Practical Medicinal Herbalism

I. Disclaimer: Nothing discussed or produced in this class nor anything derived or produced from experiments, trials, etc., from knowledge or practice taken from this class should ever be used to replace or supplant prescribed or non-prescribed pharmaceuticals. This class is presented as an educational session to introduce students to the basics of herbalism and to illustrate how it derives from older traditions reaching back to the Middle Ages and beyond. Remember that the folks who practiced this type of medicine in the period also believed that bleeding a person cured almost everything. Also, keep in mind that different people are allergic to different things—including different herbs. Do NOT look at herbalism as a replacement for medical treatment.

II. Definitions

a. Herbs-What are Herbs? We know of many examples of herbs: basil, thyme, oregano, chamomile, lavender, mint, comfrey and a hundred more. But, what is an herb? Botanically speaking an herb is a plant that produces no woody or persistent tissue. Instead it dies back at the end of the growing season. Additionally, an herb can be defined as any plant valued for its ornamental, culinary or medicinal properties. It is the latter definition in which we are interested and, for the purpose of this class that we shall use to define the word.

b. Herbalism: Herbalism can be defined, then, as the use of plants that have ornamental, culinary or medicinal value in such a way as to exploit those characteristics. No herb is restricted to filling only one of the “roles” and, in fact, many are to be found serving in two or three of the categories noted below. Herbalism can be broadly divided into three categories:

i. Ornamental Herbalism—this comprises the use of herbs in everything from floral arrangements to the extraction of dyes from their leaves, flowers or other parts.

ii. Culinary Herbalism—this is the part of herbalism with which most of us are familiar. Sage, rosemary, thyme, dill, savory, parsley, mints and bay are just a few of the culinary herbs that we use on a weekly, if not daily, basis.

iii. Medicinal Herbalism—this comprises the use of herbs for medicinal purposes. Hundreds of plants can be and are used in various forms for healing purposes.

III. Brief and General History of Herbalism:

a. No one is quite sure how old the practice of herbalism actually is. Some plant parts placed in a 60,000 year old grave of a Neandertal (the Shanidar IV “flower burial”) are known to have medicinal uses and it is possible that they knew this as well. The use of herbs is documented in texts from ancient China, India, Sumeria, Egypt, Greece and Rome. The Graeco-Roman herbalism traditions was preserved in the writings of Galen (A.D. 130-A.D. 200), Dioscorides and Pliny (to name a few) by monks in monasteries throughout Europe. Dioscorides wrote De Materia Medica in which he describes some 500 plants (many so sketchily that we, to this day, do not know which ones they are) and their medicinal uses. Around the same time, Pliny the Elder produced his Historia Naturali, which describes plants and their healing qualities.

b. These works were the foundation of the curriculum studied by the medieval scholars at university and were also implemented by the monks who copied the texts. The monks read as well as copied these texts and grew herbs for medicinal purposes as well. The Benedictines, in particular, grew medicinal herb gardens from which they created salves and potions for the care of the sick. The Benedictine monastery in Saint Gall, Switzerland was noted for its gardens, one of which was a medicinal garden containing cumin, fennel, mint, lovage, sage, rue, savory, flag iris, lilies, roses, rosemary and pennyroyal. Charlemagne was so impressed with the gardens there that he decreed that each city within his empire must create gardens and he listed in the decree some 80 plants.

c. The earliest known herbal of British origin is the Saxon Leech Book of Bald, written in the tenth century. Around 950, a nobleman named Bald persuaded England's King Alfred to commission the book, which combined all aspects of herbalism - Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, Greco-Roman and Arab. A mixture of sacred ritual and herbal remedies, it discusses 500 plants and their healing qualities. In practices prescribed in this text, herbs were just as often worn as amulets to ward off evil or disease as they were taken internally. At the same time the written knowledge of Moslem herbalists, such as Avicenna (980-1037), was added to the European herbalism traditions in the High Middle Ages.

d. The one of the most notable original medical text emerging from the religious sector during the Middle Ages was written by Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179), Abbess of the Benedictine Rupertsburg convent in the German Rhineland. A nun from age 15, Hildegard claimed that visions of God commanded her to treat the sick and compile her herbal formulas. Her book combined Catholicism and folk medicine. She was the only medieval woman who left a written account of "wise woman" healing practices.

e. One of the largest sources of pharmaceutical and medical information from medieval times is the Compendium of Medicine (circa 1250) by Gilbertus Anglicus. Translated in the early 15th century from Latin to Middle English, the text consists of medicinal recipes with guides to diagnosis, medicinal preparation and prognosis. The text names over 400 ingredients and their uses. Treatments were presented roughly from head to tail, beginning with headache and ending with hemorrhoids.

f. The invention of the printing press allowed a broader audience to access herbalism texts. The first illustrated herbal to be printed using the new press was Dioscorides' De Materia Medica which was printed in Naples in 1477. and also allowed new herbalists to disseminate their ideas. These most often took the form of the herbal, a book providing illustrations (of varying degrees of accuracy) and text concerning the properties of the plants that the author considered of value. Most of the writers, such as Paracelus (1493-1541), sought to both revolutionize and standardize the medicinal herb usage. The 15th century saw the publication of some of the first herbals in Europe. The most famous herbals written in the 15th – 17th centuries were by Richard Banks, William Turner, Valerius Cordus, Nicolas Monardes, Mathius Lobelius, John Gerard, John Parkinson, Nicholas Culpeper, and Robert Turner. Herbals of a sort continue to be published even today.

IV. Acquiring Herbs. There are multiple avenues available for the herbalist to obtain the herbs necessary for the creation of medicines. Culinary herbs that have medicinal value can be purchased from the grocery store though, frankly, the use of non-organic fertilizers and pesticides make many of these less than desirable. Dried herbs can be obtained from suppliers. Finally, the herbalist can grow their own herbs, having the care for them under their own control from start to finish. This latter approach also allows the herbalist to have access to those herbs which have properties that can only be accessed when they are fresh. If we are going to enact the processing of herbs from start to finish it behooves us to understand the precepts of simple gardening as they pertain to herbs. Herbs are generally hardy plants requiring little help once you have gotten them planted in lighting and soil conditions that are

conducive for their growth. And they are surprisingly resilient and forgiving plants, able to survive considerable neglect.

a. Selecting and Planting: One must be careful in selecting herbs to grow. First, note the desired purpose and select plants accordingly. Secondly, many of the herbs that we read about in Dioscorides, Culpepper, Gerard and the like are not suited to our climate and, quite frankly, will not grow here or will be a constant struggle to keep alive. And, after all of that effort, they will never prosper, but only limp along.

i. And, so, one of the most important factors in selecting herbs is finding those that will grow here. One of the best places to seek these out (and advice that goes with it) are the local gardening stores (rather than the nation-wide chains). Many of the smaller stores are run by and staffed with local gardeners who, after years of research, gardening and other practical experience have a marvelous feel and well of knowledge concerning what will grow here.

ii. In addition to selecting the right plants for our climate, it is also important to place those plants in locations where they have the best chance to survive and prosper. Most books and tags that come with the plants have lighting conditions. Keep in mind that full sun in the Midwest may well equal partial sun in our area of the country. Many of my “full sun” herbs are growing very well under the branches of an oak tree where they get 3-4 hours of sunlight. It may take considerable experimentation to determine what will grow best where in your yard. I am called Aubri Thyme-Slayer for the number of thymes that I have killed finding out where they grow best in my yard.

iii. Prepare the soil for your plants. I recommend organic fertilizers if you must use them. A comfrey tea serves very well (To make this: A vat of water and as many comfrey leaves, stalks and flowers as you want left out in the sun, covered, for two days will yield a wet fertilizer that is both organic and cheap).

g. Harvesting: This is probably the easiest part of the process. Once the herb has grown sufficient leaves and stalks that you can safely take some without compromising its health, snip them off. If flowers are the parts to be used, snip them off before they begin to wilt. For plants where the root is the portion to be used either ensure that the plant is near its growing time, or that you have enough to sacrifice it or, if it divides, that it has already done so, ensuring the perpetuation of the species.

h. Drying: There are several ways to dry herbs. The first, and most common method, is to tie the stems together and hang them, inverted, in a dry place. Some herbs can be microwaved to be dried but be careful. Finally, some need to be pressed to dry.

IV. Medicinal Methods of Uses of Herbs

a. Baths: This method of use normally involves placing fresh or dried herbs in a water-permeable (muslin) bag that is placed in a bath tub filled with warm to hot water.

b. Cold Infusions: Herbs can be soaked in cool water for a period of time, the longer the better. Strain out the plant parts, ice and drink.

c. Crush, Eat or Rub: This use is just as it is described. The leaf is crushed or bruised and rubbed onto the skin or it is taken internally.

d. Decoction: When using stems or bark, these parts can be chopped finely and either soaked in cold water or brought to a boil and then simmered for 10 to 20 minutes. The liquid is then cooled and drank cold or iced.

e. Eye Bath: Create an herbal infusion or decoction, allow it to cool and then use it to rinse out the eyes.

f. Facial Steam: This method of usage merely involves pouring hot water onto the plants of choice and wafting the steam into one's face.

g. Gargle and Mouthwash: Use a cooled decoction or infusion to gargle or rinse out the mouth.

h. Infusion: Leaves and/or stems are placed in hot water and allowed to soak for one to five minutes, creating a tea that is normally consumed.

i. Juice: The natural juices of herbs and fruits can be extracted and should be used immediately before they have an opportunity to oxidize.

j. Liquid Extraction: The extracted juice of the herb, fruit or vegetable is combined with an equal amount of alcohol, shaken and stored in a dropper bottle. This extract is then added to water and drank.

k. Oil: This method is used to infuse herbs in an oil base. Almond, olive, and sunflower oil are good light bases but safflower and grapeseed oil can serve as well. Sesame oil is particularly good if the herbal oil is meant to deal with a skin inflammation.

l. Plaster: Place the herbs in a muslin bag with a viscous oil (olive oil will serve well) and place the bag against the area to be treated.

m. Powder: Dried leaves, flowers and/or stems of herbs can be ground into a powder using a mortar and pestel.

n. Salve: Take an infused herbal oil and mix with melted beeswax and allow to cool. Adjust the ratio of oil to wax until it forms a consistency thick enough to use as a salve. Place in a closeable container and store in a cool, dark place.

o. Solar Infusion: Herb leaves, stems or flowers are placed in a clear sealed container with water and placed in the sun for a day or more.

p. Syrup: Create an herbal infusion that is twice strong as would be normally used. Then add sugar or honey on a one to one ratio and refrigerate for an extended period of time (up to a year). This method works well when using as a treatment for a sore throat or cough.

q. Tincture: This method is similar to an extract. But, instead of combining juices with alcohol, one soaks fresh herbs in it for two weeks out of the sun and shaken on a daily basis. Strain the mixture when it is done, squeeze out the plant materials and store the tincture in an opaque container. The tincture can be taken internally, cut with water, for up to 5 years (in some cases).

r. Vinegar: Cover herbs with vinegar and store in a dark place for three weeks, shaking it daily. Strain and store in a dark container in the refrigerator. Do not use distilled vinegar for the base.

V. Some Herbs Used in the Period and Their Modern Usages

a. Basil: A well known culinary herb, Basil has a long history of use as a medicinal herb as well. These days it is grown in culinary herb gardens but in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, it was at home in both the culinary garden and the medicinal garden as well. Dioscorides stated that it calmed the stomach and also increased urine production. Gerard recommended that the juice of the basil, mixed with barley meal, rose oil and vinegar served to ease stings and cuts. He also recommended the juice to was away “dimness of the

eye”. Culpepper notes that its leaves could be applied to venomous bites and insect stings to draw out the poison. Modern medicine has little use for basil though it notes that an infusion of it can be helpful for digestive problems. Modern herbalists use it to open the skin and lungs and to ease digestive tract problems. Both the flowers and the leaves can be used in infusions and decoctions.

b. Catmint: Known nowadays for its effects upon the feline population, catmint has a long history as a medicinal herb as well. Roman doctors and cooks used it. Unlike many of the herbs known to and used by the Romans catmint remained in the medieval medical bag and garden in line unbroken by the so-called Dark Ages. It is very easy to grow, though cultivating it in an enclosed are will keep the neighborhood felines from carving out their own swathe of it for their personal use. Catmint was misused to treat such horrible diseases as leprosy and the plague during the Middle Ages. But, the Saxons also used it as the prime ingredient for a relaxing tea. Gerard noted that it could be found on the borders of gardens and fields and noted that it was “a present help for them that be bursten inwardly by means of some fall received from a high place, and that are very much bruised, if the juice be given with wine or mead”. Otherwise, he stated that could also be used to combat the same illnesses that other mints treat. Culpepper recommended its use for headaches, cramps, colds and coughs. In modern times catnip tea is still used to combat fevers, bring on prespiration and also to bring stillness and fight insomnia.

c. Chamomile: The medicinal use of chamomile dates back at least to the time of the ancient Egyptians who used in treatments for malaria. Both Pliny and Dioscorides recommended baths and poltices of chamomile for headaches and ailments of the liver and bladder. The Saxons considered it one of their nine sacred herbs, calling it “Maythen”. It was widely used in the treatment of insomnia, headaches, flatulence, indigestion, skin conditions, gout and rheumatism. The Vikings used it in shampoos to add luster to blonde hair. Culpepper says that it can be found everywhere, thriving in sandy soil. He recommends a decoction of it for

side stitches. Chamomile baths are held to be restful while a syrup of the flowers mixed with white wine was used to treat dropsy and jaundice. An oil made from the flowers could be used to combat aches and pains and sore joints. Modern usages include infusions for headaches, teas for restfulness and tinctures for hypertension, tinctures to induce sleep

d. Comfrey: This herb's medicinal properties have been known at least since around 400 B.C. Dioscorides prescribed its use to heal wounds and knit bones in the first century. Both Gerard and Culpepper note that it is found in wet ditches and Gerard also states that he grows it well in his garden. It grows well in mine, too. Both recommend decoctions and infusion of the roots to heal wounds and also to be taken internally for wounds and bone breaks. Culpepper notes that a decoction of the leaves can serve the same purpose. Modern medical practice has frowned upon the ingestion of this herb since 1978 but it is an issue still to be resolved. That being said, I would not use comfrey internally. Modern medicine does still recognize the value of the external use of the leaves for the treatment of wounds and bruises.

e. Dandelion: This weed first appeared in medical materials in the 10th century and by the 16th century it was one of the mainstays in the British apothecaries. Then, as now, dandelions can be found in almost any meadow or open field though many of us need only go as far as our own back yards to find it. Both Gerard and Culpepper note its cleansing ability. Decoctions of its roots and leaves were recommended for wasting illnesses and “yellow jaundice”. Culpepper relates that the herb had many virtues “which is why the French and Dutch eat them so often in the spring”. Modern Europeans still use the juice of the plant to treat liver disease and diabetes. The dandelions diuretic effects are better than many things sold over the counter and can be ingested as a tea made from the roots or leaves mixed in with salad.

f. Dill: Both Dioscorides and Galen both recommended the use of Dill for a variety of illnesses, to include yex, hicket and ulcers. Gerard stated that the proper use of dill aids in digestion, procures sleep and provokes bodily lust. Culpepper says that “it is the seeds that are used. Boiled and drank they ease both selling and pain. He also recommends an oil of dill to be used “to ease pain and procure rest”. Modern practitioners sell oil of dill for use in regards to digestive issues

g. Garlic: The use of garlic for medicinal purposes is ancient. The Egyptians believed that eating it enhanced speed, endurance and strength. An Egyptian text dating from about 1500 BC recommended the use of garlic for some 22 ailments. Pliny prescribed it for 60 illnesses. Garlic, in the days of Gerard and Culpepper, like today, was cultivated in gardens, primarily for its culinary uses. Gerard recommends it for use against the bites of venomous beasts. Culpepper also says that it will counter bites and cuts. It also “purges the head, helps the lethargy,” and treats ulcers. Modern doctors note garlic's anticeptic qualities and an application of its juices diluted in water is still to be used to treat wounds.

h. Horehound (White)-It is widely reputed that this plant takes its name from the Egyptian god Horus and that it was used for medicinal purposes by his people. Both Gerard and Culpepper state that it can be found along English roadsides and in uncultivated fields. I am growing it in a semi-shaded area that is low and somewhat dry. Gerard says that drinking a boiled mixture of horehound and water “opens liver and spleen…and prevails greatly against an old cough…” For Culpepper, its leaves, used with honey can be used to treat ulcers and running sores. He also recommends its use in treating coughs. Modern medicine recognizes it as a pectoral tonic valued for its expectorant qualities; A syrup of horehound can be used for respiratory ills and horehound is often found as an ingredient in cough drops and cough syrup. A horehound syrup can be made by adding sugar or honey to a strong infusion (2-3 oz of herb to a pint of boiling water).

i. Lavender: In medieval times lavender was prized by some as an aphrodisiac and, inversely, by others as a calming influence. Gerard calls it lavender spike and says that it can be found in the hilly areas of France while Culpepper notes that, while it can be cultivated in gardens, it is found in the mountainous areas around the Mediterranean in nature. Both prized it for the treatment of headaches, stress, apoplexy and the like. Culpepper described a decoction of lavender flowers, horehound, fennel, asparagus root and a little cinammon as being useful for

combating epilepsy, giddiness and dizziness. He says that its oil “is of a fierce and piercing quality and ought to be carefully used, a very few drops being sufficient for inward or outward maladies. Modern uses for lavender includes baths (because of its aromatic calming qualities), skin treatments and as a sedative when taken internally.

j. Marjoram: Like lavender, marjoram was a native of the Mediterranean. The ancient Greeks called it “the joy of the mountains” and believed it to be useful combating rheumatism. By Culpepper’s time it was raised mainly in gardens but could also be found in England’s pastures and wheat fields. He prescribed drinking a decoction of it for chest, liver and spleen ailments. He believed that an oil of marjoram had a warming and comforting effect on stiff joints. Modern uses of marjoram, other than a substitute for oregano in recipes, also include using its oil for muscle cramps and stiff joints. A tonic can be made from it and chamomile by infusion.

k. Mint: Mint is considered, these days as a common plant with which one might flavor tea or use to make a mint julip or mohito. In ancient times it was highly prized. The Romans created wreaths from peppermint and crowned themselves with them. Because of its aromatic qualities it was often strewn around kitchens and sickrooms. Medieval folks continued to value the aromatic quality of mints. Culpepper noted that it was originally from the Mediterranean but that, in his day, it was found not only in gardens but also in the wilds, having escaped cultivated areas and out into the countryside. He notes that applying it to the temples counteracts headaches and that gargling with a decoction of mint is good for the breath. He also states that it is useful against all ailments of the stomach. Gerard agreed, saying that it “was marvelously wholesome for the stomach”. In modern times the most common use of mint is as a culinary herb and to make other medicines taste better. Even so, modern herbalists state that an infusion of one ounce per pint of water is good for nausea and flatulence.

l. Parsley: This herb, which most of us know as that green sprig that eating establishments use to garnish their entrees, was known to the ancient Greeks and first used by medieval herbalists for medicinal purposes. It was prescribed to cure a great range of ailments including those having to

do with the kidneys and liver. It was also used to alleviate the discomforts of the plague, asthma, dropsy and jaundice. It was also believed to be an aid to digestion. According to Gerard “it is sown in beds in gardens; it grows both in hot and cold places, so that the ground be either by nature moist or be oftentimes waters; for it prospers in moist places and is delighted with water.” I have had little problem growing this plant in partially shaded beds. He says that the seeds are more profitable for medicine but that the leaves are pleasant in sauces where they “provoke urine”. For Culpepper the roots are stronger in effect but placing the leaves on inflamed eyes provides relief. Modern herbalists believe that parsley tea aids with urinary tract infections.

m. Plantain: Dioscorides prescribed plantain for headaches, as had his ancient Greek predecessors. Pliney believed that it could remedy the bites of a mad dog. The Saxons considered plantain to be one of the nine sacred herbs. They used it against intestinal worms and as a cure for kidney disorders. They used a salve made from it, hammer wort, chamomile, water dock roots, honey and butter for “flying venom”. Erasmus (1466-1536) believed that it had usefulness in dealing with venomous spider bites. Henry VIII, who was something of an amateur herbalist, included it in a collection of 114 herbalist recipes. Gerard seems to ignore it but Culpepper states that it can be found in English meadows, wastegrounds and roadsides. It grows in my backyard in the late spring. He describes it as effective against lower intestinal disorders and prescribes the use of its juice in rose oil for headaches brought on by heat. Modern herbalists prescribe an infusion of its leaves and flowers for diarrhea.

n. Rose: The ancient Greeks brought the rose to southern Italy in the 5th century B.C. Both Gerard and Culpepper note that roses are most often cultivated in gardens and had been used as one of their family symbols by the houses of Lancaster, York and Tudor. Gerard held that “distilled water of Roses is good for the strengthening of the heart and refreshing of the spirits…” “Honey of Roses…is most excellent good for wounds, ulcers, issues and generally for such things as have need to be cleansed and dried.” Culpepper describes the creation of a syrup “from the flowers by

infusing them for a day in boiling water, straining and adding twice the weight of refined sugar. A small quantity will keep the bowels regular.” He also prescribes a tincture made from the flowers and used for “strengthening the stomach and preventing vomiting…”. Modern herbalists use rose water to treat minor eye issues.

o. Rosemary: The ancient Greeks believed that rosemary aided the memory and, so, wore rosemary garlands. Rosemary was thought to protect one against evil spirits during the Middle Ages. It was also considered an important medical herb. The Banke’s Herbal, printed in 1525, advised the patient to “take the flowers thereof and boyle them in fayr water and drinke that water for it is much worthe against all manners of evils for the body”. Modern herbalists agree: “Make Rosemary tea for digestive problems, as an expectorant, to relieve cold symptoms, and as a relaxing beverage that may be helpful for headaches and low moods.  Take care to preserve the steam with a tight fitting lid in the preparation process.” Gerard notes that it grows in abundance in France, Spain “and in other hot countries” and that it is used in Italian and English gardens as hedges. He states that medicinally it is an astringent and that distilled water of rosemary flowers sweetens the breath. Culpepper says that a decoction of rosemary in wine or an oil of rosemary helps clear up dizziness and giddiness, as well as pains in the teeth and gums. He warns that only a little should be used at a time. Modern herbalists note that, in addition to tea, rosemary can be used to create, among other things, an infusion that can be used as a hair wash.

p. Savory: The Romans were well aware of this herb and, in fact, introduced it to England where it was used for both culinary and medicinal purposes. The Saxons named it savory because they found it to be very tasty. The Italians, continuing in the Roman tradition, used savory heavily in cooking in the Middle Ages. Winter savory was used for hedges in Tudor era gardens. Gerard noted that savory came in two kinds: “…one that endures Winter and is of long continuance; the other an annual or yearly plant…” He and Culpepper also noted that they were found primarily in or near gardens rather than in the wild. Culpepper believed that savory was a good respiratory system decongestant and that it had value in treating ear ailments. He also recommended a poultice made from it and wheat flour to treat sciatica and insect stings. The winter variety was also noted to be of assistance in dealing with asthma. Modern uses are

primarily culinary though it is noted to have value in combating coughs and congestion, particularly the plant tops.

q. Yarrow: Yarrow pollen has a 60,000 year old association with humans, indicating that this plant may have been used much further back in human history than most. In addition to yarrow, the burial contained cornflower, bachelor’s button, St. Barnaby’s thistle, Ragwort, grape hyacinth and hollyhock, all of which have medicinal uses. In the Iliad Homer has Achilles pack the wounds of an injured comrade with yarrow. Dioscorides used yarrow on ulcers to reduce the inflammation. Galen gave it high marks for closing up wounds. Gerard, noting that it could be found in dry pastures, also noted that it was a binding agent well suited for treating wounds and bleeding abrasions. Culpepper recommends a poultice of it and toadflax to treat wounds. He also notes that a strong tea can be made from its leaves for inducing sleep. Modern uses call for it to be part of an infusion, along with elderflowers and peppermint, for use against the common cold. Yarrow induces sweating and it can hasten blood clotting.

VI. How to Create a Tea, Oil and Salve

a. Things You Will Need:

1) Blender2) Coffee grinder (not previously used and cleanable)3) Dark glass containers (or regular ones if you have a cool, dark place to

store your creations4) Leaf juicer5) Muslin/cheese cloth6) Mortar and pestle7) Pouring jug8) Infuser or teapot9) Sieve10) Measuring cups

b. Tea: Teas are very easy to make. They can be created through cold infusion, solar infusion or regular infusion. One needs but find a recipe that addresses the ills in question and acquire the herbs, either dry or fresh. If using cold or solar infusion, it is best to place the herbs in a muslin bag and place in the container of water and wait. For regular infusion, place

the herbs in the infuser, add hot water and, after two to fifteen minutes drain the tea from the infuser and add honey or sugar if taste requires it. This recipe creates a tea aid in digesting:

1 teaspoon of mint1 teaspoon of rosemaryInfuse for 10 to 12 minutes

This recipe is a good expectorate:½ to 1 teaspoon of dried horehound leaves infused for 10 minutes. Add mint and/or sugar/honey to cut the bitter taste.

For relaxing, aid in digestion, cleansing the system and/or curing a cold:One to two teaspoons of dried yarrow infused for 10 minutesIt will render a bitter tea that mixing with lemon, mint, sugar, honey and/or a regular herbal tea mixture will improve

c. Oil:

1) First, select the type of oil that will serve as your base. Each type of oil has characteristics that can benefit the end product. Almond or sunflower oil are probably the best general oil bases. Olive oil is thicker and also has an anti-bacterial effect that makes it good for producing oils that will eventually be made into salves. Grape seed and safflower oils have drying qualities and serve best as the base oil for remedies designed to take advantages of those qualities. Sesame, avocado and wheat germ oils are all very nourishing to the skin and can be used as bases for treatments of skin ailments.

2) Once you have chosen the oil that will serve as your base gather your herbs, chop them relatively finely and place in a clear jar with a screw-on cap. Fill with oil and place in a sunny windowsill. Leave it there for three weeks, shaking it daily.

3) At the end of the three weeks strain the oil. At this point you can pour it into a glass container for storage, or you can use it to infuse again with another batch of fresh herbs to strengthen the herbal qualities. Some folks infuse oils as many as three times or more.

d. Salve:

1) Salves begin with an infused oil created in the process noted above.

2) Pour the infused oil in a saucepan and warm gently. Add 1 part bee’s wax per 4 to 6 parts of oil (depending on the consistency desired.

3) Stir until the wax is completely melted. Drip a little on a saucer and allow to dry. If it is too thick, add more oil. If it is too thin, add more bee’s wax.

VII. Where Do I Go From Here: What I have presented in this class is note even the tip of the proverbial iceberg. I was forced to compromise due to time constraints on very many things. As a developing herbalist there are so many directions to go. First, research is your friend. I was, of necessity, brief on both the number of herbs that I discussed and their medicinal uses. I listed some, but not even the majority of their uses, both in period and modern herbalism. In addition, there are so many other herbs that there was not time to discuss: feverfew, thyme, sage, chives, onions, fennel, rue, figs, calendula, and marigolds, just to name a few. Grow them. Research their effects, discover recipes and safely create them, modify them and use them. Once again, remember, this is not intended to replace modern medical treatment but, rather, to open a window on how medicinal herbs were used in the period.

VIII. References

Antol, Marie Nadine, Healing Teas: How to Prepare and Use Teas to Maximize Your Health, Penguin Books, New York, 1996

Arber, A., Herbals: Their Origin and Evolution, The Lost Library, Glastonbury, England, 1912

Blose, Nora and Cusick, Dawn, Herb Drying Handbook, Sterling Publishing Company, New York, 1993

Buchman, Dian Dincin, PhD, Herbal Medicine, Wings Books, New York, 1996

Corby, Rachel, The Medicine Garden, The Good Life Press, Ltd, Preston, England, 2009

Culpeper, Thomas, The Complete Herbal, London, 1649

De la Tour, Richard and Shatoiya, The Herbalist’s Garden, Transcontinental Printing, Vancouver, Canada, 2001

Gerard, John, The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes, London, 1633. An earlier 1597 edition also exists. The 1633 edition was amended and enlarged by the noted botanist Thomas Johnson.

Kowalchik, Claire and Hylton, William H. (editors), Rodale’s Illustrated Encyclopedia of Herbs, Rodale Press, Emmaus, Pennsylvia, 1998. One of the more useful of the modern herbals, it is reasonably comprehensive and decently illustrated.

Lawton, Barbara Perry, Mints: A Family of Herbs and Ornamentals, Timber Press, Portland, Oregon, 2002

Marcin, Marietta Marshall, Herball Tea Gardens, Storey Books, Pownal, Vermont, 1999

Markham, Gervase, The English Housewife: Containing the Inward and Outward Virtues which Ought to be in a Complete Woman; as her skill in Physic, Cookery, Banqueting-stuff, Distillation, Perfumes, Wool, Hemp, Flax, Dairies, Brewing, Baking and All other Things Belonging to a Household, Ithaca, New York, McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2008. The first edition of this work was published in 1615, drawing somewhat upon L’agriculture et maison rustique (1570), and The English Husbandman (1613).

Phillips, Nancy and Michael, The Herbalist’s Way: The Art and Practice of Healing with Plant Medicines, Chelsea Green Publishing, White River Junction, Vermont, 2005

Shaudys, Phyllis, The Pleasure of Herbs: A Month-by-Month Guide to Growing, Using and Enjoying Herbs, Barnes and Nobles Books, New York, 1986

Whiteman, Robin, Brother Cadfael’s Garden: An Illustrated Companion to Medieval Plants and Their Uses, New York, Little, Brown and Company, 1997. Much of the herbal information contained by this book is derived from Culpepper, Gerard, and Pliny as well as an impressive array of 19th and 20th century herbal books. It is, however, a must for any fans of the Ellis Peter’s series who has an interest in herbalism.

Wood, Matthew, The Earthwise Herbal: A Complete Guide to Old World Medicinal Plants, Berkeley, California, North Atlantic Books, 2008