Physical Science ch.9-13 Vocabulary
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Transcript of Physical Science ch.9-13 Vocabulary
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Chapter 9
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Atom
• The smallest particle of an element that can enter into a chemical combination
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Electrons
• Negatively charged subatomic particles
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Quantum
• A discrete amount
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Quantum Mechanics
• The branch of physics that replaced the classical-mechanical view (that everything moved according to exact laws of nature) with the concept of probability
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Photoelectric effect
• The emission of electrons that occurs when certain metals are exposed to light
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Photon
• A “particle” of electromagnetic energy
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Dual nature of light
• Light sometimes behaves as waves and sometimes as particles
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Line emission spectrum
• A set of bright spectral lines of certain frequencies or wavelengths formed by dispersion of light from a gas discharge tube.
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Line absorption spectrum
• A set of dark spectral lines of certain frequencies or wavelengths, formed by dispersion of light that has come from an incandescent source and has then passed through a sample of cool gas
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Principal quantum number
• The numbers n = 1, 2 ,3,…used to designate the various principal energy levels that an electron may occupy in an atom
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Ground state
• The lowest energy level of an atom
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Excited states
• The energy levels above the ground state in an atom
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Fluorescence
• The property of a substance, such as the mineral fluorite, of producing visible light while it is being acted upon by ultraviolet light
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Phosphorescence
• A glow of light that persists after the removal of the source of photons needed for excitation of the material’s electrons
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X-rays
• High-frequency, high-energy, electromagnetic radiation formed when high-speed electrons strike a metallic target
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Laser
• An acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
• It is coherent, monochromatic light
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Stimulated emission
• Process in which an excited atom is caused to emit a photon
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Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle
• It is impossible to know simultaneously the exact velocity and position of a particle
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Matter (de Broglie) waves
• The waves produced by moving particles
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Chapter 10
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Nucleus
• The central core of an atom• Composed of protons and neutrons
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Protons
• Positively charged particles in the nuclei of atoms
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Neutrons
• Neutral particles found in the nuclei of atoms
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Nucleons
• A collective term for neutrons and protons (particles in the nucleus)
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Atomic number
• Symbolized Z, it is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of that element
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Element
• A substance in which all the atoms have the same number of protons - the same atomic number
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Neutron number
• The number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
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Mass number
• The number of protons plus the number of neutrons in a nucleus
• The total number of necleons
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Isotopes
• Forms of atoms of an element that have the same numbers of protons but differ in their numbers of neutrons
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Atomic mass
• The average mass of an atom of the element in naturally occurring samples
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Strong nuclear force
• The short-range force of attraction that acts between two nucleons and holds the nucleus together
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Radioactive isotope
• An isotope that undergoes spontaneous decay
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Radioactivity
• The spontaneous process of a sample of a radionuclide undergoing a change by the emission of particles or rays
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Alpha decay
• The disintegration of a nucleus into a nucleus of another element, with the emission of an alpha particle
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Beta decay
• The disintegration of a nucleus into a nucleus of another element, with the emission of a beta particle
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Gamma decay
• An event in which a nucleus emits a gamma ray and becomes a less energetic form of the same nucleus
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Half-life
• The time it takes for half the nuclei in a sample of a given radionuclide to decay
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Carbon-14 dating
• A procedure used to establish the age of ancient organic remains by measuring the concentration of 14C and comparing it to that of present-day organic remains
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Fission
• A process in which a large nucleus is split into two intermediate-size nuclei, with the emission of neutrons and the conversion of mass into energy
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Chain reaction
• Occurs when each fission event causes at least one more fission event
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Critical mass
• The minimum amount of fissionable material necessary to sustain a chain reaction
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Fusion
• A process in which a smaller nuclei are fused to form larger ones, with the release of energy
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Plasma
• A high-temperature gas of electrons and protons or other nuclei
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Mass defect
• Any decrease in mass during a nuclear reaction
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Chapter 11
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Chemistry
• The division of physical science that studies the composition and structure of matter and the reactions by which substances are changed into other substances
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Compound
• A substance composed of two or more elements chemically combined in a definite, fixed proportion by mass
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Mixture
• A type of matter composed of varying proportions of two or more substances that are just physically mixed, not chemically combined
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Solution
• A mixture that is uniform throughout• A homogeneous mixture
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Unsaturated solution
• A solution in which more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature
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Saturated solution
• A solution that has the maximum amount of solute dissolved in the solvent at a given temperature
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Solubility
• The amount of solute that will dissolve in a specified volume or mass of solvent (at a given temperature) to produce a saturated solution
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Supersaturated solution
• A solution that contains more than the normal maximum amount of dissolved solute at a given temperature and hence is unstable
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Molecule
• An electrically neutral particle composed of two or more atoms chemically combined
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Allotropes
• Two or more forms of the same element that have different bonding structures in the same physical phase
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Period
• In physics, the time for a complete cycle of motion. In chemistry, one of the seven horizontal rows of the periodic table
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Periodic law
• The properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers
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Groups
• The vertical columns in the periodic table
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Representative elements
• The A group elements in the periodic table
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Transition elements
• The B group of elements in the periodic table
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Inner transition elements
• The lanthanides and actinides, the two rows at the bottom of the periodic table, make up the inner transition elements
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Metal
• An element whose atoms tend to lose valence electrons during chemical reactions
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Nonmetal
• An element whose atoms tend to gain (or share) valence electrons during chemical reactions
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Electron configuration
• The order of electrons in the energy levels of an atom
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Valence shell
• An atom’s outer shell, which contains the valence electrons
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Valence Electrons
• The electrons that are involved in bond formation, usually those in an atom’s outer shell
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Ionization energy
• The amount of energy it takes to remove an electron from an atom
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Ion
• An atom, or chemical combination of atoms, that has a net electric charge
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Noble gases
• The element of Group 8A of the periodic table• He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
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Alkali metals
• The elements in Group 1A of the periodic table
• Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
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Halogens
• The elements in Group 7A of the periodic table
• F, Cl, Br, I, At
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Alkaline Earth metals
• The elements in Group 2A of the periodic table
• Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
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Chapter 12
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Law of conservation of Mass
• No detectable change in the total mass occurs during a chemical reaction
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Formula Mass
• The sum of the atomic masses of the atoms showing in the chemical formula of the compound or element
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Law of definite proportions
• Different samples of a pure compound always contains the same elements in the same proportion by mass
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Limiting reactant
• A starting material that is used up completely in a chemical reaction
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Excess reactant
• A starting material that is only partially used up in a chemical reaction
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Octet rule
• In forming compounds, atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve electron configurations of the noble gases
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Ionic compounds
• Compounds formed by an electron transfer process in which one or more atoms lose electrons and one or more other atoms gain them to form ions
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Lewis symbol
• The element’s symbol represents the nucleus and inner electrons of an atom, and the valence electrons are shown as dots arranged around the symbol
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Lewis Structures
• “electron dot” symbols used to show valence electrons in molecules and ions of combounds
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Cations
• Positive ions; so called because they move toward the cathode (the negative electrode) of an electrochemical cell
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Anions
• Negative ions; so called because they move toward the anode (the positive electrode) of an electrochemical cell
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Ionic bonds
• Electrical forces that hold the ions together in the crystal lattice of an ionic compound
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Stock system
• A system of nomenclature for compounds of metals that form more than one ion
• A roman numeral placed in parentheses directly after the name of the metal denotes its ionic charge in the compound being named
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Covalent compounds
• Those in which the atoms share pairs of electrons to form molecules
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Covalent bond
• The force of attraction caused by a pair of electrons to form molecules
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Polar Covalent Bond
• One in which the pair of bonding electrons is unequally shared, leading to the bond’s having a slightly positive end and a slightly negative end
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Electronegativity
• A measure of the ability of an atom to attract shared electrons to itself
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Polar molecule
• A molecule that has a positive end and a negative end – that is, one that has a dipole
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Hydrogen bond
• The dipole-dipole forces between a hydrogen atom in one molecule and a nearby oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom in the same or a neighboring molecule
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Chapter 13
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Chemical properties
• Characteristics that describe the chemical reactivity of a substance – that is, its ability to transform into another substance
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Chemical reaction
• A change that alters the chemical composition of a substance
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Reactants
• The original substances in a chemical reaction
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Products
• The substances formed during a chemical reaction
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Combination reaction
• One in which at least two reactants combine to form just one product
• A+B > AB
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Decomposition reactions
• One in which only one reactant is present and breaks into two (or more) products: AB > A + B
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Exothermic reactions
• A reaction that has a net release of energy to the surroundings
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Endothermic reactions
• A reaction that absorbs energy from the surroundings
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Activation energy
• The energy necessary to start a chemical reaction
• A measure of the minimum kinetic energy that colliding molecules must possess in order to react
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Acid-carbonate reaction
• An acid and a carbonate (or hydrogen carbonate) react to give carbon dioxide, water, and a salt
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Combustion reaction
• The reaction of a substance with oxygen to form an oxide, along with heat and light in the form of fire
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Catalyst
• A substance that increases the rate of reaction but is not itself consumed in the reaction
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Acid
• A substance that gives hydrogen ions (or hydronium ions) in water
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Equilibrium
• In chemistry, a dynamic process in which the reactants are combining to form the products at the same rate at which the products are combining to form the reactants
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Base
• A substance that produces hydroxide ions in water
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pH
• A measure (on a logarithmic scale) of the hydrogen ion (or hydronium ion) concentration in a solution
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Acid-base reaction
• The H+ of the acid unites with the OH- of the base to form water, while the cation of the base combines with the anion of the acid to form a salt
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Salt
• An ionic compound that contains any cation except H+ combined with any anion except OH-
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Double-replacement reactions
• Reactions that take the form of AB + CD > AD + CB
• The positive and negative components of the two compounds “change partners”
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Precipitate
• An insoluble solid that appears when two clear liquids (usually aqueous solutions) are mixed
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Oxidation
• Occurs when oxygen combines with another substance (or when an atom or ion loses electrons)
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Reduction
• Occurs when oxygen is removed from a compound (or when an atom or ion gains electrons)
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Activity series
• A list of elements in order of relative ability to of their atoms to be oxidized in solution
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Single-replacement reaction
• Reactions in which one element replaces another that is in a compound
• A + BC > B + AC
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Mole (mol)
• The quantity of a substance that contains 6.02 x 1023 formula units (the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12)
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Avogadro’s number
• 6.02 x 1023, symbolized NA; the number of entities in a mole.
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Molarity (M)
• A measure of solution concentration in terms of moles of solute per liter of solution