PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE (Kuliah 1).ppt

8/11/2019 PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE (Kuliah 1).ppt

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PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE:

FOUNDATION OF THEORY

CONSTRUCTION(LECTURE I)

Instructor

M. Saleh S.Ali

10/5/2014MK Konstruksi Teori


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WELCOME TO

THE CLASS OF THEORY CONSTRUCTION



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MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

Philosophy of scienceis the branch ofphilosophythat studies the philosophicalassumptions, foundations, andimplications of science.

Philosophy of science is the attempt tounderstand the meaning, method, andlogical structure of scienceby means of a

logical and methodological analysisof theaims, methods, criteria, concepts, laws,and theories of science (Klemke et.al.1998).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy


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PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE S NOT

Philosophy of science is notthe history

of science.

Philosophy of science is notmetaphysical cosmology or philosophy

of nature.

Philosophy of science is notthepsychology or sociology of science



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SCIENTISTS VS PHILOSOPHERS OF

SCIENCE

Scientists:

Observe what happens in the world and note regularities.

Experiment manipulate some things.

Discover or postulate laws of nature to explain regularities. Combine laws of nature into theories

Philosophers of science:

Do none the scientists do

They ask questions such as What is a law of nature? What

is a scientific theory? What are the criteria to distinguish or

to demarcate a scientific theory and nonscientific theory?

They clarify the existence of a law of nature.



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THINK PHILOSOPHICALLY

1. Holistic; understand a science from many

different perspectives; the essence of

science in relation to others.

2. Fundamental; understand foundations of

facts. Sceptism of facts.

3. Speculative; understand the essence of a

reality/fact through jumping of thinking.



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KNOWLEDGE

Philosophy and Science, dealt with

knowledge.

Knowledge is justified true belief(OBrien, 2006)

Scientific Knowledge is an organized

and systematic knowledge by ascientific method.



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SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

Belief/ReligionReligious Knowledge

Intuition/ThinkingPhilosophical

KnowledgeExperienceCultural Knowledge

ResearchScientific knowledge



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TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

a prioriknowledgeWhat one knows beforetaking into account

observations or evidence (Knowledge is notjustified by experience, it is accepted as a given

truth, it is innate knowledge)May include necessary/analytic truths,

assumptions, given facts, etc.

Exp. * All men die

*All bachelors are unmarried man* Everything has a cause

* Murder is wrong



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TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

a posterior knowledgeWhat one knows aftertaking into account

observations and evidence (knowledge is

justified by experience)

May include laws and explanations of natural

or social phenomena.

Exp. *Stress leads to cardiovasculer

deseases.*Fertilizers increase paddy production

*If there is no conflict, there is no change



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HOW TO ACQUIRE KNOWLEDGE

Rationalism

Empiricism

Constructionism



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RATIONALISM

Knowledge arises from reasoning, a priory knowledge The way to knowledge is from the generalto the

particular

Requires some general a prioritruths which it views asnecessarycondition

Characterised by deduction The general principles gives meaningto the

observations by relatingthem

Theory-driven

Exp.

All men are mortal;

Socrates is a men;

Therefore, Socrates is mortal

We know this is true because rationallyit makes sense



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ILLUSTRATION


PREMIS MAYORPREMIS MINOR

KNOWLEDGE/

THE TRUTHDEDUCTIVE


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CRITIQUES OF RATIONALISM

Difficulties to set a standard of

evaluating.

Idea is difficult to catch, it is abstractDifficult to actualize in practical



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EMPIRICISM

Knowledge arises from observation,a posterior knowledge The way to knowledge is from theparticularto the general

Requires some particular a posteriortruths (perceptions)which are contingent

Characterised by induction

The general principles arise from the process of relatingobservations

Data-driven

Exp.

It has been observedthrough the years that allhumans die;

Therefore, Socrates will die.

We know this is true because empiricallyit is supported



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ILLUSTRATION


EMPIRICALFACTS

KNOWLEDGE/THE TRUTHINDUCTIVE


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CRITIQUES OF EMPIRICISM

Limitation of our sensory and

perception.

Object sometimes is not real



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RATIONALISM, EMPIRICISM AND

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Illustration


PROBLEMS HYPOTHESISKNOWLEDGE/THE TRUTHDEDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE

RATIONALISM EMPERICISM


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FOUNDATION OF SCIENCE

Ontology

(what is the nature of phenomena we seek to know?)

Epistemology

(How do we know what we claim to know?)

Axiology

(What is the role of values in inquiry)



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SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Problem/Question

Observation/Research/Developing aTentative Theory

Formulate a Hypothesis Experiment

Collect and Analyze Results

Conclusion Communicate the Results


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STEPS OF THE

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. Problem/Question: Develop a

question or problem that can besolved through research or

experimentation.


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STEPS OF THE

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

2. Observation/Research/ Developing

a Tentative Theory: Makeobservations and research your topic

of interest and developing a tentative

explanation of the problems.


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STEPS OF THE

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

3. Formulate a Hypothesis: Predict a

possible answer to the problem orquestion.

Example:If soil temperatures rise, then

plant growth will increase.

If the insulin decrease then diabetic


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STEPS OF THE

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

4. Experiment: Develop and follow a

procedure.

Include a detailed materialslist.

The outcome must be measurable andexplanable




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STEPS OF THE

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

5. Collect and Analyze Results: Modify

the procedure if needed.

Confirm the results by retesting.

Include tables, graphs, andphotographs.




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STEPS OF THE

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

6. Conclusion:

Include a statement that accepts or

rejects the hypothesis.

Make recommendations for furtherstudy and possible improvements to

the procedure.




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STEPS OF THE

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

7. Communicate the Results:

Be prepared to present the project to

an audience.

Expect questions from the audience.Publishing

(University without research is not a university, but research

without publication is nothing




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EXAMPLE


Scientific Method

Observation A patient has fever

Hypothesis(prediction)

The patient may has influenza

Test The patient is given a drug(decolgen)

Observe result The patient is still has fever

Revise

hypothesis?

The patient may has typhus.

New test? Re-run medical test (giving a drugfor typhus). Observe results (thepatients temperature is normal)

Scientific Theory Fever is caused by typhus.



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PARADIGM

Thomas Kuhn(1962)The Structure of ScientificRevolution.

According Kuhn, development of science is not alwaysgradual and cumulative, but it can be revolutionary (jumpdrastically) to produce a new perspective.

Kuhn divide science into (a) normal science, dan (b)extraordinary or revolutionary science, Normal scienceadalah pengetahuan yang terakumulasi

secara gradual dan telah diakui oleh masyarakat ilmuansebagai dasar untuk pengembangan pengetahuanselanjutnya. (pengetahuan berkembang secara linier)

Extraordinary atau revolutionary scienceadalahpengetahuan yang berkembang yang secara revolutioneryang bisa saja berbeda dengan pengetahuan yangmendasarinya. Hal ini bisa terjadi melalui criticalimagination, empiricalobservationatau konklusi-konklusilogik.




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DEFINITIONS OF PARADIGM

Paradigm is a framework of basic assumptions including standards for determining the validity ofknowledge, rules of evidence and inference, andbasic principles of cause and effectsshared by a

scientific community. (Kuhn, 1970: 111-35).Paradigm is not only a set of an achievement, anew, accepted way of solving a problem which thenis used as a model of future work, but also a set ofshared values, the methods, standards and

generalizations shared by those trained to carry onthe scientific work modeled on that paradigm(Kuhn, 1970)




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INGREDIENTS OF PARADIGMS

1. Paradigm as a value systemwhich is standards or rule ofthe game.

2. Paradigms as research interest, It tells what is importantand intresting to be studied.

3. Paradigm as theory, a set of axiom, construct andpreposition that explain the object.

4. Paradigm as model, representation of reality based ontheoretical formulations.

5. Paradigm as bodies of facts, it is a collection of facts thatneed theoretical explanations.

6. Paradigm as theoretical framework, It is a theoreticalapproach th built from a construct, statements orprepositions.

7. Paradigm as observational frameworks, There is a set ofconcept where observable prepositions formulated.




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SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENT(KUHN)


Paradigm I Normal

ScienceAnomalies

CrisisRevolution

Paradigm II



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NORMAL SCIENCE

MAIN PRINCIPLES

Science develops gradually

Search the relationships between facts and

existing theories

Articulation of theory (in research)

ALMOST ALL SCIENTISTS FOLLOW THISMAIN PARADIGM




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ANOMALIES

DISCOVERY OF NEW FACTS AND

THEORY

The new facts unexplainable with existing

theories.

Invention of a new theory which is not fit

the existing paradigm (main)




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CRISIS

Many scientists doubt the truth of existing

paradigm.

Many theories based on different paradigms.

Unclear paradigm of a science.

Arise fundamental critics toward existing

theories.

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REVOLUTION

OLD PARADIGMS LEAVED BY ITS

FOLLOWERS

NEW TEORIES BASED ON A NEW

PARADIGM

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PARADIGM SHIFT

Paradigm shift, because:

Anomali

Crisis

Change of thinking

Paradigm shift is a must.

The prison of paradigm

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PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE (Kuliah 1).ppt

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