Photovoltaics Systems and Applications

7/30/2019 Photovoltaics Systems and Applications

1/19

PhotovoltaicsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Nellis Solar Power Plant at Nellis Air Force Base in the USA. These panels track the sun in one axis.

Photovoltaic SUDI shade is an autonomous and mobile station in France that replenishes energy for electric vehicles using

solar energy.


2/19

Solar panels on the International Space Station

Photovoltaics (PV) is a method ofgenerating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct

currentelectricityusing semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic power generation

employs solar panels composed of a number ofsolar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials

presently used for photovoltaics include monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon,amorphous

silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide.[1] Due to the growing demand

for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced

considerably in recent years.[2][3][4]

Solar photovoltaics is growing rapidly, albeit from a small base, to a total global capacity of

67,400 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2011, representing 0.5% of worldwide electricity demand.[5] The total

power output of the worlds PV capacity run over a calendar year is equal to some 80 billion kWh of electricity.

This is sufficient to cover the annual power supply needs of over 20 million households in the world.[5]More than

100 countries use solar PV.[6] Installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming

and grazing)[7] or built into the roof or walls of a building (building-integrated photovoltaics).

Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and sophistication, the cost of

photovoltaics has declined steadily since the first solar cells were manufactured[8] and the levelised cost of

electricity (LCOE) from PV is competitive with conventional electricity sources in an expanding list of

geographic regions.[9]Net metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-

generated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries.[10] With current technology,

photovoltaics recoup the energy needed to manufacture them in 1 to 4 years. [11]


3/19

Solar cells

Solar cells produce electricity directly from sunlight


4/19

Average solar irradiance, watts per square metre. Note that this is for a horizontal surface, whereas solar panels are

normally mounted at an angle and receive more energy per unit area. The small black dots show the area of solar panels

needed to generate all of the world's energy using 8% efficient photovoltaics.

Solar cell productions by region[12]

Main article: Solar cell

Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar cells to convert energy

from the sun into a flow of electrons. The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of light exciting electrons into a

higher state of energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an electric current. The photovoltaic effect

was first observed byAlexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839.[13][14] The term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased

operating mode of a photodiode in which current through the device is entirely due to the transduced light

energy. Virtually all photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode.

Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sun light, which can be used to power equipment or

to recharge a battery. The first practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting satellites and

other spacecraft, but today the majority ofphotovoltaic modules are used for grid connected power generation.

In this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC. There is a smaller market for off-grid power for


5/19


6/19

Map of solar electricity potential in Europe.

Photovoltaic panels based oncrystalline silicon modules are encountering competition in the market by panels

that employthin-film solar cells (CdTeCIGS,[23] amorphous Si, microcrystalline Si), which had been rapidly

evolving and are expected to account for 31% of the global installed power by 2013.[24] However, precipitous

drops in prices for polysilicon and their panels in late 2011 have caused some thin-film makers to exit the

market and others to experience severely squeezed profits.[25] Other developments include casting wafers

instead of sawing, concentrator modules, 'Sliver' cells, and continuous printing processes.

The San J ose-based company Sunpower produces cells that have an energy conversion ratio of 19.5%, well

above the market average of 1218%.[26] The most efficient solar cell so far is a multi-junction concentrator

solar cell with an efficiency of 43.5%[27] produced by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in April 2011.

The highest efficiencies achieved without concentration include Sharp Corporationat 35.8% using a proprietary

triple-junction manufacturing technology in 2009,[28] and Boeing Spectrolab (40.7% also using a triple-layer

design). A March 2010 experimental demonstration of a design by a Caltech group led by Harry Atwater which

has an absorption efficiency of 85% in sunlight and 95% at certain wavelengths is claimed to have near perfect

quantum efficiency.[29] However, absorption efficiency should not be confused with the sunlight-to-electricity

conversion efficiency.

For best performance, terrestrial PV systems aim to maximize the time they face the sun. Solar

trackers achieve this by moving PV panels to follow the sun. The increase can be by as much as 20% in winter

and by as much as 50% in summer. Static mounted systems can be optimized by analysis of the sun path.

Panels are often set to latitude tilt, an angle equal to the latitude, but performance can be improved by

adjusting the angle for summer or winter. Generally, as with other semiconductor devices, temperatures above

room temperature reduce the performance of photovoltaics.[30]


7/19

A number of solar panels may also be mounted vertically above each other in a tower, if the zenith distance of

the Sun is greater than zero, and the tower can be turned horizontically as a whole and each panels

additionally around a horizontical axis. In such a tower the panels can follow the Sun exactly. Such a device

may be described as a ladder mounted on a turnable disk. Each step of that ladder is the middle axis of a

rectangularsolar panel. In case the zenith distance of the Sun reaches zero, the ladder may be rotated to the

north or the south to avoid a solar panel producing a shadow on a lower solar panel. Instead of an exactly

vertical tower one can choose a tower with an axis directed to the polar star, meaning that it is parallel to the

rotation axis of the Earth. In this case the angle between the axis and the Sun is always larger than 66 degrees.

During a day it is only necessary to turn the panels around this axis to follow the Sun.

The 2011 European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) report predicted that, "The future of the PV

market remains bright in the EU and the rest of the world," the report said. "Uncertain times are causing

governments everywhere to rethink the future of their energy mix, creating new opportunities for a competitive,

safe and reliable electricity source such as PV."[31] 2012 could see the installation of 2030 GW of PV about

the same as in 2011. Unfortunately, the industry's capacity continues to expand, to perhaps as much as

38 GW. The resulting glut of supply has crushed prices and profits.[32] By 2015, 131196 GW of photovoltaic

systems could be installed around the globe.[31]

[edit]Economics

Photovoltaic powerworldwide GWp[5]

2005 5.4

2006 7.0

2007 9.4

2008 15.7

2009 22.9

2010 39.7


8/19

2011 67.4

Year end capacities

The output of a photovoltaic array is a product of the area, the efficiency, and the insolation. The capacity

factor, or duty cycle, of photovoltaics is relatively low, typically from 0.10 to 0.30, as insolation ranges, by

latitude and prevailing weather, and is location specific from about 2.5 to 7.5 sun hours/day. Panels are rated

under standard conditions by their output power. The DC output is a product of the rated output times the

number of panels times the insolation times the number of days. The sunlight received by the array is affected

by a combination of tilt, tracking and shading. Tracking increases the yield but also the cost, both installation

and maintenance. A dual axis tracker can increase the effective insolation by roughly 3540%, while

temperature effects can reduce efficiency by 10%. The AC output is roughly 25% lower due to various losses

including the efficiency of the inverter.[33] For example, for a 4 kW array in Paris, where the average insolation is

3.34 sun hours/day, the annual (AC) output would be approximately 3.34x4x365x0.75=3657 kWh, and the

monthly output, from the following chart, would range from 67 kWh in December to 498 kWh in J uly.[34] The

weather strongly affects the output and from year to year monthly and annual outputs can vary substantially.

Published insolation values are normally 10 year averages. There are many live data sites that can

be monitored, and compared.[35]

Source: Apricus[36]


9/19

Financial incentives for photovoltaics, such as feed-in tariffs, have often been offered to electricity consumers

to install and operate solar-electric generating systems. Government has sometimes also offered incentives in

order to encourage the PV industry to achieve the economies of scale needed to compete where the cost of

PV-generated electricity is above the cost from the existing grid. Such policies are implemented to promote

national or territorial energy independence, high tech job creation and reduction ofcarbon dioxide

emissions which cause global warming. Due to economies of scale solar panels get less costly as people use

and buy more as manufacturers increase production to meet demand, the cost and price is expected to drop

in the years to come.

NREL compilation of best research solar cell efficiencies from 1976 to 2010

According to Shi Zhengrong, in 2012 unsubsidized PV systems already produce electricity in some parts of the

world, more cheaply than coal and gas-fired power plants.[37][38] As PV system prices decline it is inevitable that

subsidies will end. "Rapid decline or outright disappearance has already been seen in all the major solar

markets except China and India".[38]

As of 2011, the price of PV modules per MW has fallen by 60% since the summer of 2008, according to

Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates, putting solar power for the first time on a competitive footing with

the retail price of electricity in a number of sunny countries. There has been fierce competition in the supply

chain, and further improvements in the levelised cost of energy for solar lie ahead, posing a growing threat tothe dominance of fossil fuel generation sources in the next few years.[39] As time progresses, renewable energy

technologies generally get cheaper,[40][41] while fossil fuels generally get more expensive:

The less solar power costs, the more favorably it compares to conventional power, and the more attractive it

becomes to utilities and energy users around the globe. Utility-scale solar power can now be delivered in

California at prices well below $100/MWh ($0.10/kWh) less than most other peak generators, even those


10/19

running on low-cost natural gas. Lower solar module costs also stimulate demand from consumer markets

where the cost of solar compares very favorably to retail electric rates.[42]

As of 2011, the cost of PV has fallen well below that of nuclear power and is set to fall further. The average

retail price of solar cells as monitored by the Solarbuzz group fell from $3.50/watt to $2.43/watt over the course

of 2011.[43]

For large-scale installations, prices below $1.00/watt were achieved. A module price of 0.60 Euro/watt (0.78

$/watt) was published for a large scale 5-year deal in April 2012. [44] In some locations, PV has reached grid

parity, which is usually defined as PV production costs at or below retail electricity prices (though often still

above the power station prices for coal or gas-fired generation without their distribution and other costs).

Photovoltaic power is also generated during a time of day that is close to peak demand (precedes it) in

electricity systems with high use of air conditioning. More generally, it is now evident that, given a carbon price

of $50/ton, which would raise the price of coal-fired power by 5c/kWh, solar PV will be cost-competitive in most

locations. The declining price of PV has been reflected in rapidly growing installations, totaling about 23 GW in

2011. Although some consolidation is likely in 2012, due to support cuts in the large markets of Germany and

Italy, strong growth seems likely to continue for the rest of the decade. Already, by one estimate, total

investment in renewables for 2011 exceeded investment in carbon-based electricity generation.[43]

[edit]Applications

80 MW Okhotnykovo Solar Park in Ukraine.

PresidentBarack Obama speaks at theDeSoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center.


11/19

[edit]Power stations

Main article: List of photovoltaic power stations

Many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in Europe.[45] As of May 2012, the largest

photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are theCharanka Solar Park (India, 214 MW), Golmud SolarPark (China, 200 MW), Agua Caliente Solar Project (USA 100 MW) Perovo Solar Park (Ukraine 100

MW), Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant (Canada, 97 MW), Brandenburg-Briest Solarpark (Germany 91

MW), Solarpark Finow Tower (Germany 84.7 MW), Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Station (Italy, 84.2

MW), Eggebek Solar Park (Germany 83.6 MW), Senftenberg Solarpark (Germany 82 MW),Finsterwalde Solar

Park (Germany, 80.7 MW), Okhotnykovo Solar Park (Ukraine, 80 MW), Lopburi Solar Farm(Thailand 73.16

MW), Rovigo Photovoltaic Power Plant (Italy, 72 MW), and the Lieberose Photovoltaic Park (Germany,

71.8 MW).[45]

There are also many large plants under construction. The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm under construction

inRiverside County, California andTopaz Solar Farmbeing built in San Luis Obispo County, Californiaare both

550 MWsolar parks that will use thin-film solar photovoltaicmodules made byFirst Solar.[46] The Blythe Solar

Power Projectis a 500 MW photovoltaic station under construction inRiverside County, California.

The California Valley Solar Ranch (CVSR) is a 250 megawatt (MW) solar photovoltaicpower plant, which is

being built by SunPower in the Carrizo Plain, northeast ofCalifornia Valley.[47]The 230 MW Antelope Valley

Solar Ranch is a First Solar photovoltaic project which is under construction in the Antelope Valley area of the

Western Mojave Desert, and due to be completed in 2013.[48] TheMesquite Solar project is a photovoltaic solar

power plant being built in Arlington, Maricopa County, Arizona, owned bySempra Generation.[49] Phase 1 will

have a nameplate capacityof 150 megawatts.[50]

Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use innovative tracking systems that follow the

sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than conventional fixed-mounted systems. There

are no fuel costs or emissions during operation of the power stations.

[edit]In buildings


12/19

Photovoltaic wall at MNACTEC Terrassa in Spain

Main article: List of rooftop photovoltaic installations

Photovoltaic arrays are often associated with buildings: either integrated into them, mounted on them or

mounted nearby on the ground.

Arrays are most often retrofitted into existing buildings, usually mounted on top of the existing roof structure or

on the existing walls. Alternatively, an array can be located separately from the building but connected by cable

to supply power for the building. In 2010, more than four-fifths of the 9,000 MW of solar PV operating in

Germany were installed on rooftops.[51] Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are increasingly incorporated

into new domestic and industrial buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power. [52] Typically, an

array is incorporated into the roof or walls of a building. Roof tiles with integrated PV cells are also common. A

2011 study using thermal imaging has shown that solar panels, provided there is an open gap in which air can

circulate between them and the roof, provide a passive cooling effect on buildings during the day and also keep

accumulated heat in at night.[53]

The power output of photovoltaic systems for installation in buildings is usually described inkilowatt-peakunits

(kWp).

[edit]In transport

Main article: Photovoltaics in transport


13/19

PV has traditionally been used for electric power in space. PV is rarely used to provide motive power in

transport applications, but is being used increasingly to provide auxiliary power in boats and cars. A self-

containedsolar vehicle would have limited power and low utility, but a solar-charged vehicle would allow use of

solar power for transportation. Solar-powered cars have been demonstrated.[54]

[edit]Standalone devices

Solar parking paystation.

Until a decade or so ago, PV was used frequently to power calculators and novelty devices. Improvements in

integrated circuits and low power liquid crystal displays make it possible to power such devices for several

years between battery changes, making PV use less common. In contrast, solar powered remote fixed devices

have seen increasing use recently in locations where significant connection cost makes grid power prohibitively

expensive. Such applications include water pumps,[55]parking meters,[56][57]emergency telephones,[58]trash

compactors,[59] temporary traffic signs, and remote guard posts and signals.

[edit]Rural electrification

Unlike the past decade, which saw solar solutions purchased mainly by international donors, it is now the locals

who are increasingly opening their wallets to make the switch from their traditional energy means. That is

because solar products prices in recent years have declined to become cheaper than kerosene and batteries.


14/19

In Cambodia, for example, villagers can buy a solar lantern at US$25 and use it for years without any extra

costs, where their previous spending on kerosene for lighting was about $2.5 per month, or $30 per year. In

Kenya a solar kit that provides bright light or powers a radio or cell phone costs under $30 at retail stores. By

switching to this kit Kenyans can save $120 per year on kerosene lighting, radio batteries and cell phone

recharging fees.[60]

Developing countries where many villages are often more than five kilometers away from grid power are

increasingly using photovoltaics. In remote locations in India a rural lighting program has been providing solar

powered LED lighting to replace kerosene lamps. The solar powered lamps were sold at about the cost of a

few months' supply of kerosene.[61][62] Cuba is working to provide solar power for areas that are off grid.[63]These

are areas where the social costs and benefits offer an excellent case for going solar though the lack of

profitability could relegate such endeavors to humanitarian goals.

[edit]Solar roadways

The 104kW solar highway along the interchange ofInterstate 5 and Interstate 205 nearTualatin, Oregon in December 2008.

Main article: Solar roadway

In December 2008, the Oregon Department of Transportation placed in service the nations first solar

photovoltaic system in a U.S. highway right-of-way. The 104-kilowatt (kW) array produces enough electricity to

offset approximately one-third of the electricity needed to light the Interstate highway interchange where it is

located.[64]


15/19

A 45 mi (72 km) section of roadway in Idaho is being used to test the possibility of installing solar panels into

the road surface, as roads are generally unobstructed to the sun and represent about the percentage of land

area needed to replace other energy sources with solar power.[65]

[edit]Solar power satellites

Main article: Solar power satellite

Space-based solar power (SBSP) is the concept of collecting solar power inspace for use on Earth. It has

been in research since the early 1970s. SBSP would differ from current solar collection methods in that the

means used to collect energy would reside on an orbitingsatellite instead of on Earth's surface. Some

projected benefits of such a system are: higher collection rate, longer collection period, and elimination

ofweather concerns. SBSP also introduces several new hurdles, primarily the problem of transmitting energy

from orbit to Earth's surface for use.

[edit]Advantages

The 89 PW of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface is plentiful almost 6,000 times more than the 15 TW

equivalent of average power consumed by humans.[66] Additionally, solar electric generation has the highest

power density (global mean of 170 W/m2) among renewable energies.[66]

Solar power is pollution-free during use. Production end-wastes and emissions are manageable using existing

pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies are under development [67] and policies are being

produced that encourage recycling from producers.[68]

PV installations can operate for many years with little maintenance or intervention after their initial set-up, so

after the initial capital cost of building any solar power plant, operating costs are extremely low compared to

existing power technologies.

Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing transmission/distribution losses (transmission

losses in the US were approximately 7.2% in 1995).[69]

Compared to fossil and nuclear energy sources, very little research money has been invested in the

development of solar cells, so there is considerable room for improvement. Nevertheless, experimental high

efficiency solar cells already have efficiencies of over 40% in case of concentrating photovoltaic cells [70] and

efficiencies are rapidly rising while mass-production costs are rapidly falling.[71]

[edit]Disadvantages

In some states of the United States of America, much of the investment in a home-mounted system may be lost

if the home-owner moves and the buyer puts less value on the system than the seller. The city of Berkeley

developed an innovative financing method to remove this limitation, by adding a tax assessment that is


16/19

transferred with the home to pay for the solar panels.[72] Now known as PACE, Property Assessed Clean

Energy, 28 U.S. states have duplicated this solution.[73]

[edit]References

1. âbMark Z. J acobson(2009). Review of Solutions to Global Warming, Air Pollution, and Energy

Security p. 4.

2. âbGerman PV market. Solarbuzz.com. Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

3. âbBP Solar to Expand Its Solar Cell Plants in Spain and India. Renewableenergyaccess.com.

March 23, 2007. Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

4. â

b

Kevin Bullis. Large-Scale, Cheap Solar Electricity. Technologyreview.com J une 23, 2006.

Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

5. âbcdeEuropean Photovoltaic Industry Association (2012). "Market Report 2011".

6. âbREN21 (2011). "Renewables 2011: Global Status Report". p. 22.

7. âbGE Invests, Delivers One of World's Largest Solar Power Plants. Huliq.com (2007-04-12).


8. ^ Swanson, R. M. (2009). "Photovoltaics Power Up". Science324 (5929): 891

2. DOI:10.1126/science.1169616. PMID19443773.

9. ^ Branker, K.; Pathak, M.J .M.; Pearce, J .M. (2011). "A Review of Solar Photovoltaic Levelized Costof Electricity". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews15 (9):

4470. DOI:10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.104. Open access

10. ^ Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st century (REN21), Renewables 2010 Global

Status Report, Paris, 2010, pp. 180.

11. ^ Investing in Solar Electricity. Whats the Payback?. Retrieved on 2012-04-21.

12. ^ Pv News. Greentech Media. Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

13. ^ Photovoltaic Effect. Mrsolar.com. Retrieved on 2010-12-12.

14. ^ The photovoltaic effect. Encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net. Retrieved on 2010-12-12.

15. ^ In Indias Sea of Darkness: An Unsustainable Island of Decentralized Energy Production

16. ^ REN21 (2011). "Renewables 2011: Global Status Report". p. 15.

17. ^ REN21 (2009). Renewables Global Status Report: 2009 Update p. 9.

18. ^ Eric Martinotand J anet Sawin. Renewables Global Status Report 2009 Update, Renewable

Energy World, September 9, 2009.


17/19

19. ^ Antonio Luque and Steven Hegedus (2003). Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering.

J ohn Wiley and Sons. ISBN0-471-49196-9.

20. ^ The PVWatts Solar Calculator. Pvwatts.org. Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

21. ^ Bob Bellemare, 'Issue alert What is a megawatt?. UtiliPoint International, Inc. (2011)

22. ^ Solar Generation V 2008. Greenpeace.org. Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

23. ^ The technology at a glance. Wuerth-solar.de (2012-03-30). Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

24. ^ "Thin-film's Share of Solar Panel Market to Double by 2013". Renewable Energy World.

Retrieved July 7, 2010.

25. ^ Cheyney, Tom (29 J uly 2011). "Exit strategy: Veeco's departure from CIGS thin-film PV

equipment space raises questions, concerns". PV-Tech. Retrieved 10 March 2012.

26. ^ "SunPower TM 318 Solar Panel Data Sheet". SunPower. February, 2010. Retrieved 30 March

2011.

27. ^ "Update: Solar J unction Breaking CPV Efficiency Records, Raising $30M". Greentech Media.

2011-04-15. Retrieved 2011-09-19.

28. ^ Sharp Develops Solar Cell with World's Highest Conversion Efficiency of 35.8%. Physorg.com.

October 22, 2009. Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

29. ^ "Caltech Researchers Create Highly Absorbing, Flexible Solar Cells with Silicon Wire

Arrays". California Institute of Technology. February 16, 2010. Retrieved 7 March 2010.

30. ^ Effect of Panel Temperature on a Solar-Pv Ac Water Pumping System. Ars.usda.gov. Retrieved

on 2012-06-03.

31. ^a

b

"Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics until 2015". European Photovoltaic Industry

Association (EPIA). May 2011. p. 39.

32. ^ Goossens, Ehren (9 March 2012). "Solar Panel Sales Seen Dropping First Time in Decade,

Feeding Glut". Bloomberg. Retrieved 10 March 2012.

33. ^ Calculator for Overall DC to AC Derate Factor. Rredc.nrel.gov. Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

34. ^ PVWatts Viewer can be used to obtain a more accurate estimate.

35. ^ L'IUT de Cachan A 4.04 kW system near Paris, installed in J anuary 2012

Gron Town Hall A 3.88 kW system near Sens installed October 2011

Carcassonne A 3.96 kW system in southern France, installed in September 2009

36. ^ "Insolation Levels (Europe)". Apricus Solar. Retrieved 2012-04-14.

37. ^ Mark Clifford (Feb. 8, 2012). "China's visible solar power success".MarketWatch.

38. ^ab

Tim Keating (3 February 2012). "Death to PV Subsidies". Renewable Energy World.

39. ^ "Renewables Investment Breaks Records". Renewable Energy World. 29 August 2011.

40. ^ Renewable energy costs drop in '09Reuters, November 23, 2009.


18/19

41. ^ Solar Power 50% Cheaper By Year End Analysis Reuters, November 24, 2009.

42. ^ Arno Harris (31 August 2011). "A Silver Lining in Declining Solar Prices".Renewable Energy

World.

43. âbJ ohn Quiggin(J anuary 3, 2012). "The End of the Nuclear Renaissance |".National Interest.

44. ^ [1]Solarserver.com, April 30, 2012.

45. âb

Denis Lenardic. Large-scale photovoltaic power plants ranking 1 50PVresources.com, 2010.

46. ^ "DOE Closes on Four Major Solar Projects". Renewable Energy World. 30 September 2011.

47. ^ "NRG Energy Completes Acquisition of 250-Megawatt California Valley Solar Ranch from

SunPower". MarketWatch. 30 September 2011.

48. ^ "Exelon purchases 230 MW Antelope Valley Solar Ranch One from First Solar". Solar Server. 4

October 2011.

49. ^ "Sempra Generation contracts with PG&E for 150 mw of solar power".Sempra Energy. October

12, 2010. Retrieved 2011-02-06.

50. ^ "Mesquite Solar". Sempra Generation. Retrieved 2011-02-06.

51. ^ Germany To Raise Solar Target for 2010 & Adjust Tariffs | Renewable Energy News Article.

Renewableenergyworld.com. Retrieved on 2010-12-12.

52. ^ Building Integrated Photovoltaics, Wisconsin Public Service Corporation, accessed: 2007-03-23.

53. ^ "Solar panels keep buildings cool". University of California, San Diego. Retrieved 19 J uly 2011.

54. ^ SolidWorks Plays Key Role in Cambridge Eco Race Effort. Retrieved 8 February 2009.

55. ^ "Solar water pumping". builditsolar.com. Retrieved J une 16, 2010.

56. ^ Solar-Powered Parking Meters Installed. 10news.com (2009-02-18). Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

57. ^ "Solar-powered parking meters make downtown debut". Impactnews.com. 2009-07-22. Retrieved

2011-09-19.

58. ^ Security Products, December 2006, p42

59. ^ Philadelphia's Solar-Powered Trash Compactors. MSNBC (2009-07-24). Retrieved on 2012-06-

03.

60. ^ Delivering Solar to a Distribution-cursed Market (by Yotam Ariel). Renewableenergyworld.com.


61. ^ Solar loans light up rural India. BBC News (2007-04-29). Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

62. ^ Off grid solutions for remote poor. ebono.org. 26 February 2008

63. ^ Eliza Barclay. Rural Cuba Basks in the Sun. islamonline.net. 31 J uly 2003

64. ^ "The ODOT Solar Highway". Oregon Dept. of Transportation. Retrieved 22 April 2011.

65. ^ Solar Roads attract funding. ebono.org. 8 March 2008

66. âbVaclav Smil Energy at the Crossroads. None. Retrieved on 2012-06-03.


19/19

67. ^ Evert Nieuwlaar and Erik Alsema. Environmental Aspects of PV Power Systems. IEA PVPS Task

1 Workshop, 2527 J une 1997, Utrecht, The Netherlands

68. ^ McDonald, N.C.; Pearce, J .M. (2010). "Producer Responsibility and Recycling Solar Photovoltaic

Modules". Energy Policy38 (11): 7041.DOI:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.07.023.

69. ^ U.S. Climate Change Technology Program Transmission and Distribution Technologies. (PDF)

. Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

70. ^ World Record: 41.1% efficiency reached for multi-junction solar cellsFraunhofer ISE

71. ^ Study Sees Solar Cost-Competitive In Europe By 2015. Solar Cells Info (2007-10-16). Retrieved

on 2012-06-03.

72. ^ "Berkeley FIRST Solar Financing City of Berkeley, CA". cityofberkeley.info. Retrieved

September 7, 2010.)

73. ^ DSIRE Solar Portal. Dsireusa.org (2011-04-04). Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

Photovoltaics Systems and Applications

Documents

Transcript of Photovoltaics Systems and Applications