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POULTRY ARE THE MOST BENIGN OF FARM STOCK; easy tomanage, resilient and relatively productive under themost varied conditions. Anyone with a small patch of landcan keep poultry for their eggs and meat, and for breeding.There are few greater pleasures than keeping a flock ofhens and feeding them from the produce of the garden orsurplus food from the house. The more commercially-m i n d e d p r o d u c e r w i l l p u r c h a s e p r o p r i e t a r y f o o d s ,exploit local markets and make a reasonable income.Whatever the level of interest or scale, this booklet pro-vides the information to encourage people to becomemore involved.

FAO

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Brian Clarke

Agricultural Support Systems Division

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Rome 2004

Diversification booklet 3

All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material inthis information product for educational or other non-commercialpurposes are authorized without any prior written permission fromthe copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged.Reproduction of material in this information product for resale orother commercial purposes is prohibited without written permissionof the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should beaddressed to the Chief, Publishing Management Service, InformationDivision, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy or bye-mail to copyright@fao.org

The designations employed and the presentation of material in thisinformation product do not imply the expression of any opinionwhatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization ofthe United Nations concerning the legal or development status ofany country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerningthe delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

© FAO 2004

ISBN 92-5-105075-9

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■ Preface v

■ Foreword vii

■ Abbreviations ix

■ History of domestic poultry production 1

■ Major types and breeds of poultry 1

■ Production systems, demography and geography 4

■ Social, cultural and religious importance of poultry production 5

■ Role of poultry on the farm and in the household 6

■ Resources required for poultry production 6

■ Contributions of poultry to sustainable rural livelihoods 7

■ Income generation 7

■ Improved human nutrition 7

■ The first step on the livestock ladder 8

■ Empowerment of resource-poor farmers, especially women 9

■ Positive environmental impact 10

■ Products free of antibiotic and hormone residues 10

■ Animal health 10

■ Role in households affected by HIV/AIDS 10

■ Key components of rural poultry production 11

■ Cost-effective ways to improve poultry production 13

■ Type of bird 13

■ Feed 13

■ Shelter 13

■ Disease control 13

■ Community collaboration and group formation 14

■ Diversification of poultry production 15

■ Intensification of poultry production 17

■ Utilization of poultry products 19

■ Home consumption 19

■ Marketing and sales 19

■ Sharing market information 20

■ Entrepreneurial and management skills 20

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■ Examples/case studies 21

■ Case study 1. Smallholder poultry: the Bangladesh model 21

■ Improving village chicken production by controlling ND 23

■ Case study 2. South African Fowls for Africa® Programme 27

■ Case study 3. Poultry production: a division of a

small-scale agricultural programme in Pinalto, Guatemala 28

■ Case study 4. Duck production in Cambodia 29

■ Case study 5. Integrated rice-fish-fern-duck farming

system in the Philippines 31

■ Bibliography 33

■ Sources of information, training and networking 35

■ Recommended reading 37

Table of contents

FAO Diversification booklets aim to raise awareness and provide informa-

tion about opportunities at the farm and local community level to increase

small-scale farmer income. Each booklet will focus on a specific farm or non-

farm enterprise or technology that experience has shown can be integrated suc-

cessfully into small farms or at a local community level. We explore the poten-

tial benefits associated with new activities and technologies, as well as appro-

priateness and viability in differing circumstances.

The main target audience for FAO Diversification booklets are people and

organizations that provide advisory, business and technical support services to

resource-poor small-scale farmers and local communities in low- and middle-

income countries. We hope to provide enough information to help these sup-

port service providers consider new income-generating opportunities, and how

they might enable small-scale farmers to take action. What are farmer require-

ments and constraints? What are critical “success factors”?

FAO Diversification booklets are also targeted to policy level people in gov-

ernment and non-governmental organizations. What actions might policy-

makers take to create enabling environments for small-scale farmers to diver-

sify into new income-generating activities?

It is important to point out that the Diversification booklets are not intend-

ed to be technical “how to do it” guidelines. In order to provide farmer advi-

sory and support activities relating to introduction of new income-generating

activities, most organizations will find it necessary to seek more information

or technical support. For these organizations, each booklet identifies comple-

mentary sources of information and technical support.

If you find this booklet of value we would like to hear from you. Tell your

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Preface

colleagues and friends about it. If you have any suggestions where we can

make changes for the better in our next edition, or topics for other booklets –

this is equally important. By sharing your views and ideas with us we can

eventually provide better services to you.

Director, Agricultural Support Systems DivisionFood and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsRome, Italy

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Rural poultry production is like theultimate fashion garment: it can be asuccess by itself, or it can mix andmatch with almost anything. Raisingpoultry can be combined with mostsmallholder farming activities. A poul-try programme designed to fit localconditions will result in some satisfiedcustomers.

Rural poultry production con-tributes to sustainable food security inmany developing countries, providingincome to poor farmers, especiallywomen. It makes good use of localresources, requires few inputs andmakes important economic, religious,social and cultural contributions tohousehold livelihoods.

Poultry have many advantages inmixed farming systems. They aresmall, reproduce easily, do not needlarge investments and can scavengefor food. They thrive on kitchen waste,broken grains, worms, snails, insectsand vegetation; in Asia, ducks graze inrice fields. Geese and guinea fowl canserve as sentries; singing birds andfighting cocks can be used for rituals,social activities or betting.

The term “poultry” refers todomestic birds that produce eggs,meat, manure and feathers that can be

used or traded by their owners.Domestic chickens, turkeys, ducks,geese, guinea fowl, doves and pigeons,pheasants, quail and ostriches areraised throughout the world; the lastthree are usually raised on commercialfarms. In rural areas it is not uncom-mon to see families raising severaltypes of birds.

During the past decade, the world’spoultry population grew by 23 percentin developed countries and 76 percentin developing countries. This spectac-ular increase was largely the result ofincreased commercial production,notably in the Far East where growthaveraged 90 percent. In poor countries,however, the conditions for a success-ful commercial poultry sector arerarely met. These include:• an ability to purchase inputs such

as improved breeds, quality day-old chicks, feed, vaccines, drugsand equipment;

• the availability of a skilled work-force;

• strict disease control;• domestic markets that absorb poul-

try products at attractive prices.An area must be self-sufficient in

cereal production or have access tohard currency from exports before

Foreword

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broiler or egg production can be estab-lished on a medium- or large-scale. Inmany countries, poultry production isbased on traditional extensive lowinput/low output husbandry. It hasbeen a component of small farms forcenturies and will continue for theforeseeable future. Approximately 20percent of the protein consumed indeveloping countries comes frompoultry meat and eggs. Family poultrycontributes 70 percent of poultry pro-duction in most low-income, food-deficit countries (LIFDCs).

This booklet aims to inform proj-ect designers, donors, developmentagencies and development workers of

the many ways in which rural poultrycan help rural people to improve theirlivelihoods. Novel ideas are intro-duced, and tested programmes arereviewed. The support of FAO in theproduction of this booklet is grateful-ly acknowledged. The case study onthe Bangladesh model was preparedby the Danish Network forSmallholder Poultry Development.The author would like to thank theAustralian Centre for InternationalAgricultural Research (ACIAR) forthe resources and support providedduring a period of six years for thework undertaken on village poultryproduction.

FIGURE 1 Village poultry are the commonest livestock in rural areas. They fit neatly into theactivities of family farms.(Artist: Razac Chame)

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ACIAR Australian Centre for International Agricultural ResearchARC Agricultural Research Council, South AfricaINFPD International Network for Family Poultry DevelopmentLIFDCs Low-income food-deficit countriesPSC Poultry supply centreND Newcastle diseaseNGO Non-governmental organization

Abbreviations

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Poultry have been domesticated forthousands of years. Archaeologicalevidence suggests that domesticatedchickens existed in China 8 000 yearsago and that they later spread toWestern Europe, possibly by way ofRussia. Domestication may haveoccurred separately in India or domes-ticated birds may have been intro-duced from Southeast Asia. Accountsof cock fighting in India from 3 000years ago indicate that chickens havebeen part of the culture for a long time.

Domestic chickens appeared inAfrica many centuries ago; they arenow an established part of African life.The rooster frequently appears in theemblems of political parties. In the fol-lowing extract, a cockerel plays a rolein the creation story of the Yoruba,who were the rulers of the ancient stateof Ife in what is now Nigeria:

“According to the Yoruba myth ofcreation, Ife was the original homeof Man. Olorun, the supreme godof the Yoruba, let his son,Oduduwa, down from heaven on achain carrying a five-toed cocker-el, a palm-nut and a handful ofearth. The earth was scattered byOduduwa over the water. It wasthen scratched by the five-toed

cockerel and became dry land inwhich the palm nut germinated tobecome a palm tree. This palm treehad sixteen fronds which repre-sented the sixteen rulers ofYorubaland”. (Crowder, 1977)

■ Major types and breeds of poultry

Domestic chickensThe domestic chicken is descendedfrom the Asian jungle fowl. Twotypes of domestic chicken have beendeveloped in recent decades, one foreggs and one for meat. Breeds suchas the New Hampshire and the LightSussex were previously used for bothpurposes. Dual-purpose breeds areinefficient in competitive commer-cial markets, but they are ideal ashousehold chickens; cocks are usedfor meat, hens for both eggs andmeat.

Many local breeds are recognized.They are well adapted to their envi-ronments: they can avoid predatorsby flying, and the colour and patternof their feathers provide camouflage.Hens’ strong instinct for broodingenable them to hatch their own eggsand mother the vulnerable chicks.They scavenge for food, so they

History of domestic poultry production

require little attention. Their meathas a strong flavour that is generallyliked by consumers; it is well suitedfor boiling, a common way of cookingmeat in developing countries. Theireggs often have a brown shell and adark yellow yolk which consumerslike.

Domestic turkeysThe turkey was probably domesticatedin Mexico. It was used as a domesticfowl by Native American communitiesin what is now the SouthwesternUnited States. Turkey meat is high inprotein and low in fat; it therefore hashigh nutritional value. Turkeys wereintroduced into Europe in the 1500s asa result of European colonization ofCentral America. They are now raisedworldwide; over 50 percent of produc-tion is in developed countries. Themain breeds are the Norfolk Black,Mammoth Bronze and the Broad-breasted Bronze. The lighter breeds dowell in the dry tropics if they areallowed to range and there is adequateshade and feed.

Domestic ducksThe mallard is generally regarded asthe ancestor of domestic ducks exceptfor the Muscovy from SouthAmerica, which actually belongs tothe goose family. Of the 500 millionducks kept worldwide, 430 millionare in Asia. Commercially raised

ducks such as the Aylesbury andPeking are primarily for meat; thosesuch as the Khaki Campbell are foreggs. Local breeds of ducks are recog-nized in many countries. The Muscovyis an extremely good forager that doeswell under free-range conditions,because it does not need much water.The meat of the Muscovy contains lessfat than other breeds.

Domestic geeseGeese are raised primarily for meat,and they also produce excellent feath-ers. Domesticated geese are descend-ed from the Wild Grey Goose ofEurope and the Swan Goose of Asia.Domestic geese are much larger than

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FIGURE 2 A black turkey raised inUganda. (Photo: Baguma Francis)

their wild ancestors and can no longerfly. Geese are exceptionally goodgrazers and will eat large quantities ofgrass and herbage, which makes themuseful in developing countries wherethey can graze in the place of animalssuch as goats that damage crops.They are used in Egypt as scavengersaround villages. They were also usedto weed cotton before insecticideswere introduced.

The main meat-producing breedsare the Toulouse, Oie des Landes,Embden, Roman, American Buff andPilgrim, which descended from theEuropean Greylag Goose. TheChinese breed probably descendedfrom the Swan Goose; it is welladapted to hot climates and capableof laying 100 eggs per year.

Guinea fowlGuinea fowl originated in West Africa,but are now raised in many parts of theworld although the numbers raised out-side Africa are small. In France andItaly, they are raised commerciallyunder intensive conditions for eggs andmeat. Under village conditions, guineafowl usually do not brood; their eggsare hatched under domestic chickens.There are three well-known varieties:the Pearl, the White and the Lavender.

Doves and pigeonsIn countries where doves and pigeonsare raised, owners provide overnighthousing and the birds scavenge fortheir own food. They are often raisedin villages in conjunction withdomestic chickens and ducks.

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FIGURE 3 Backyard geese. (Photo: FAO)

■ Production systems, demographyand geography

Rural poultry flocks consist mainly ofchickens in Africa, ducks in Asia andturkeys in Latin America. Householdflocks range from 3 to 100 in Africa,10 to 30 in South America and 50 to 2 000 in Asia. Flock size is related tothe objectives of the enterprise; pro-ductivity is low compared to high-input systems. A scavenging hen laysonly 30 to 50 eggs per year, or up to 90under improved feeding and hus-bandry conditions; a hen raised com-mercially under optimal conditionswill lay 280 eggs per year. A guide tomatching interventions with local con-ditions is given in Box 7 on page 18.

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FIGURE 4 In Myanmar, smallholders oftenuse hens to hatch duck eggs. (Photo: PeterSpradbrow)

Ducks and geese

FIGURE 5 A domestic fowl family tree

(Adapted from Smith, 1990)

Domestic Jungle chicken fowl

Pigeon DovePheasant Guinea Turkeyfowl

Domestic WildMallard Mallardduck duck

Chickens, turkeys,guinea fowl and pheasants

Doves and pigeons

Flying birds

Muscovy Gooseduck

■ Social, cultural and religiousimportance of poultry production

In many countries, social goodwill iscreated by offering guests a meal con-taining meat; more often than not themeat is poultry. Guests may be givena live bird to take home as a mark ofrespect. Poultry and poultry productscan be sold to obtain items that enablefamilies to participate fully in com-munity activities. In the south ofBhutan, poultry play an importantrole in the worship of local deities.The deities require that animals beoffered in pairs: a chicken, duck orpigeon can be paired with a large ani-mal, or can be offered in the place ofa goat or pig. A pig and a chicken, forexample, or a goat and a pigeon areconsidered equal to two large ani-mals. Farmers in this region believe

that the offerings will ensure thatthere will be no sickness in theirhouseholds.

Chickens play an important role inthe cultural life of rural Ghana, espe-cially in the northern regions. JohnMiller Chernoff described the use ofchickens in a ceremony when he wasconsecrated into the Yeve Cult of theEwe tribe as an apprentice to masterdrummer Gideon Folie Alorwoyie:

“Basically the ceremony was tohelp me concentrate and learn bet-ter and faster. Gideon’s uncle, animportant fetish priest, was incharge. First, that afternoon,Gideon and I bought two whitechickens, male and female for bal-ance and harmony, and a bottle ofgin .... As the chicken stew wasbubbling away, Gideon was busy

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BOX 1 Defining the elements of poultry production

• Poultry: domestic fowls such as, ducks, geese and, turkeys, etc., kept foruse especially as a source of food.

• Egg: ovoid – spherical object produced by female bird that contains thegerm of a new individual.

• Poultry meat: flesh of birds used for food.

• Down: first covering of young birds; soft under-plumage feathers ofbirds used to make cushions and for insulation linings.

• Feather: appendage growing from the skin of a bird, consisting of aquill, shaft and two vanes of barbs.

• Manure: droppings, faeces.

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pouring more libations and tellingme what the ritual would accom-plish ... The priest announced thatthe chicken was ready. He laid thebreasts on the ancestors’ pile.Then he gave me a big bowl andsaid, ‘Eat’. In the bowl were thoseparts of the chickens, which corre-spond to those parts of myself thatwere to be protected: the twoheads, the feet, the wings, the tails,the gizzards and the hearts. I swal-lowed and ate.“ (Miller Chernoff,1979)

■ Role of poultry on the farm and inthe household

Farmers may raise poultry for variousreasons, from the need to create anincome to the simple pleasure ofwatching the healthy birds. In general,rural poultry provide animal protein inthe form of meat and eggs; they areavailable for sale or barter in societieswhere cash is not abundant. Village

poultry fulfil a range of functions thatare difficult to value in terms ofmoney; they provide pest control andmanure, they are used in festivals, cer-emonies, treating illnesses and formeeting social obligations.

■ Resources required for poultry production

In most rural areas suitable for poul-try production, farmers are alreadyraising their own birds. Output of vil-lage poultry in terms of weight gainand number of eggs per hen per yearis often low, but there is minimalinput in terms of housing, diseasecontrol, management and supplemen-tary feeding. Improving poultry pro-duction in a cost-effective mannerrequires the introduction of appropri-ate management skills, and hus-bandry inputs such as supplementaryfeed, disease control, shelter anddevelopment of effective marketingstrategies.

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■ Income generationPoultry and poultry products can besold or bartered to pay school ormedical expenses or to buy oil, saltand other items. A study in theSouthern Province of Zambia, hit bydrought and the cattle disease theile-riosis in recent years, found thathouseholds with chickens were ableto survive drought and recover thefollowing year better than house-holds without chickens.

■ Improved human nutritionConsumption of poultry meat and eggsincreases once farming families areconfident that they have sufficientbirds and that the birds will not die in

great numbers. Eating poultry meatand eggs is especially important forchildren and expectant mothers.Poultry can make a significant contri-bution in areas where child malnutri-tion is common. Enhanced nutritionimproves growth, mental develop-ment, school performance and labourproductivity, and reduces the likeli-hood of illness.

Urban communities also gain fromincreased availability of village poul-try. Larger numbers of birds normallylead to a decline in prices; lower pricesmean that more urban consumers canafford to buy poultry, enabling produc-ers to sell more birds and increaseprofits.

Contributions of poultry to sustainable rural livelihoods

BOX 2

“Chickens are the most accessible livestock species for people of lessermeans, constituting a source of inexpensive protein ... Poultry operate asa ‘platinum credit card’ for poor families, which circulates rapidly anduniversally, with which the bases are cemented for their more active participation in a process of commodity-based development.”

His Excellency Mr João Carrilho, Vice-Minister for Agriculture & RuralDevelopment of Mozambique opening speech of the SADC PlanningWorkshop on Newcastle Disease Control in Village Chickens, 6 March2000. (Alders and Spradbrow, 2001)

■ The first step on the livestock ladder

Farmers on mixed farms often want toraise different kinds of livestock. Forpoor farmers, increasing the number ofpoultry they own increases their assets

and can greatly increase their ability tocope with unexpected crises. WhenNewcastle disease (ND) was controlledin village chickens in Mozambique,Senegal and Togo, farmers could sellsome of their chickens to buy goats.

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FIGURE 6 Children in Mozambique keep their own chickens and sell them to buy schoolbooks and other items. (Photo: Robyn Alders)

BOX 3

“The egg is one of the most balanced foods known, containing most essen-tial amino acids, large amounts of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron,zinc, vitamin A and vitamin B complex. It can be eaten alone or combinedwith other food using simple, easy to prepare recipes.” (Branckaert, et al.2000)

■ Empowerment of resource-poor farmers, especially women

In many countries, poultry are regard-ed as women’s business. A womanpoultry farmer is more likely to have asay in the way her profits are used,because they are the product of herlabour. In the south of Mozambique,

having chickens enables womenfarmers to buy their own goats; this isaccepted by their husbands because itis a result of the women’s labour.Some women are working to buy cat-tle, which is quite an achievement ina society where men are the tradition-al herders.

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FIGURE 7 A farmer in Senegal gathers eggs from her chicken house. (Photo: Robyn Alders)

BOX 4

A Mozambican widow explained: “The chicken is my husband: it allowedme to buy these shoes, this piece of cloth and, this scarf.”

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■ Positive environmental impactRural poultry that scavenge for theirfeed can help to control pests such ascattle ticks. They produce manure thatcan be used to fertilize crops and veg-etables. Extensive poultry productiondoes not produce excessive amountsof waste or use commercial feed con-taining cereals grown in monoculture.

■ Products free of antibiotic and hormone residues

In many parts of Asia, village poultrycommand a higher price than commer-cial birds because they have not beentreated with antibiotics or hormones.

■ Animal healthAnimal-health programmes are moresustainable if they include prevention

and treatment of poultry diseases. It iseasy for farmers to sell poultry toobtain small amounts of cash to payfor the services of an animal-healthworker.

■ Role in households affected byHIV/AIDS

Poultry projects are underway inSouth Africa and Swaziland to assistfamilies affected by HIV/AIDS.Households headed by children or eld-erly people raise poultry for sale andhome consumption. Goats and cattlerequire herders to stay with them dur-ing the day, but this is impossible inhouseholds without working adults,because family members have to betime-efficient and cost-effective forthe family to survive.

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The components of rural poultry pro-duction are type of bird, feed, shelter,disease control, community collabora-tion and group formation. Examples of

how these components can be incorpo-rated into poultry development pro-grammes are given in case studies inthis booklet.

Key components of rural poultry production

BOX 5 Rural poultry production: components

The components of poultry production include:

• type of bird;

• feed;

• shelter;

• disease control;

• community collaboration; and

• group formation.

Sustainable rural poultry programmesshould build on what exists andmatch technological interventionswith local situations. Cost/benefitanalyses carried out before the spreadof new technologies will help to iden-tify interventions most likely to beadopted by farmers. Programmedesigners should be aware that poul-try are susceptible to disease, theftand predators.

■ Type of birdRaising the right kind of bird is crucialto the success of a rural poultry pro-gramme. The birds must be adapted tovillage conditions and not associatedwith local taboos. Local chickensoften outperform their commercialcousins under village conditionsbecause the indigenous birds canescape from predators, find their ownfeed and take care of their young.

■ FeedThe feed available for scavengingbirds provides a range of nutrientsand a balanced diet. Supplementaryfeeding can greatly improve thebirds’ performance, but care must betaken to ensure that the feed provided

is affordable and available locally.When supplementary feed is scarce,farmers should be encouraged toensure that chicks up to the age of twomonths have access to additional feed;young chicks are the first to suffer fromfood shortage and their survival ratewill fall. Creep feeders made fromlocal materials dispense small quanti-ties of feed without greatly increasingthe amount given to household poultry.

■ ShelterPoultry houses provide shelter frompredators and bad weather and canimprove poultry production. Theyensure that birds can be easily handledif individual treatment or vaccinationbecomes necessary. Care must betaken to use designs and materials thatdo not promote infestations of internaland external parasites.

■ Disease controlMajor poultry diseases must be pre-vented or controlled if rural poultry pro-duction is to become a reliable sourceof income. Newcastle disease (ND) cankill 100 percent of susceptible chickens.Commercial ND vaccines and goodhusbandry can prevent the disease in

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Cost effective ways to improved poultry production

areas where the vaccines can be keptcold; where cold storage is not avail-able, thermo-stable ND vaccines shouldbe used. Village chickens may beaffected by fowl cholera and fowl pox,which can be prevented by a combina-tion of vaccination and good hus-bandry.

Duck production can be severelyhampered by outbreaks of diseasessuch as duck plague. Vaccines exist butare not always available in rural areas.

Internal and external parasite controlwill improve flock health. Commercialtreatments for parasites are usuallyexpensive, but local remedies thatreduce or remove parasites can be used.

■ Community collaboration andgroup formation

Activities that encourage communityparticipation and group formationwill promote the establishment ofsustainable programmes.

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FIGURE 8 A creep feeder that will improve chick nutrition can be made from locally available materials. (Artist: Razac Chame)

The type of poultry raised oftenreflects traditional interests and cul-tural values. Traditions evolve slow-ly, however, so introducing newtypes of poultry calls for care andsensitivity. To diversify poultry pro-duction, it is best to start with a mar-

ket study to determine the productsmost likely to sell and a technicalfeasibility study to ensure that pro-duction is possible in the area.Expertise from other regions wheresimilar production has been success-ful can be a great help.

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Diversification of poultry production

BOX 6

The question ... is whether the proposed changes are fea-sible given the cultural reality, and not whether the cultural reality is correct or desirable.(Rushton and Ngongi, 1998).

It may seem that having more poultrywill make an enterprise more prof-itable, but this is not always the case.Care must be taken to ensure thatinputs and expertise are available andaffordable; otherwise attempts tointensify poultry production will notbe sustainable. As the density of apoultry population increases, more

sophisticated disease-control meas-ures are required. Improved breedsneed good-quality housing and feedto produce well. Improved hens donot brood instinctively, so replace-ment stock must be brought in, whichrequires a reliable source of day-oldchickens or older birds in the case oflayers.

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Intensification of poultry production

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BOX 7 Matching chicken programmes with local conditions

Local conditions

Production/farming system

Access to urbanmarkets

No Yes Yes

No Yes Yes

No, or indirect Yes Yes

Access to veterinaryservices and veterinary pharmaceuticals

Sometimes Yes Yes

1–50Flock size 50–200 > 200

Natural incubationSource of newchicks

< 30 minutes 1 hour > 1 hourTime devoted eachday to poultry

Commercial day-oldchicks

Commercial day-oldchicks

LocalPoultry breeds Commercial

Mixed, livestock andcrops

Usually poultry only

Commercial orcrossbred

Poultry only

Access to reliableelectricity supply

Usually Sometimes NoOther livestockraised

Existence of cold chain

Feed source Scavenging; occasional supplementation

Scavenging; supplementationnecessary

Commercial balanced ration

Poultry housing Sometimes; usuallymade from localmaterials

Yes; conventionalmaterials; houses ofvariable quality

Yes; conventionalmaterials; good-quality houses

Training Basic: ND control,fowl cholera control(in parts of Asia),poultry husbandry andmanagement.

Moderate: control ofND, Gumboro, fowlcholera and fowl pox;breed selection; supple-mentary feeding;appropriate housing;husbandry; financialmanagement

Considerable: wide-ranging disease con-trol; breed selection;use of balancedration; good housing;husbandry; financialmanagement.

Criteria Extensive ruralproduction

Semi-intensive/ smallholderproduction

Intensive smallholderproduction

Inputs required

Minimal Essential EssentialVeterinary services andpharmaceuticals

3–5 years 5–10 years 5–10 yearsProgramme timeframe

Minimal Moderate ConsiderableEstimate of projectfunds required perhousehold to initiateprogramme

■ Home consumptionPoor farmers are often reluctant to eatpoultry meat or eggs; they worry thatthe products may be needed to resolvesome unforeseen problem. Once birdnumbers stabilize as a result of techni-cal interventions, families will eatmore poultry meat and eggs.

It is important to work with healthand education services to promotehome consumption, especially wheretaboos exist concerning consumptionof poultry products by certain familymembers. In parts of Africa, childrenand expectant mothers are traditional-ly forbidden to eat eggs. It is importantto conserve eggs to hatch new chick-ens in situations of high mortality,when replacement birds are essential.If village chicken mortality is reduced,for example, by controlling ND, eatingeggs becomes an option and a gooduse of resources.

■ Marketing and salesMarketing networks exist in mostareas and are sometimes based onethnic groups. Men of the Frafra eth-nic group from the Upper EastRegion of Ghana, for example, arethe dominant force in the villagepoultry trade, even in Accra. Such

networks can be studied to determinetheir strengths and weakness beforeplanning new market interventions.

Marketing poultry products willbe easier if they are known to be indemand. In Bhutan in 1999, locallyproduced eggs cost twice as much aseggs imported from India. Local con-sumers still preferred local eggs,however, because of their brownshells and dark-yellow yolks. InSouthern Mozambique, frizzle-feath-ered chickens are believed to havemore power in traditional cere-monies, so they usually sell for twicethe price of an ordinary chicken.

Demand will remain strong if thequality of products is uniformlyacceptable. In areas without refrigera-tion, people prefer to buy live birds.Traders who buy poultry from farm-ers and take them to market will dobetter if the birds are vaccinatedagainst diseases. The albumen qualityof duck and hen eggs declines veryrapidly when eggs are stored at ambi-ent temperature, especially in hot cli-mates. Losses can be reduced by oil-ing them with medical or technical oilon the day they are laid, which main-tains albumen quality for severalweeks at ambient temperature.

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Utilization of poultry products

■ Sharing market informationEfficient marketing is an essentialprerequisite for successful small-scale enterprises. Marketing tech-niques used for other commoditiescan be applied to rural poultry.Broadcasting market information byradio can help rural farmers to get fairprices for their poultry products.

■ Entrepreneurial and managementskills

Fostering entrepreneurial and man-agement skills are the final block inthe foundation of sustainable poultryproduction and contributes to sustain-able livelihoods in rural areas.

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BOX 8

A local fowl expert has landed on the world’s gastronomic stage with hisnomination for the Slow Food Award 2001 Special Jury Prize. NoelHoneyborne of Fowls for Africa is the first South African finalist ...

At a taste-off at the Herbert Baker restaurant in Parktown, chef AlanGerson prepared four different indigenous fowl and one ordinary chickenin a number of different ways, all with a strong local flavour: chickenchakalaka, chicken in kumquat sauce, chicken with Mpumalanga herbs andan inventive coq au pinotage.

The special Slow Food eat-in of Honeyborne’s chickens at the HerbertBaker not only confirmed that local chicken is indeed very tasty, butshowed that it makes sense in many, many ways. (Minnaar, 2001)

FIGURE 9 Live chicken market in Asia.(FAO)

■ Case study 1. Smallholder poultry:the Bangladesh model

Steps to successThe activities of the Bangladeshmodel for smallholder poultry reachthe poorest members of society, espe-cially illiterate and destitute womenwith no land and no assets apart fromtheir labour. The model is an exampleof effective development based on acombination of organizational, tech-nical and socio-economic activitiesthat include group formation, credit,technical training and poultry produc-tion. As the beneficiaries becomemembers of village groups andreceive technical help, microcreditand relevant training, their incomesand social status improve within afew years. The Bangladesh model isthe result of a long process involvinggovernmental and non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs).

Smallholder poultry model – step bystepDeveloping the model required a sys-tem of interdependent enterprises thatprovided training, savings and creditschemes, and support. The beneficiar-ies welcomed interventions that had

an immediate effect on their sociocul-tural, economic and natural environ-ment. Poultry production met theircriteria, because it provided increasedincome from selling eggs and chickenmeat and increased influence in deci-sion-making.

These steps were designed to cre-ate an enabling environment andmake the interventions sustainable.

Step 1: Group formation, credit andtechnical trainingSmallholders, mainly women, wereselected on the basis of low econom-ic and social status and interest inkeeping poultry. Village groups of 30to 40 people were formed. At theirweekly meetings, the groups receivedone to three days of training on sav-ings, microcredit systems and basictechniques of poultry management,including feeding, housing and dis-ease control. The groups formed thecore for future exchanges of experi-ence and provided the social collater-al needed to secure loans.

Step 2: Vaccination campaignVillage-based vaccinators, called poul-try workers, received three days of ini-tial training in vaccinating poultry and

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Examples/case studies

managing and cleaning vacuum flasks,syringes and needles. To make theprocess sustainable, vaccines andequipment were sold to the poultryworkers through small loans providedby local NGOs. Vaccinations, medicineand services were provided to small-holders, who paid in cash or in kind.The poultry workers provided house-to-house service for all birds, whichwas the secret of the success of the vac-cination programme. An ND vaccina-tion campaign reduced mortality from41 percent to 19 percent in one year.

Step 3: Improved breedsBangladesh has been working toimprove poultry breeds for intensiveproduction since the 1930s. After inde-pendence in 1972, the focus was onbreeds suitable for village conditions.Mini poultry farms were set up to pro-duce fertile eggs from improvedbreeds, boosting the laying capacity ofvillage hens to 200 eggs per year.

Step 4: Supporting enterprisesEstablishing village enterprises pro-vided the support needed to make thepoultry activities sustainable. Theseincluded: • chick-rearing units to rear chicks

from birth to 8-12 weeks, to reducemortality;

• feed-selling units in which cattle-feed sellers make poultry feed orfeed ingredients available locally;

• mini hatcheries to hatch eggs andsell day-old chickens to smallhold-ers or chick-rearing units;

• women egg collectors who collecteggs from smallholders and sellthem in the markets, giving womensmallholders a better price than tra-ditional middlemen or even theirown husbands.

ResultsThe Bangladesh smallholder poultryprojects improved beneficiaries’household conditions in many ways.These results show the benefits of theprojects implemented since 1993:• 99.9 percent of beneficiary house-

holds showed improved economicconditions;

• 93 percent of loans were repaid ontime;

• 28 percent of beneficiaries movedabove the poverty line within 18months;

• 86 to 99 percent increase in schoolenrolment, especially for girls;

• women gained greater influence onfamily decision-making;

• household intake of animal proteinwas increased;

• 30 percent decrease in chicken mor-tality in one year.By 2004, more than two million

beneficiaries will be reached throughprojects implemented by nationalNGOs under the responsibility of theGovernment of Bangladesh.

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Reasons for successNinety-five percent of the beneficiar-ies of the Bangladesh smallholderpoultry model are women. They areextremely poor and have access to lessthan 0.2 ha of land. They depend onthe sale of their manual labour forincome. The success of the pro-gramme can be traced to a series ofdecisions:• choosing the right beneficiaries;• making microcredit available;• applying simple, low-risk tech-

nologies requiring little initial

training or investment that aresocially and culturally acceptablewith high turnover and quickreturns;

• creating interdependence betweenbeneficiaries and NGOs;

• ensuring the long-term commit-ment of NGOs and governmentalinstitutions.Long-term commitment is neces-

sary to ensure that poverty alleviationand empowerment of women is on thelong-term agenda of NGOs and gov-ernment institutions (Danish Networkfor Smallholder Poultry Development,2001).

■ Improving village chicken production by controlling Newcastle disease

ND is one of the major constraints toproduction of village chickens.Outbreaks of the disease regularlycause 50 to 100 percent mortality incountries where it is enzootic. ND out-breaks may occur less frequently incountries where it is not enzootic, butpotential losses make vaccinationmandatory.

Since 1984, ACIAR has supportedcollaborative research on control ofND in village chickens, reflecting theimportance of ND in Southeast Asiaand lack of vaccines. It built on earlierexperience of disease control andresearch in Australia and Asian part-ner countries.

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FIGURE 10 A Bangladeshi farmer with herlaying hen. (Photo: Jens Christian Riise)

Research phaseInvestigations into the control of NDin Southeast Asia and Africa involved:• laboratory testing of live thermo-

stable NDV4-HR and I-2 ND vac-cines;

• field testing vaccine administrationroutes such as eye-drops, drinkingwater, oral drenches and feeds suchas cooked white rice and wheat;

• development of extension material;• attention to cost-recovery and cost-

saving issues.

ResultsThe initial focus was development ofan ND vaccine for use in difficult ruralconditions where cold storage is oftenabsent or unreliable. The NDV4-HRand I-2 ND vaccines performed well.In freeze-dried form, these vaccinesretain their activity for two months attemperatures up to 28 ºC. The I-2 wetvaccine – vaccine that has not beenfreeze-dried – remains active for twoweeks when not refrigerated.

In Asia, NDV4-HR vaccine wasinitially mixed with wheat and feedpellets to vaccinate village birds thatroosted in trees. This method provided60 percent protection against ND invaccinated flocks, but proved expen-sive because of the need to revaccinatebirds at short intervals. In Africa, nosuitable vaccine feed carrier has beenidentified. Maize, the common grain inmost of Africa, contains a chemical

that deactivates live ND vaccines.Studies in Mozambique demonstratedthat village chicken farmers prefer toadminister eye drops because themethod provides the best protectionand is less expensive because it doesnot have to be given so often.

Simple trainingTraining village chicken farmers tobecome community vaccinators ismade easier because live thermo-stablevaccines are relatively easy to use.Once out of refrigeration, the vaccinescan be transported wrapped in dampcloth in covered baskets. The dose isthe same for birds of all ages.Overdosing with these vaccines is notdangerous to the birds, therefore if vac-cinators are not confident that the firstdrop entered the eye, they can give asecond drop.

Availability of vaccinesNDV4-HR is a patented commercialvaccine that can be purchased whenforeign exchange is available. Forcountries where foreign exchange isnot readily available, ACIAR providesfree non-patented I-2 master seed,which makes possible local productionof ND vaccine suitable for villagechickens. Attention must be given tosocial and economic aspects of thework, however, to make ND controlsustainable. The basic objective is toimprove food security and to alleviate

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poverty in rural and peri-urban house-holds. Sustainable food security islinked directly to sustainable liveli-hoods, so an ND control programmemust fit into the local context.

Beneficial outcomesND control programmes in countriessuch as Mozambique have increasednumbers of chickens, household pur-chasing power, consumption of chick-en products and women’s decision-making power. Sustainable ND controlprogrammes can only be achievedwhen all stakeholders are involved inthe development of a national controlstrategy. Experience has shown that

sustainable ND control has four essen-tial components:• appropriate vaccine and vaccine

technology;• extension efforts, including manu-

als, pamphlets, posters, flip charts,songs, plays and radio programmes,and approaches that target veteri-nary and extension staff, communi-ty vaccinators and farmers;

• simple evaluation and monitoringsystems for technical and socio-economic indicators;

• economic sustainability based oncommercialization of the vaccineand vaccination services and mar-keting of surplus chickens and eggs.

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FIGURE 11 Dona Marta Muholove calls her chickens by spreading maize on the ground.Dona Marta, a widow, is the head of a Mozambican family that lacks adults who could lookafter cattle. She started to vaccinate her chickens against ND a year ago and now has over 40birds. (Photo: Robyn Alders)

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Cost-recovery and marketing activities linked to the sustainable control of Newcastle disease in village chickens

Cost recovery

Procure appropriate vaccine.Import.Produce locally.

Vaccine quality control.

Distributor buysvaccine.

Vaccinator buysvaccine.

Farmers buyvaccine.

Central store of vaccine.Central data bases.

Distribution of vaccine by informedsupport staff.

Informed and enthusiastic farmers payto vaccinate healthy chickens.

Vaccine administered to healthy chickens

Increased sale of chickens and eggs.Money to purchase ND vaccine.Purchase of other livestock.Access to essential household goods,e.g. salt, oil, clothes.Ability to pay school fees, buy books.Payment of small medical expenses.Ability to perform important social,cultural and religious activities.Increased home consumption.Improved nutrition of children andexpectant mothers.Improved health.

Marketing of NDvaccine.

Marketing of NDvaccination service.

Chickens sold bycommunity memberor itinerant chickentrader.

Urban consumerpreference for vil-lage chickens andeggs.

ND control activities and results Marketing

FIGURE 12

Source: Alders, et al. 2001

ND control technology made avail-able free by ACIAR has been used inBhutan, Cambodia, Ghana, Malaysia,Mozambique, Myanmar, Senegal,Tanzania and Viet Nam. This was sup-ported by the Australian Agency forInternational Development (AusAID),FAO, the International Fund forAgricultural Development (IFAD) andthe World Bank.

■ Case study 2. South African Fowlsfor Africa® Programme

Fowls for Africa® is a new initiative setup to bring poultry production withinthe reach of all farmers, and particular-ly those in resource-poor rural com-munities. It addresses the need foraffordable animal protein by enablingpeople to produce eggs and meat fortheir own use and for sale. Under theauspices of the Animal ImprovementInstitute of the South AfricanAgricultural Research Council (ARC),Fowls for Africa® achieves these aimsby providing:• training in poultry production;• creation of poultry supply centres

(PSCs) for feed and materialrequirements;

• primary poultry health care;• poultry breeds adapted to the

African environment;• access to finance.

ConceptPSCs are franchises owned and managed

by members of the community thatcooperate with the ARC. The ARC andits contractors supply PSC inventoriesat cost price. The inventories, sold at aprofit by PSCs, include everythingneeded by poultry producers such asbirds, feed, healthcare supplies andmaterials to build fowl runs.

ARC trains extension officers andprospective poultry producers on acost-recovery basis. Those who com-plete the training receive certificatesthat secure accreditation with develop-ment banks or local government sub-sidiaries, which facilitate loan applica-tions at financial institutions. ARC pro-vides fowl first-aid kits at a nominalfee; these are designed for flocks of 50to 1 000 and include disease identifica-tion and instruction brochures, vac-cines and medication. They enablefarmers without access to veterinarycare to tend to the health of their flocks.

Six breeds have been identified thatare adapted to survive under harsh low-input conditions, if shelter, feed, waterand hygiene are provided. Fertile eggsand day-old and four-week-old chicksof these breeds are maintained by ARCand made available on contract toPSCs. The breeds are:• Potchefstroom Koekoek – bred by

crossing the Black Australorp andthe White Leghorn; has good eggproduction

• Naked Neck – originated inMalaysia; a breed producing eggs

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and meat; adapts well to hot cli-mates;

• Venda – originated in the Vendaarea of Northern Province; hasgood egg production and a well-developed instinct for brooding;

• Ovambo – originated in northernNamibia and Ovamboland; goodegg production; survives underharsh conditions;

• New Hampshire – dual-purposebreed of European origin; knownfor rapid development;

• Black Australorp – dual-purposebreed of European origin; canadapt to household production.

■ Case study 3. Poultry production: adivision of a small-scale agriculturalprogramme in Pinalto, Guatemala

Prudencia Ramos, a widow with sixchildren, was able to improve her fam-ily’s diet, greatly increase her incomeand pass on what she had learned toher neighbours. She achieved thesethings through an integrated small-scale agriculture programme spon-sored by the Ezra Taft BensonAgricultural and Food Institute inPinalto, Guatemala. The programme,designed to support the food needs ofa family of seven and provide cashincome, provided improved plantingtechnology for corn and black beans,establishment of a family garden andpoultry production. The garden pro-vided vegetables rich in vitamins andminerals, which had been largelymissing from the family diet. Chickenproduction gave additional meat forthe table and was a profit-making ven-ture. When she entered the pro-gramme, Prudencia’s annual incomewas US$350; her corn yielded 500 kgand her beans 50 kg per year.Prudencia was given credit to build asmall poultry house and to buy ten-day-old broiler chicks. She reinvestedthe earnings from sales of her chickensand in time was able to increase herflock to 300 birds. At market time, sheprocessed 25 birds daily and rode on atruck for an hour to the nearest citywhere she sold them. She organized

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FIGURE 13 Fowls for Africa model show-ing partners, inputs and linkages.(Source: ARC-LNR, 2001)

PoultryProducers

PoultryFeed

Suppliers

PoultrySupplyCentre

ExtensionOfficers

TrainingPoultryFeedBuilding MaterialFencingFowl First Aid KitFinancing

TrainingAdapted fowlsInformationPoultry Health

ARC

TrainingPoultry

EquipmentSuppliers

FinancialInstitutions,

Banks

her neighbours into a production coop-erative that eventually had 1 600 birds.After three years of participation in theprogramme, her annual income hadincreased by more than eight times,from US$350 to US$2 900, throughthe sale of chickens and increasedproductivity of her corn to 1 500 kgand beans to 200 kg per year.(Johnston, Flores and Guzman, 2001).

■ Case study 4. Duck production inCambodia

BreedsFour breeds of ducks and crossesbetween them are common inCambodia. They vary according totheir ability to produce meat or eggsand in the size and number of eggsproduced. The Angkam and Sompuwvbreeds and crosses between them arethe most common. It is often difficultto identify pure breeds in flocks thatare mostly crossbreeds. The Angkamis slightly smaller than the Sompuwvand is a true dual-purpose producer; its80 g eggs are smaller than those of theSompuwv, which lays eggs of 100 to120 g, but it produces more of them.

The Peking duck is a tall whiteduck specialized for meat production,and common in peri-urban areas nearbodies of water, for example, north ofPhnom Penh.

The Muscovy duck, or Kpar, actu-ally belongs to the goose family. The

distinctive growth on its beak makesit easily identifiable. It is found insmall numbers around the houses offarmers who do not specialize in duckraising. The Muscovy duck’s naturalbehaviour and size allows it to incu-bate 10 to 15 eggs, compared with 5to 8 eggs for local hens. These ducksare sometimes used by farmers toincubate the eggs of other ducks orchickens. Their use for meat is limit-ed because farmers in some areasbelieve the meat is diseased althoughthis belief appears to be decreasing.

Production systemsCommercial duck raising, using most-ly Angkam, Sompuwv or crosses, isconcentrated in the provinces ofTakeo, Kompong Cham, Kampot andparts of Kompong Thom, in areaswhere there is access to water in thedry season. Incubators use artificialhatching units and sell between 200and 400 day-old chicks at a time toraisers, usually in September, severalmonths before the harvest.

In the first month, the ducklingsare kept warm in the house, wherethey are fed on fish (for protein)mixed with broken rice. After the har-vest, farmers take the ducks to therice fields, where they feed oninsects, snails and paddy that has fall-en from the rice plants. The ducksroam freely, with no concern as toownership of the fields. Little or no

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supplement is given during this period.

There are markets for ducks fromCambodia in Viet Nam during theChinese New Year in February. Asthe dry season approaches, theducks scavenge in lakes for foodsuch as snails, insects and watergrasses; paddy is given as a supple-ment. By the Khmer New Year in

April, the ducks are five to sixmonths old, and most raisers sell upto 90 percent of the males for meat.At that stage they weigh about 1.5kg. Some females may be sold, butmost are kept for egg production.Sales over this period assist the cashflow of the operation.

Females begin to lay eggs at aboutsix months; daily egg sales finance

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FIGURE 14 Duck herders in Asia move with their ducks as they feed; they can cover largedistances. (Photo: Peter Spradbrow)

their feed. A farmer from Takeonoted: “The sale of 30 eggs financesthe purchase of food for 100 ducksfor a day.” The larger eggs ofSompuwv ducks are preferred forsale as boiled or uncooked eggs; thesmaller Angkam eggs are commonlymarketed as brae, which are saltedblack eggs. Many raisers have finan-cial arrangements with the suppliersof the day-old ducks, which givesthem some financial security.

MarketingEggs sold to consumers can beembryonated or bong dteer goan,salted or bong dteer brae, fresh orboiled. The raisers sell fresh eggs toconsumers or to processors. Thesimplest process is boiling. Theincubators who produce day-oldducklings for sale also produceembryonated eggs, which are fertileeggs incubated for 18–21 days; thefull incubation period is 28 days.Salted eggs are produced by puttingthem in a mixture of salt and the ashof rice husk for about a month. Thesalt is absorbed into the eggs andpreserves them – a useful process forfarmers. Fresh, boiled and embry-onated eggs spoil within a day ortwo. Fresh eggs bring the lowestprices, followed by boiled and saltedeggs; embryonated eggs have morethan twice the value of fresh egg(Maclean, 1998).

■ Case study 5. Integrated rice-fish-fern-duck farming system in thePhilippines

A 1995–1996 research project in thePhilippines, integrating high-yield rice,genetically improved fish, aquaticferns and ducks, generated increases inrice and duck production. It was con-ducted at the Freshwater AquacultureCentre, Central Luzon State Universitywith support from FAO and theCatholic University of Louvain,Belgium. It focused on production,economics and control of pests such asweeds and golden apple snails.

The project included high-yieldIR64 rice, genetically improved Niletilapia and the aquatic fern Azolla,which was cultured in lowland irrigat-ed rice fields. Nine-month old Mallardducks were integrated into the systemat a density of 400 birds per hectare,comprising 367 ready-to-lay femalesand 33 males. Azolla, cultivated as amonocrop and incorporated as organicfertilizer before rice transplanting, pro-vided half the nitrogen fertilizerrequirement of the rice; the other halfcame from chemical fertilizer. It servedas a weed suppressant and as feed forthe tilapia and ducks. The ducks wereallowed to forage in the rice fields dur-ing the fallow period before rice trans-planting. A duck house made of cheaplocal materials was built over the fishpond refuge where the ducks were con-fined when they were not foraging.

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The ducks’ laying was over 60percent, compared with a nationalaverage of 35 percent for ducks undertraditional management systems.Herding the ducks economized onfeed costs and was effective in con-trolling the herbivorous golden applesnails. The foraging of 400 Mallardducks per hectare during the 30 to 48days of fallow before rice transplanti-ng kept the golden apple snails down

to densities that were not detrimentalto the young rice plants.

The study demonstrated that whenNile tilapia, Azolla and Mallardducks are integrated into the system,higher rice production can beachieved than with conventionalmonoculture rice production, rice-fish farming and rice-duck farming(Cagauan, Branckaert and Van Hove,1998).

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ACIAR. 1999. Measurement and maintenance of duck and hen egg quality inVietnam. Research Note No. 23. Australian Centre for InternationalAgricultural Research, Canberra., Australia.

Alders, R.G. and Spradbrow, P.B. 2001. SADC Planning Workshop onNewcastle Disease Control in Village Chickens. In ACIAR Proceedings, No.103: Proceedings of the International Workshop, Maputo, Mozambique, 6–9March 2000. 170 pp.

Alders, R.G., Spradbrow, P.B., Young, M.P., Mata, B.V., Meers, J., Lobo,Q.J.P. & Copland, J.W. 2001. Improving rural livelihoods through sustain-able Newcastle disease control in village chickens. 10th InternationalConference of the Association of Institutions for Tropical Veterinary Medicine,Copenhagen, 20–23 August 2001. Abst. C-9.

ARC-LNR. 2001. Fowls for Africa®: bringing poultry production to the peo-ple of Africa. South African Agricultural Research Council, AnimalImprovement Institute, Irene, South Africa. (Also available at:http://www.arc.agric.za/institutes/aii/main/divisions/animalbreedgen/resource-poor/fowls/fowls.htm).

Branckaert, R.D.S., Gaviria, L., Jallade, J. & Seiders, R.W. 2000. Transferof technology in poultry production for developing countries. Paper XXI WorldPoultry Congress, Montreal, Canada, 20–24 August, 2000.

Cagauan, A.G., Branckaert, R.D.S. & Van Hove, C. 1998. Rice-duck farm-ing in Asia: increasing its production potentials by integration with fish andthe nitrogen-fixing fern Azolla. Paper 1st INFPD/FAO Electronic Conferenceon Family Poultry, 7 December 1998. (Also available athttp://www.fao.org/ag/aga/agap/lpa/fampo1/fampo.htm).

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Bibliography

Crowder, M. 1977. West Africa: an introduction to its history. Longman,London, UK.

Johnston, N.P., Flores, M.Q. & Guzman, V.H. 2001. Poultry production: adivision of a small-scale agricultural programmme in Pinalto, Guatemala.10th International Conference of the Association of Institutions for TropicalVeterinary Medicine, Copenhagen, Denmark, 20–23 August 2001. Abst. J-6.

Maclean, M. 1998. Livestock in Cambodian rice-farming systems.Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Minnaar, M. 2001. Fowl is fare. Mail and Guardian Newspaper, 17(40):5–11. Johannesburg, South Africa.

Miller Chernoff, J. 1979. African rhythm and African sensibility: aesthet-ics and social action in African musical idioms. University of ChicagoPress, Chicago, USA.

Rushton, J. & Ngongi, S.N. 1998. Poultry, women and development: oldideas, new applications and the need for more research. World AnimalReview, 91: 43–48. FAO, Rome, Italy.

Smith, A.J. 1990. Poultry. CTA Tropical Agriculturalist Series. TechnicalCentre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation. Macmillan, London andWageningen, The Netherlands. 218 pp.

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■ Networks

International Network for Family Poultry Developmenthttp://www.fao.org/ag/aga/agap/lpa/fampo1/fampo.htm

Danish Network for Smallholder Poultry Developmenthttp://www.poultry.kvl.dk

Householder Poultry Entreprise – Asiahttp://www.aphca.org

■ Other sources of information

Fowls for Africa®

http://www.arc.agric.za/institutes/aii/main/divisions/animalbreedgen/resour-cepoor/fowls/fowls.htm

GRM Internationalhttp://www.grm.com.au

Improvements in Rural Poultry in Developing Countrieshttp://www.vsap.uq.edu.au/ruralpoultry

Poultry Resources for Small Farmshttp://journeytoforever.org/farm_poultrylink.html

VETAIDhttp://www.vetaid.org.uk

Vétérinaires sans Frontièreshttp://www.vsf-france.org

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Sources of information, training and networking

■ Donor agencies supportive of rural poultry programmes

Asian Development Bank (AsDB)http://www.adb.org

African Development Bank (AfDB)http://www.afdb.org

Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR)http://www.aciar.gov.au

Australian Agency for International Development (AIDAD)http://www.ausaid.gov.au

Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)http://www.danida.org

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)http://www.fao.org

International Fund for International Development (IFAD)http://www.ifad.org

Department for International Development (DFID)http://www.dfid.gov.uk

The World Bankhttp://www.worldbank.org

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DucksFAO. 1991, 1997. Raising ducks. Vols. I, II. Training manuals for farmersand extension workers. FAO, Rome. Italy.Holderread, D. 1978. Raising the home duck flock. Storey Books, NorthAdams, Massachusetts, USA.

GeeseGuy, G. & Buckland. B. 2002. Goose production. FAO, Rome, Italy.Holderread, D. 1981. The book of geese: a complete guide to raising thehome flock. Hen House Publishing. Corvallis, Oregon, USA.

Guinea fowlDownes, A. 1999. A guide to Guinea fowl farming in Malawi.UNDP/Department of National Parks and Wildlife, Lilongwe, Malawi.

Extension materialAnon. 2001. Village poultry extension. (Available athttp://www.vsap.uq.edu.au/ruralpoultry)

MarketingACIAR. 1999. Measurement and maintenance of duck and hen egg qualityin Vietnam. Research Note No. 23. Australian Centre for InternationalAgricultural Research, Canberra, Australia.FAO. 2002. Egg marketing. FAO, Rome, Italy.

Smallholder poultryCTA. 1990. Smallholder rural poultry production. CTA InternationalSeminar on Smallholder Rural Poultry Production: requirements of researchand development, Thessaloniki, Greece, 9–13 October 1990. TechnicalCentre for Agricultural and Rural Co-operation., Wageningen, TheNetherlands.

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Recommended reading

Julian, R.J. 2000. Poultry husbandry. University of Guelph, Ontario,Canada. (Also available at http://www.easynet.ca/~pic in English, French andSpanish).Oluyemi, J.A. & Roberts, F.A. 1992. Poultry production in warm wet climates. Macmillan, London, UK.Pedersen, G., Permin, A. & Minga, U.M. 2000. Possibilities for smallhold-er poultry projects in Eastern and Southern Africa. Proceedings ofWorkshop. 22–25 May, 2000. Morogoro, Tanzania. Danish Network forSmallholder Poultry Development, Copenhagen, Denmark. 139pp.Williamsom, G. & Payne, W.J.A. 1988. An introduction to animal hus-bandry in the tropics. 3rd Ed. Longman Scientific & Technical, Harlow, UK.

TrainingAlders, R., dos Anjos, F., Bagnol, B., Fumo, A., Mata, B. & Young, M.2002. Controlling Newcastle disease in village chickens: a training manual.Monograph No. 86. Australian Centre for International AgriculturalResearch, Canberra, Australia.

TurkeysAgricultural Training Board. 1982. Handling turkeys. Kent, England. UK.

Village chickensAlders, R.G. & Spradbrow, P. 2001. Controlling Newcastle disease in vil-lage chickens: a field manual. Monograph No. 82. Australian Centre forInternational Agricultural Research, Canberra, Australia. 112 pp.Alders, R.G. and Spradbrow, P.B. 2001. SADC planning workshop onNewcastle disease control in village chickens. In ACIAR Proceedings, No.103: Proc. International Workshop 6–9 March 2000. Maputo, Mozambique.170 pp.Bell, J.G., Alexander, D.J. & R.G.Alders, R.G. 2003. Newcastle disease invillage chickens. FAO Technology Review paper (in publication. FAO,Rome, Italy.Kitalyi, A.J. 1998. Village chicken production systems in rural Africa:household food security and gender issues. FAO Animal Production andHealth Paper No. 142. FAO, Rome, Italy. 81 pp.Smith, A.J. 1990. Poultry. CTA Tropical Agriculturalist Series. Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co-operation. Macmillan, London, UK and

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Wageningen, The Netherlands. 218 pp.Young, M., Alders, R.G., Spradbrow, P., Dias, P., da Silva, A. & Lobo, Q.2002. Controlling Newcastle disease in village chickens: a laboratory manual. Monograph No. 87. Australian Centre for International AgriculturalResearch, Canberra, Australia.

Village poultryPermin, A. & Hansen, J.W. 1998. Epidemiology, diagnosis and control ofpoultry parasites. FAO Animal Health Manual No. 4. FAO, Rome, Italy.Sonaiya, E.B. 2000. Issues in family poultry development research.Proceedings of International Workshop, M’Bour, Senegal, 9–13 December1997. International Network for Family Poultry Development. 308 pp.Udo, H.M.J., Asgedom, A.H. & Viets, T.C. 2001. Modelling the impact ofinterventions in village poultry systems. 10th International Conference of theAssociation of Institutions for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Copenhagen,Denmark. 20–23 August, 2001. Abst. C-13. (Also available athttp://www.aitvm.org).

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FAO

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POULTRY ARE THE MOST BENIGN OF FARM STOCK; easy tomanage, resilient and relatively productive under themost varied conditions. Anyone with a small patch of landcan keep poultry for their eggs and meat, and for breeding.There are few greater pleasures than keeping a flock ofhens and feeding them from the produce of the garden orsurplus food from the house. The more commercially-m i n d e d p r o d u c e r w i l l p u r c h a s e p r o p r i e t a r y f o o d s ,exploit local markets and make a reasonable income.Whatever the level of interest or scale, this booklet pro-vides the information to encourage people to becomemore involved.

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