if applicable). During each data collecon round, the child is asked to parcipate in a variety of acvies designed to assess development. As of the 2004 round, the child’s teacher is also being asked to respond to a quesonnaire covering various aspects of the child’s development and adjustment to school. Further informaon on the methodology of the survey and the sources of data can be accessed on the website of the QLSCD (also known as “I Am, I’ll Be”), at www.iamillbe.stat.gouv.qc.ca. In Canada, taxpayers spend more per capita on providing basic education compared to the United States. Nevertheless, our school dropout rates remain comparavely high. This predicts a host of social, health, and economic problems. Canadians depend upon individual contribuons in the form of tax dollars to support social programs for future generaons. The situaon is mely considering looming populaon demographics that forecast a decline in the proporon of the populaon that is of working-age and a marked increase in that of seniors (Instut de la stasque du Québec, 2009; Stascs Canada, 2010). Consequently, we need to maximize the potenal of each child who will eventually be entering the labour market. One way to do this is to improve a person’s chances of obtaining a high school diploma. The process leading to high school dropout by age 20 can be judiciously traced to kindergarten. In fact, child characteriscs in kindergarten predict successful transions in the early grades, which significantly forecast academic aainment by age 22 (Entwisle, Alexander and Olson, 2005). For these reasons, we ought to examine how such characteriscs in the early years forecast later academic standing. Thus, ensuring all children are ready to learn at school entry remains an internaonal preoccupaon because of the eventual socioeconomic and health implicaons (Duncan et al., 2007; Heckman, 2006; High and the Commiee on Early Childhood Adopon and Dependent Care and Council on School Health, 2008). In addion to possessing basic skills, being prepared for school also implies an inclinaon and enthusiasm for classroom learning. Such characteristics at school entry play an important role in future academic success. Indeed, there is clinical consensus in both medicine and social science that adequate cognive, physical, and socio-emoonal skills and a posive outlook on learning represent effective developmental features of school readiness at school
Transcript of Predicting Academic Achievement in Fourth Grade form ...
Volume 6, Fascicle 1, December 2011
Predicting Academic Achievement in Fourth Grade from Kindergarten Cognitive,
Behavioural and Motor SkillsI, 1
By Linda S. Pagani, Caroline Fitzpatrick, Luc Belleau and Michel Janosz2
I. PortionsofthiscontentoriginallyappearedinPagani, L. S., FitzPatrick, c., archambauLt, i., & JanoSz,M.(2010).Schoolreadinessandlaterachievement:AFrenchCanadianreplicationandextension.Developmental Psychology, 46(5),984-994.doi:10.1037/a0018881.Copyright©2010bytheAmerican Psychological Association.Adaptedwithpermission.NofurtherreproductionordistributionispermittedwithoutwrittenpermissionfromtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation.
QLSCD 1998-2010 in brief
ThisfascicleisbasedondatafromtheQuébec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD1998-2010)which isbeingconductedbytheInstitutdelastatistiqueduQuébec(QuébecInstituteofStatistics)incollaborationwithvariouspartners(listedonthebackcover).Thegoalofthisstudyistogainabetterunderstandingofthetrajectorieswhich,duringearlychildhood,leadtochildren’ssuccessorfailureintheeducationsystem.
The target population of theQLSCD comprises children(singletonbirths)born tomothers residing inQuébec in1997-1998,withtheexceptionofthosewhosemother,atthetimeofthechild’sbirth,werelivingincertainadministrativeregionsoftheprovince(Nord-du-Québec,Terres-Cries-de-la-Baies-JamesandNunavik)oronIndianreserves.Certainchildrenwerealsoexcludedbecauseofconstraintsrelatedtothesampleframeormajorhealthproblems.Theinitialsampleeligibleforlongitudinalmonitoringcomprised2,120children.Thechildrenweremonitoredannuallyfromtheage of about 5months to 12 years,when they finishedelementaryschool.Aroundofdatacollectionwasconductedthisyear(2011),withmostofthechildrennowintheirfirstyearofhighschool(Secondary1).
TheQLSCDemploysavarietyofdatacollectioninstrumentstogatherdataonthechild,thepersonmostknowledgeableofthechild(PMK),herorhisspouse/partner(ifapplicable),andthebiologicalparent(s)notresidinginthehousehold(ifapplicable).Duringeachdatacollectionround,thechildisaskedtoparticipateinavarietyofactivitiesdesignedtoassessdevelopment.Asofthe2004round,thechild’steacherisalsobeingaskedtorespondtoaquestionnairecoveringvariousaspectsofthechild’sdevelopmentandadjustmenttoschool.Furtherinformationonthemethodologyofthesurvey and the sources of data can be accessed on thewebsiteof theQLSCD (also knownas “IAm, I’ll Be”), at www.iamillbe.stat.gouv.qc.ca.
In Canada, taxpayersspendmore per capitaon providing basiceducation comparedto the United States.Nevertheless,ourschooldropout rates remaincomparativelyhigh.Thispredictsahostofsocial,health, and economicproblems. Canadians
dependuponindividualcontributionsintheformoftaxdollarstosupport socialprograms for futuregenerations. The situation istimelyconsideringloomingpopulationdemographicsthatforecastadeclineintheproportionofthepopulationthatisofworking-ageandamarkedincreaseinthatofseniors(InstitutdelastatistiqueduQuébec,2009;StatisticsCanada,2010).Consequently,weneedtomaximizethepotentialofeachchildwhowilleventuallybeenteringthelabourmarket.
Onewaytodothisistoimproveaperson’schancesofobtainingahighschooldiploma.Theprocessleadingtohighschooldropoutbyage20canbejudiciouslytracedtokindergarten.Infact,childcharacteristicsinkindergartenpredictsuccessfultransitionsintheearlygrades,whichsignificantlyforecastacademicattainmentbyage22(Entwisle,AlexanderandOlson,2005).Forthesereasons,weoughttoexaminehowsuchcharacteristicsintheearlyyearsforecastlateracademicstanding.Thus,ensuringallchildrenarereadytolearnatschoolentryremainsaninternationalpreoccupationbecauseoftheeventualsocioeconomicandhealthimplications(Duncanetal.,2007;Heckman,2006;HighandtheCommitteeonEarlyChildhoodAdoptionandDependentCareandCouncilonSchoolHealth,2008).
In addition topossessingbasic skills, beingprepared for schoolalsoimpliesaninclinationandenthusiasmforclassroomlearning.Such characteristics at school entry play an important role infutureacademicsuccess.Indeed,thereisclinicalconsensusinbothmedicineandsocialsciencethatadequatecognitive,physical,andsocio-emotionalskillsandapositiveoutlookonlearningrepresenteffective developmental features of school readiness at school
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entry(HighandtheCommitteeonEarlyChildhoodAdoptionandDependentCareandCouncilonSchoolHealth,2008).Inrecentyearsresearchershavefocusedondevelopinganeffectiveandcoherentconceptual andmeasurementmodelof school readiness (JanusandOfford,2007;LemelinandBoivin,2007).Attheendoftheday,gainingabetterunderstandingofcertainskillsinkindergartenthatpredictfutureacademicachievementcanhaveaneconomicimpact.Aneffectiveandefficientmodelcanresultinaccurateassessments,earlyidentification,andmorefocusedpreventiveinterventions.
Gainingabetterunderstandingofschoolreadinessalsoremainsgermane to public health policies on child development for anumberofreasons.Youthwhodonotachievethedevelopmentalmilestoneoffinishinghighschoolhavegreaterchancesof livingin poverty and leading less productive lives (Desrosiers andRobitaille, 2006; Heckman, 2006). Such consequences becomeintergenerationalwhendropoutsbecomeparents (Evans,2004).Low parental education, especially in mothers, is associatedwith providing a less stimulating and less than optimal familyenvironmentforraisingchildren(DuncanandBrooks-Gunn,1997;Repetti,TaylorandSeeman,2002).Incontrast,attainmentofahighschooldiplomaisassociatedwiththeacquisitionofbetterhealthattitudes,behaviours,anddispositions(Chen,MatthewsandBoyce,2002;Lynch,Kaplan,andSalonen,1997).FreudenbergandRuglis(2007)havepersuasivelyarguedthatifwereducedthenumberofhighschooldropouts,ahostoflifestylerisksandoutcomeswouldbe reducedacross theexistingandunbornpopulations. Fromapopulationhealth perspective (Kindig and Stoddart, 2003), thismeansthatchildrenshoulddowellacademicallyintheirearlyyearsofattendingschoolinordertodowelllater(Heckman,2006).
Duncan et al.: The “What matters most” project
Arecentconsortium,ledbyaneconomist, inquiredaboutwhichkindergarten characteristics matter most in predicting lateracademicachievement(Duncanetal.,2007).Theresultingresearchendeavour implementedamodel involvingsix internationaldatasets, comprising approximately 36,000 children from Québec,England, and theUnited States.Meta-analysis of the results ofthesixdatasetsrevealedthatkindergartenskillsinmathematics,andtoalesserextentreading,werethemostpowerfulpredictorsoflaterprimaryschoolachievementinbothfirstandthirdgrade.Interestingly, earlymathematics skills showed themost powerin predicting later mathematics and reading achievement. Infact,precursormathematicsskillspredicted later readingbetterthanprecursor readingskills.Surprisingly,with theexceptionofattention problems, behavioural (aggression, opposition) andemotionaladjustmentaswellassocialskills inkindergartenhadnosignificantinfluenceonlaterachievement,evenamongchildrenpresentingnumerousteacher-reportedsymptomsofinternalizingandexternalizingbehaviours.SimilarresultsusingQLSCDdatawereobservedby Lemelin andBoivin (2007) in their studyof schoolreadinessandacademicperformanceinGrade1.
AlthoughDuncan’s trailblazingstudyhas itsmerits, it shouldbeindicatedthat itsQuébecsamplecomprisedonlydisadvantagedchildreninMontreal(Duncanetal.,2007).Therefore,corroboratingDuncan’sfindingswithamorerepresentative,Québec-widesampleiswarranted.TheDuncanstudyleavesunansweredquestionsabouthowschoolreadinessmightinfluenceotherformsofachievementsuch as classroom engagement. Classroom engagement skillsincludeschoolreadinesscharacteristicsthatareimportantbecausetheyareanalogoustotheproductiveworkbehavioursandhabitsthatemployersvalueinadults(Bowles,Gintis,andOsborne,2001;Paganietal.,2010a).AccordingtoareviewoftheliteratureinFarkas(2003),adultswhopossessacombinationofcognitiveskillsandfocusedworkhabits,developedfrombirththroughadolescence,experiencegreateroccupationalsuccess.Finally,theDuncanstudydidnotconsidermotorskillsasanadditionalcomponentofschoolreadiness,eventhoughresearchsuggeststheyarepredictiveoflateracademicachievement(Tramontana,HooperandSelzer,1988).
Indeed,theimportanceofmotorskillshadbeenemphasizedinmuchoftheliteraturepriortotheconclusionsoftheNationalEducationalGoalsPanel(1991)onschoolreadiness.Nevertheless,theyhavesomehowremainedabsentfrompublicpolicyandresearch,eventhoughasrecentasthelate1980s,researchwassupportingtheconclusionthatphysicalskills,especiallyfinemotorskills,predictlaterachievement(Tramontana,Hooper andSelzer, 1988). Yet, clinical studieshavereplicatedtheassociation(Sandleretal.,1992;Sortor,OdandKulp,2003).First,anassociationhasbeenobservedbetweenmotorskillproblemsandlearningcapacities(Geuzeetal.,2001;Missiunaetal.,2007).Worseningtheprognosisisanoverlapbetweenbehaviouralandmotordisorders(HarveyandReid,2003;KadesjöandGillberg,2001;KaplanandWilson,1998).Furthermore,motordeficitshavealsobeenassociatedwithspecificlanguageimpairmentsinschool-agedchildren(GainesandMissiuna,2007;Hill,2001;Websteretal.,2005).Finally,it isnoteworthythat locomotionalsofiguresprominently inbothPiagetiantheory(PiagetandInhelder,1956)andthePerryPreschoolHigh/ScopeProgram(HohmannandWeikart,2002;Noresetal.,2005).
UsingdatafromtheQuebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD,seetheboxentitledQLSCD 1998-2010 in brief), thisstudyreplicatedandextendedtheDuncanetal.modelbyinvestigatingtheimpactofchildren’scognitive,behaviouralandmotorskillsinkindergartenontheiroverallsuccesslevelinfourthgrade,includingtheirachievementinmathematics,reading,writing,andscience.Wealsoexaminedhowschoolreadinessinkindergartencontributestostudents’schoolandclassroomengagementinthefourthgrade.Suchskillsoperationalizedintermsoftaskorientation,perseverance,andautonomyhavebeenshowntoinfluenceachievement,aboveandbeyondthatofIQ(DuckworthandSeligman,2005;McKinneyetal.,1975).
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Data source and analytical method
Weconductedsevenseparatemultiplelinearregressionanalysestoestimatetowhatextentkindergartencognitive,behaviouralandmotorskillsareassociatedwithteacher-ratedacademicperformanceand school and classroom engagement in Grade 4.3 classroom engagementwasassessedusingseveralquestionspertainingtotaskorientation,followingrules,andperseverance.Schoolengagementherereferstotheperceivedimportanceofschoolforthechild(seetheappendixforadetailedlistofthevariables).Allmodelsincludedthesameindependentandcontrolvariablesanddifferedonly intermsoftheoutcomevariable.
ThedatawerebasedonresponsestovariousQLSCDquestionnaires.MeasurementsofacademicperformanceandschoolengagementwerederivedfromresponsestotheSelf-AdministeredQuestionnairefortheTeacher(SAQT)inthe2008roundwhenthechildrenwereinGrade4.TheindependentvariableswerebasedonresponsestotheSAQTanddirecttestsconductedonthechildreninthe2004roundwhentheywerefinishingkindergarten.Theindependentvariableswere the following: number knowledge, receptive vocabulary,4 hyperactive behaviour, gross motor skills, fine motor skills,locomotion,andobjectcontrol.Finally,eachofthesevenregressionmodelstookintoaccountcertainchildandfamilycharacteristicsascontrolvariableslikelytobeassociatedwithacademicachievementinfourthgrade,namelythechild’ssex,ageinmonths,presenceofphysicalaggressivitysymptomsoremotionalproblemsasassessedbythekindergartenteacher,aswellasmaternaleducationandfamilystructureandfunctioningwhenthechildwasveryyoung(HighandtheCommitteeonEarlyChildhoodAdoptionandDependentCareandCouncilonSchoolHealth,2008).Nomulticolinearityproblemwasdetected.
It should be noted that the SAQT had a lower response ratecomparedtootherQLSCDquestionnaires.Usingthis instrumentatdifferenttimesand incombinationwithotherquestionnaireslikelycontributedtoloweringthenumberofrespondents.Multipleimputation was conducted by the ISQ on certain variables tomaximizethenumberofrespondentsthatcouldbeincludedintheanalyses.Whenthisoperationwascompleted,theanalysisinvolved610childrenoutoftheapproximate2,000havingparticipatedinthe1998roundandeligibleforlongitudinalmonitoring.However,thedatawereweighted,therebyallowingtheresultstobegeneralizedtothetargetpopulationoftheQLSCD.Manyvariableswereaccountedforintheweightingprocedureandgiventhelongitudinalnatureofthesurvey,wehaveconsiderableinformationonnon-respondents.Thereforetheweightsarequitepreciseandtheriskofbiaswasminimized.Thecomplexsampledesignofthesurveywasalsotakenintoaccountincalculatingtheprecisionoftheestimates.
Itisimportanttoemphasizethatbecauseofthesmallnumberofrespondentsincludedintheanalyses,itispossiblethatthemodelslackstatisticalpowerandthereforecertainassociationscouldnotbeestablished.Inaddition,childrenwhoarrivedinQuébecaftertheirbirthwereexcludedfromtheQLSCD,thoughtheyformpartofthesameagecohortoftheinitialsample.5
Results
AswecanseeinTables1and2,kindergartenmathematicsskillsasmeasuredbytheNumberKnowledgeTest(NKT)weresignificantlyassociatedwithall5outcomemeasuresofacademicachievementas well as classroom and school engagement (as reported bythe fourth grade teachers). In turn, language skills (receptivevocabulary),asmeasuredbythePeabodyPictureVocabularyTest(PPVT),significantlyexplainedallthevariablesrelatedtoacademicachievement,butnotthoseofclassroomandschoolengagement.HyperactivebehaviourswereinverselyassociatedwithallmeasuresoflateracademicachievementinGrade4(withtheexceptionofscience)aswellasschoolandclassengagement,asreportedbytheteachers.Noteworthyisthatfinemotorskillsweresignificantlyassociatedwithsuccessinreading,writing,andoverallachievementaswellasclassroomengagement,evenaftercontrollingforotherkindergarten skills (seeTables1and2). Inaddition, locomotionscoreswerepositivelyassociatedwithwritingachievementandclassroomengagement.
Alsoworthmentioningisthesignificantnegativeassociationbetweengrossmotorskillsandschoolengagement.Childrenwhohadbettercoordinationseemedtohaveahigherriskoflowerschoolengagement,asassessedbytheirteachers.Objectcontrolskills(i.e.,catchingorkickingaball)werenotsignificantlyassociatedwithanyoftheoutcomemeasuresorschoolengagement.
The resultsof this studywerecomparedwith thoseobtainedbyDuncan et al. (2007) and certain similarities were observed. Inboth studies, kindergartenmathematics skills (NKT), hyperactivebehaviours(referredtoasattentionproblemsinDuncanetal.)andreceptive languageskills (PPVT)wereall stronglyassociatedwithteacher-ratedachievement inGrade4.Moreover,early receptivelanguageasassessedinkindergartenpredictedlaterreadingskillsinbothstudies.
Inthefollowingsectionweelaborateontheassociationsobservedbetween kindergarten school readiness skills andmeasures ofacademicperformanceinfourthgrade.Resultspertainingtoschoolengagementarealsodiscussed.
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Number knowledge and receptive vocabularyTheQLSCDdatarevealedthatnumberknowledgeinkindergartenwasnotonlypredictiveoffutureachievementinmathematicsbutalsoinotherareasassessedsuchasreading.ReceptivevocabularywasalsopredictiveofacademicperformanceinmostothersubjectsinGrade4.Earlymathematicsabilityconstitutesthefoundationof conceptual, procedural, andproblem-solving skills (Okamoto&Case,1996).Theseskillsarelikelytounderliesubsequentchildperformance in increasingly complex reading and math tasks(Cirino,2010).Theimportanceofcoreprecursorskillsinnumber
knowledge demonstrated in ourstudyisquitenoteworthy,asmostearly childhood programs in thepast have placedmore emphasison precursors to reading thanmathematics.Thismightserveasareminderoftheimportanceofalsofocusing onmathematics skills inearlychildhooddevelopment.
table 1Models measuring associations between skills in kindergarten and teacher-assessed academic performance
in Grade 4 in various subjects and overall, Québec, from 1998 to 20081
Mathematics Reading Writing Science Overall
β β β β β
Numberknowledge 0.11††† 0.11††† 0.11††† 0.08††† 0.11†††
Receptivevocabulary 0.01†† 0.01† 0.01† 0.01††† 0.01†
Hyperactivebehaviours – 0.09††† –0.07†† – 0.08††† – 0.04 – 0.09†††
Grossmotor – 0.08 –0.07 – 0.06 –0.03 – 0.04
Finemotor 0.06 0.10† 0.11†† 0.00 0.08†
Locomotion 0.01 0.02 0.02† 0.00 0.01
Objectcontrol 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00
R2
0.30 0.27 0.30 0.22 0.61
1.Resultsofmultiplelinearregressionanalyses.Formoredetails,seeFootnote3.Note: Thresholds:†:0,05;††:0,01;†††:0,001.Modelsadjustedforchildren’sageinmonths,sex,physicallyaggressivebehavioursandemotionaldistressinkindergarten,aswellas
maternaleducation,familystructureandfunctioningwhenthechildrenwere5or17monthsofage(seeAppendix).Source: InstitutdelastatistiqueduQuébec,QLSCD1998-2010.
table 2Models measuring associations between skills in kindergarten and teacher-assessed school
and class engagement in Grade 4, Québec, from 1998 to 20081
Classroomengagement Schoolengagement
β β
Numberknowledge 0.03††† 0.04†††
Receptivevocabulary 0.00 0.00
Hyperactivebehaviour – 0.08 ††† – 0.05 †††
Grossmotor – 0.05 – 0.05†
Finemotor 0.06 †† 0.03
Locomotion 0.01 † 0.01
Objectcontrol 0.01 0.00
R2
0.36 0.24
1.Resultsofmultiplelinearregressionanalyses.Formoredetails,seeFootnote3.Note: Thresholds:†:0,05;††:0,01;†††:0,001.Modelsadjustedforchildren’sageinmonths,sex,physicallyaggressivebehavioursandemotionaldistressinkindergarten,aswellas
maternaleducation,familystructureandfunctioningwhenthechildrenwere5or17monthsofage(seeAppendix).Source: InstitutdelastatistiqueduQuébec,QLSCD1998-2010.
Number knowledge and receptive vocabulary in kindergarten were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h academic performance in all subjects in Grade 4.
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Hyperactive behavioursOurfindingsremindusonceagainhowattentionproblemsinkindergartenmay be negatively associated with later academic achievement.Attentionproblemshere refer to hyperactive behaviours assessedbythekindergartenteacherwhenthechildrenwere6yearsold.InarecentpublicationusingQLSCDdata,Cardinetal.(2011)demonstratedagradientbetweenhyperactivity/inattentionsymptomsinchildrenfrom3.5to8yearsofageandacademicachievementinGrade2.Duncanetal.(2007)hadfoundthatgreaterskillsinattentioninkindergartenpredictedbetteracademicachievementinGrade3,evenwhenotherkindergartenskillsweretakenintoaccount.Moreover,arecentprospectivestudyfromkindergartentoage21yearsalsosuggeststheimportanceofpersistenteffortful control in the classroom (Pagani et al., 2008).When leftunregulated,teacher-ratedattentionproblemsthroughoutelementaryschoolpredictedcasesofunexpectedhighschooldropoutevenforlow-riskmalesandfemales(Pagani,etal.,2008).Thesefindingsechoearlierworkwhichshowedthelong-termimpactofearlyattentionrelatedtoinhibitorycontrolprocessesonlateradolescentscholasticperformance,socialcompetence,andadaptationtostressandfrustration(Mischel,ShodaandRodriguez,1989;Shoda,MischelandPeake,1990).
Interestingly,attentionabilityfiguresprominentlyasaprecursorandcorrelateofmathematicsandliteracyskillsinkindergarten(BlairandRazza,2007). InrecentresearchusingtheMontreal Longitudinal Experimental Preschool Study data, kindergartenattention skillswereshowntobemorestronglyassociatedwithpre-mathematicsthanwith receptive languageskills (Paganietal.,2009). In fact,kindergartenattentionskillspredictedlatermathematicsskillsaswellaskindergartenmathematicsskillsthemselves.
Duringearlychildhood,“there is rapidgrowthanddevelopment infrontalandprefrontalbrainregionswhicharerecruitedfortheeffortfulcontrolofattention”(Blair,2002).Attentionskillscontinuetodevelopinmiddle childhood (Posner and Rothbart, 2000). Developmentalimprovementsinattentionfosterinhibitionofimpulsiveresponsesandpromotedelayofgratificationprocesses(Kochanska,MurrayandHarlan,2000).Thesuppressionofcompetingandoftenlesseffortfulresponsesintheserviceofahighergoalsuchaslearningacademicmaterialrequireseffortfulcontrol.Thisislikelythereasonwhyattentionanditsassociatedfactorspartiallymediatetherelationshipbetweencognitiveabilityandacademicachievement(DuckworthandSeligman,2005).Ourresults,combinedwith those of the larger,original study,point to thevalueoftargeting attention skills for earlyintervention.Thereisrecentevidencethat attention, and its associatedinhibitorycontrolofexecutivefunctionprocesses,are indeedresponsivetointervention during preschool andkindergarten(Diamondetal.,2007;LillardandElse-Quest,2006).
Motor skillsAlthoughnot considered in theDuncanetal. (2007) study,finemotorskills showedpositiveassociationswith later readingandwriting performance aswell as overall academic performance.Locomotionskills inkindergartenwerealsopositivelyassociatedwithlaterwritingperformance.Theassociationbetweenfinemotorskillsandlateracademicperformanceisnotsurprising,becausethe
executionofmanycognitivetasksrequiresfinemotorskillssuchastheabilitytocontrolone’shandsduringwritingorone’seyesforwordtrackingduringreadingtasks(Grissmeretal.,2010).
Based on a synthesis of neuroanatomical and clinical researchfindings, certain authors have proposed a more intricate andbi-directional relationship between cognitive and motor skills(Grissmeretal.,2010).First,brainareasthatspecializeinmotorcontrolshowactivationduringtheexecutionofcertaincognitivetasks.Inturn,areasassociatedwithcognitivecontrolshowactivationduring theexecutionof complex, effortfulmotor tasks. Second,duringsensorimotordevelopment,neuronsarerecruitedfromtheprefrontalcortextoimprovechildadaptationandcontrol.Inlaterchildhood,thesecerebralstructureshavebeenshowntoplayaroleinlearningbysupportingcognitivecontrolduringlearningtasks.
Our findings highlight the unique contribution of motor skillsasapossibleearly factor inpredicting laterachievement.Thus,motor skills often acknowledgedinresearchonclinicalpopulationsas being associated with poorattentionandlinguisticskills,appeartobeworthyofmoreconsiderationthan they have received in thepast,especiallygiventhattheyareresponsivetoearlyintervention.
Classroom and school engagement as measures of academic achievementWeexpandedtheconceptofacademicachievementinfourthgradeby including teacher-rated classroom and school engagement.Asa learning-relatedbehavioural construct, children’s classroomengagement can be defined as behavioural dispositions whenapproaching and undertaking school-related tasks (McDermott,Mordell,andStoltzfus,2001).Suchdispositions,relatedtoproductivity,“includebutarenotlimitedtoattentiveness,persistence,flexibility,reflectivity, strategic problem-solving, response to novelty anderror,preoccupationwitheffectiveness,motivation,andattitudestowardlearning”(DuckworthandSeligman,2006).Theprospectiveassociationswefoundbetweenkindergartenattentioncharacteristicsandlaterclassroomengagementfitverywellwithinthislearning-related behavioural framework. The association between earlymathematicsskillsandlaterclassroomengagementisnotunexpectedgivencertaincriticallinksbetweenemergingexecutivefunctionandmathematics skillsduring thepreschoolperiod (Blair,2002).Wewouldalsohighlightthepositiveassociationbetweenkindergartenfinemotorandlocomotionskillsandlaterclassroomengagement.However,schoolentrygrossmotorskillswerenegativelyassociatedwith fourth grade school engagement, measured by teacherassessmentoftheimportanceascribedtoschoolbythechildren.Thisfindingmightbeexplainedbythefactthatchildrenwhoarebettercoordinatedmaybeatriskoflikingschoollessbecausemovementandathleticactivitiestendtooccupylessand less time in later elementarygrades,andpredominantlycognitiveskills are required for academicsuccessinthesehighergrades.
Even when other kindergarten skills are taken into account, hyperactive behaviours w e r e a s s o c i a t e d with lower academic performance in most subjects.
Fine motor skills in kindergarten were associated with future academic performance in writing and reading.
Certain cognitive and behavioural skills in kindergarten can not only predict academic performance as such, but also classroom and school engagement.
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For a multitude of reasons, including sociodemographic andeconomic trends, early childhood education is increasinglyviewedasarelativelyinexpensivepreventiveinterventionagainstpsychosocialmaladjustmentandacademicunderachievement.Thefindingspresentedinthisfascicleshowthatschoolreadinesscanbeconsideredaconfluenceofcognitive,attentionregulationandmotorskills.Theresultsalsosuggestthatkindergartenskillsarenotonlyassociatedwithschoolachievementassuch,butalsowithschooland classroom engagement, i.e. behavioural dispositionswhenapproachingandundertakingschool-relatedtasks.Sincestudentengagement is known to influence later academic achievement(DuckworthandSeligman,2005;McKinneyetal.,1975;Véronneauetal.,2008),werecommendthatitbeincludedinfutureresearchonacademicsuccessandencourageotherresearcherstoconductmorein-depthstudiesontheassociationsamongstudentengagement,schoolreadinessandacademicachievementingeneral.
Conclusions
In this fascicle, we replicated the model of school readinessdescribed in Duncan et al. (2007), expecting to validate itsfundamental components in children attending Grade 4 in theprovinceofQuébec.TheQLSCDprovidesanexcellentopportunitytovalidateDuncan’sresults.Indeed,evenwhenincludingvariousothercharacteristicsinthemodel,ourresultssupportthefindingsof Duncan et al. (2007). Kindergarten cognitive skills, namelyreceptivevocabularyandnumberknowledge,aswellashyperactivebehaviours,areassociatedwithacademicachievementbytheendoffourthgrade–cognitiveskillspositively,andhyperactivebehavioursnegatively.Thesefindingswereobservedinallsubjectsassessed–writing,reading,mathematicsandscience.Oneexceptionwasthatnoassociationwasobservedbetweenhyperactivebehavioursandlaterachievementinscience.
Ourfindingsalsosuggestthatmotorskillsmakeauniquecontributionto laterchild literacy (readingandwriting)andoverallacademicperformance.Finallywealsoshowedthatcertaincognitive (e.g.numberknowledge),behavioural,andmotorskillsinkindergartenwere positively associated with later classroom and schoolengagementinGrade4.Incontrast,hyperactivebehaviourspredictedlowerlevelsofclassroomandschoolengagementinGrade4.
Althoughthecontrolvariablesprovidedameansofcapturingtheuniquecontributionofeachpredictorskill,ourfindingsshouldbeinterpretedinthecontextofseverallimitations.First,theanalysescould not address how subgroups of individuals, for example,boysandgirls,differedintermsofschoolreadinessoracademicachievement.Second,weexaminedacertainnumberofvariablesrelatedtoacademicachievementindependentlyofoneanother.Infutureresearch,itwouldbeproductivetoexaminehowthevariousoutcomesmaybeinterrelated.Third,fourthgradeisnotthatfaruptheacademicladder.Butbecauseacademicachievementtendstostabilizebeyondtheearlyelementaryyears(AlexanderandEntwisle,1998), ourwindow in time can be interpreted as awindow ofopportunityforprevention.However,itwillbeincumbentinfutureresearch toanalyze the relative importanceof school readinesscompared toother factors in the school trajectoriesof childrenastheygrowuptodevelophigherskill levelsandautonomy.Forexample,otherstudieshaveshownthataggressivebehaviourandlackofsocialskillsinkindergartenarenegativelyassociatedwithschoolengagementlaterinchildhood,whichinturnpredictswhetherornotachildwillcompletehighschool(Véronneauetal.,2008).Knowingwhenthesefactorstakeprecedenceoverschoolreadinessfactorswillhelpimprovethetimingandfocusofstrategiesdesignedtoincreasethechancesofchildrenbeingacademicallysuccessful.Finally,wecannotexcludepossiblebiasesassociatedwiththelowresponse rateof theSAQTand the fact that certaincoefficientspartiallytranslatetheeffectofcharacteristicsnotenteredintothemodel.Despite these limitations,manyof thefindingsobtainedbyanalyzing theQLSCDdataweresimilar to thoseof thestudyconductedbyDuncanetal.(2007).
Volume6,Fascicle1,December2011-page7
Appendix
Description of the variables used in the regression models
Independent variables (measured in late kindergarten)
1. Cognitive Skills1A. Number Knowledge. The Number Knowledge Test (NKT)administeredindividuallytothechildrenwasanabridgedversionofthetestdevelopedbyRobbieCase(OkamotoandCase,1996).Itmeasuresthechild’sdegreeoffamiliaritywithbasicnotionsofarithmeticsuchascounting,adding,andsubtracting,asafunctionofage.Thetestincludesavarietyoftasksusedtoassessknowledgeandunderstandingof(1)thenumbersequencefromonetoten;(2)theone-to-onecorrespondenceinwhichasequenceismappedontoobjectsbeingcounted;(3)thecardinalvalueofeachnumber;(4)thegenerativerulethatrelatesadjacentcardinalvalues;and(5)successivenumberswhichrepresentprogressivelymoreitemsthanthepreviousones.All theskillsmeasuredbytheNKTconstituteperformancepredictorsforarithmetic.Thetestcomprisesanumberof levels and terminates when the child has committed threeconsecutiveerrors.
1B. Receptive Vocabulary. ThePeabodyPictureVocabularyTest(PPVT)(Dunn,Thériault-Whalen,andDunn,1993)administeredindividuallyinEnglishorFrench,providedameansofassessingreceptivevocabulary,which isagoodpredictorofacademicachievement(LemelinandBoivin,2007)andfuturereadingskills(Duncanetal.,2007).Thistestcomprisespracticeimages,followedby170otherimagesinorderofincreasingdifficulty.Thestartingpointdependsonthechild’sage.Theresultswerestandardized;thetablesofnormsdifferedaccordingtotheFrenchorEnglishversionofthetestadministeredtothechild(seeDesrosiersandDucharme,2006).ResultsofthePPVTarestronglycorrelatedwithlanguagesub-scalesinintelligencetests(DunnandDunn,1997).
2. Hyperactive BehavioursThe children’s kindergarten teachers filledout aquestionnaire inwhichtheywereaskedtoassessvariousaspectsof thechildren’sdevelopment.ThesixquestionsonhyperactivitybehavioursweretakenfromtheOntario Child Health Study (OCHS)andtheLongitudinal and Experimental Study of Low Socio-Economic Status Boys in Montréal (ÉLEM).Theteacherswereaskedtoindicateatwhatfrequencythechild1)couldnotsitstill,wasrestlessandhyperactive;2)waseasilydistracted, had trouble sticking to any activity; 3) couldnot stopfidgeting;4)wasimpulsive,actedwithoutthinking;5)haddifficultywaitingforhisorherturningames;and6)couldnotsettledowntodoanythingformorethanaveryshortperiodoftime.Responsechoiceswerethefollowing:1)Neverornottrue;2)Sometimesorsomewhattrue;3)Oftenorverytrue.Basedonresponsestothesequestions,scoreswerecalculatedandthenreducedtoascalerangingfrom0to10(α=0.89).
3. Motor skills
3A. Gross Motor. Thisaspectwasassessedbythekindergartenteachers.TheitemsweretakenfromtheEarly Development Instrument(EDI)developedbyJanusandOfford(2007).Teacherswereaskedif,intheiropinion,thechildwaswell-coordinated(i.e.,moveswithoutrunningintoortrippingoverthings)(Yes/No).Theywerealsoaskedtoratethechild’sabilitytoclimbstairsandhis/heroverallphysicaldevelopment.Responsechoicesforthetwoaforementionedquestionswere:1)Excellent;2)Good;3)Average;4)Poor;5)Verypoor.Basedontheseresponses,scoreswereassignedtoascalerangingfrom0to10(α=0.68).
3B. Fine Motor. The kindergarten teachers were also asked toassess other aspects of the child’s development, namely his/her“Proficiencyatholdingapen,crayons,orabrush”and“Abilitytomanipulateobjects.”ThesetwoitemswerealsotakenfromtheEDIandhadthesameresponsechoicesasthetwoquestionsongrossmotorskills.Basedonresponsestotheseitems,scoreswerecalculatedonascalerangingfrom0to10(α=0.88).
3C. Locomotion Skills.When the childrenwere in kindergarten,trained interviewers administered the Test of Gross Motor Development(TGMD;Ulrich,2000)toassessthechild’slocomotionskills(i.e.,running,sideshuffle).Duringthistest,interviewersfirstdemonstrateanaction.Afterthisthechildrepeatstheactiontwice.Thechildisgivenonepointforeverycorrectaction,andatotalforthesubtestiscalculatedbysummingthescoresforeachaction.
3D. Object Control.Whenthechildrenwereinkindergarten,trainedinterviewersalsoadministeredtheTGMDforobjectcontrol(i.e.,catching,kickingaball).Theproceduresfortestingandratingwerethesameasforthelocomotionskills.
Outcome variables (measured in Grade 4)
1. Academic Achievement.Fourthgradeteachersratedacademicachievementin1A-mathematics, 1B-reading, 1C-writing, 1D-science and1E-overall achievement.Responsechoiceswere(a)Nearthetopoftheclass;(b)Abovethemiddleoftheclass,butnotatthetop;(c)Inthemiddleoftheclass;(d)Belowthemiddleoftheclass,butabovethebottom;or(e)Nearthebottomoftheclass.Basedonresponsestothesequestions,fivecontinuousvariableswereconstructedwithvaluesfrom-2to2(optimalacademicachievement).
2. Classroom Engagement.Elevenitemspertainingtotaskorientation,compliance and persistence were asked of the Grade 4 teacherandusedtocreateascale.EightofthemweredrawnfromtheEDI(SocialCompetenceDomain)(JanusandOfford,2007):“Worksandplayscooperativelywithotherchildren;”“Followsrules;”“Followsinstructions;”“Followsdirections;”“Listensattentively;”“Completeswork on time;” “Works independently;” and “Works neatly andcarefully.”Thethreeotheritems,namely“Putsalotofeffortintohis/herwork;”“Participatesinclass”and“Asksquestionsifhe/shedoesnotunderstand”camefromcycle3ofNational Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth(NLSCY).Responsechoicesforthefirsteightquestionswere:1)Oftenorverytrue;2)Sometimesorsomewhattrue;3)Neverornottrue.Forthethreeotherquestions,fiveresponseswerepossible:1)Never;2)Rarely;3)Sometimes;4)Often;5)Always.Basedonresponsestoallthesequestions,scoreswerecalculatedonascalerangingfrom1to5(α=0.93)(Paganietal.,2010a;Paganietal.,2010b).
Volume6,Fascicle1,December2011-page8
3. School Engagement.Finally,teachersprovidedratingsofchildschool engagement in response to an item pertaining to theimportanceofschooltothechild,withresponsesrangingfrom3(“Veryimportant”)to1(“Oflittleimportance”).
Control Variables
CertainchildandfamilycharacteristicslikelytobeassociatedwithachievementinGrade4wereintegratedintothevariousmodelsascontrolvariables.Childcharacteristicswere1)sex;2)age in months (2004round,kindergarten),andratingsbythekindergartenteacherof3)emotional distressand4)physical aggression(scoresonascalefrom0to10).Familycharacteristicsincludedinthemodelswere1)maternal education(basedonthe1998roundwhenthechildrenwere approximately 5months old and coded as 1=high schooldiploma,0=nohighschooldiploma);2)family functioning(meanofstandardizedscoresrangingfrom0to10forthe1998and1999roundswhenthechildrenwere5and17monthsold);and3)family structure(basedondatafromthe1998roundwhenthechildrenwere5monthsold and codedas0=intact two-parent familyor1=other).Formoredetailsonthesourcesandconstructionofthevariables,accesstheQLSCDwebsiteat:http://www.iamillbe.stat.gouv.qc.ca.
Notes
1. Thepreparationofthisfasciclewasfunded,inpart,bytheSocialScienceandHumanitiesResearchCouncilofCanada.
2. LindaS.PaganiisProfessorattheÉcoledepsychoéducation,ResearcherintheGroupe de recherche sur les environnements scolaires(GRES)(ResearchGrouponSchoolEnvironments),andResearcherattheCentredeRechercheduCHU-Mère-EnfantSainte-Justine(Mother-ChildResearchCentreatSainte-JustineChildren’sHospital)of theUniversitédeMontréal.CarolineFitzpatrickisadoctoralcandidateattheÉcoledepsychoéducationoftheUniversitédeMontréal.LucBelleauisastatisticianatthe Institutde lastatistiqueduQuébec.MichelJanoszisProfessorattheÉcoledepsychoéducationof theUniversité ofMontréal, Director of GRES andwasresponsiblefortheevaluationteamoftheNew Approaches, New Solutions(NANS)interventionstrategy.
3. This type of analysis is designed to ascertain whethera particular variable or set of variables can explain asignificantpartof thedependent variable’s variation– inthiscase,academicperformanceinvarioussubjects,overallperformance and school and classroom engagement. InTables 1 and2,R2 represents theproportionof variationof thedependent variable that is explainedby the setofvariablesenteredinthemodel.Agivenskillisconsideredtobeassociatedwiththeoutcomevariablewhenthebetaorcoefficient(β)issignificant.
4. Othernamesforthiscanbefoundintheliterature,suchas“passivevocabulary,”“wordrecognition,”etc.
5. Based on data from theRégie de l’assurance maladie du Québec (QuébecHealth InsuranceBoard), the Institut delastatistiqueduQuébecestimatesthatapproximately10%ofchildrenwhowere10yearsofageonJuly1,2008werebornoutsideofQuebec(Source:InstitutdelastatistiqueduQuébec, basedon theFichier d’inscription des personnes assurées[RegistryofInsuredPersons]oftheaforementionedRégie, 2008).
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The Québec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD 1998-2010) series of publications is produced by the Direction des enquêtes longitudinales et sociales.
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Suggestedreference:PAGANI,LindaS.,CarolineFitzPatrick, Luc BELLEAUandMichelJanoSz(2011).“PredictingAcademicAchievementinFourthGradefromKindergartenCognitive,BehaviouralandMotorSkills,”inQuébec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLScD 1998-2010) – From Birth to 10 Years of Age,Québec,InstitutdelastatistiqueduQuébec,Vol.6,Fascicle1.
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