Philippine Coastal Management Guidebook Series No. 7

8/9/2019 Philippine Coastal Management Guidebook Series No. 7

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P HILIPPINE C OASTAL M ANAGEMENT G UIDEBOOK SERIES

N O . 7 :

MAN AGI N G IM PACTS O FDEVELO PMENT IN TH E

COASTAL Z O N E

By:Department of Environment and Natural Resources

Bur eau of Fisheries and Aqu atic Resourcesof the

Department of Agriculture

D epart ment of the Int erior and Local Government

and

Coastal Resource Management Projectof the

Department of Environment and Natural Resourcessupported by the

U nited States Agency for In ternational D evelopment

Philippines


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P HILIPPINE C OASTAL M ANAGEMENT G UIDEBOOK SERIESN O . 7Managing Impacts of Development in the Coastal Zoneby

Department of Environment and N atural Resources (DENR)Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources of the Department of Agriculture (DA-BFAR)Department of the Interior and Local Government (D ILG)andCoastal Resource Management Project (CRMP)

2001

Printed in Cebu City, Philippines

Citation:Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources of theDepartment of Agriculture, and Department of the Interior and Local Government. 2001 . Philippine Coastal

M anagement Guidebook N o. 7: M anaging Impacts of Development in t he Coastal Z one . Coastal ResourceManagement Project of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Cebu City, Philippines, 108 p .

This publication was made possible through support provided by the U nited States Agency for InternationalDevelopment (USAID ) under the terms and conditions of Contract No. AID-492 -C-00-96-00028-00. Theopinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the USAID. Thispublication may be reprod uced or quoted in other pub lications as long as proper reference is made to thesource.

Photo credits: Front cover: Lynn Funkhouser and Mike Ross. Back cover: Alan White.

CRMP D ocument No. 07-CRM/2001

ISBN 971-92289-6-2


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iii

Contents

List of tables v

List of figures vii

List of acronyms and abbreviat ions ix

Acknowledgments xi

Foreword xiii

Preface and or ientat ion to this guidebook ser ies xiv

Chapter 1. Introduction 1Why is it important to manage impacts in the coastal zone? 1The Philippine coastal zone 4Important impacts of development in the coastal zone 4Developmen t p lanning, environmental assessmen t, and pollu tion managemen t 6

Chapter 2. D evelopment planning and environmental assessment 1 1Planning framework 11Project evaluation 13Environmental impact assessment 15Economic factors and evaluation techniques 34

Environmental risk assessment 36

Chapter 3. Impacts of selected coastal development act ivit ies 4 1Coastal construction and reclamation 41H uman settlements and urbanization 46Industry 49Tourism 50Coastal and seabed mining 55Upland mining 57Offshore oil and natural gas development 59Aquaculture 60Agriculture and forestry 62

Chapter 4. Managing coastal and mar ine pollut ion at the local level 6 5Major types of pollution and their impact 65Major sources of pollution 72Fate and transport of pollutants 76Legal and jurisdictional mandate for pollution management 80


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iv Managing Impacts of Development in the Coastal Zone

Watershed approach to managing pollution 86Pollution management strategies 90

C hapt er 5. L ocal level act ion s fo r m an agin g im pact s of coast al d evelo pm en t 9 9Complete land use, development, and CRM plans 100Implement local level environmental review of all development projects 101Require setbacks and protect foreshore rights and public access 102Manage watersheds through inter-LGU collaboration 103Enforce pollution laws 103Encourage public participation 103Take a precautionary approach 104

R eferences 1 05


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v

List of tables

Table 1 Key roles and responsibilit ies in managing impacts of developmentand pollution 7

Table 2 Definition of EIA terms 16

Table 3 Typical contents of an EIS report 17

Table 4 Potential impacts of concern in coastal habitats 21

Table 5 Examples of mitigation measures 22

Table 6 Environmentally critical projects 23

Table 7 Environmentally critical areas 24

Table 8 Required sections or outline of the EIS document 28

Table 9 Who can prepare an EIS or IEE? 28

Table 10 Questions to ask when reviewing an EIS report 29

Table 11 H ow to involve communities in the EIA process 33

Table 12 Fines and penalties under PD 1586 35

Table 13 Management considerations for reclamation 44

Table 14 Importance of setbacks and protection of the coastal fringe 44

Table 15 Environmental consequences of coastal construction 45

Table 16 Environmental consequences of hum an settlem ents and urbanization 48

Table 17 Environmental consequences of industrial development 49

Table 18 Environmental consequences of tourism 54

Table 19 H ow sand mining contributes to coastal instability 55

Table 20 Environmental consequences of coastal and seabed mining and extract ion 56

Table 21 Environmental consequences of upland mining 58

Table 22 Environmental consequences of offshore oil and gas development 59

Table 23 Environmental consequences of aquaculture 62

Table 24 Environmental consequences of agriculture and forestry 63


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vi Managing Impacts of Development in the Coastal Zone

Table 25 Typical water pollutants and their effects 66

Table 26 Major sources of pollution 73

Table 27 Classificat ion of coastal and marine waters according to beneficial usage 81

Table 28 Classification of some Philippine water bodies as of 1998 82

Table 29 Water quality criteria for conventional pollutants and toxic substancesfor coastal and marine waters 82

Table 30 Effluent standards for conventional pollutants and toxic substancesfor protected coastal and marine waters 83

Table 31 Batangas Bay case study 89

Table 32 Major sources of pollution and selected management methods 90Table 33 Exam ples of pollution m anagem ent objectives, policies, and actions 91

Table 34 Primary tools for municipalit ies to promote waste reductionand materials recovery 93

Table 35 Local level enforcement of pollution laws 96

Table 36 Guiding principles and specific actions LGUs should employ to minimizedevelopment impacts in the coastal zone 99

Table 37 Essential ingredients of successful EIAs 102


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vi i

List of figures

Figure 1 Var ious economic act ivit ies and their impacts on the coastal environment 5

Figure 2 Spatial extent of municipal planning necessary to address impacts inthe coastal zone 7

Figure 3 Local level planning framework for evaluation of proposeddevelopment projects 13

Figure 4 EIA in the project cycle 15

Figure 5 Types of impacts that should be considered in the EIA 18

Figure 6 An impact network with direct and indirect impacts 19

Figure 7 Systems approach to identifying direct and indirect impactsof development activities and possible mitigation measures 20

Figure 8 Distinguishing impacts from dynamic baseline conditions 22

Figure 9 Overview of national EIS System 25

Figure 10 Steps and timetable for the review of ECPs 26

Figure 11 Steps and timetable for the review of projects in ECAs 31Figure 12 Evaluation of frequency of occurrence and severity of risks 37

Figure 13 Overview of ERA process 38

Figure 14 Extension of airport runway interferes with sand movement,Dumaguete City 41

Figure 15 Classification of coastal construction activities and some importantconsiderations 42

Figure 16 Factors affecting the capability of silt curtains to control dispersion

of dredge spoil 43

Figure 17 Development activities that require environmental review andenvironmental clearance because of potential impacts 46

Figure 18 Impacts of garbage dumpsites on the coastal zone 47

Figure 19 Frequent environmental impacts of tourism development activities onthe coastal zone 51


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viii Managing Impacts of Development in the Coastal Zone

Figure 20 Examples of downdrift erosion result ing from hard engineering solutions 52

Figure 21 Advantages and disadvantages of different shoreline protection structures 53

Figure 22 Factors affecting the economic and ecological success of aquaculture ponds 61

Figure 23 Changes in water quality parameters with distance from a sewage outfall 70

Figure 24 A generalized pathway of soil eroded from the forest floor as it istransported to coastal waters 71

Figure 25 Water cycle changes associated with urbanization and an increase inimpervious surfaces 74

Figure 26 Contributions of nitrogen and phosphorus from cage feeding to thepollutant load in coastal waters 76

Figure 27 Terms in the hydrologic cycle 77

Figure 28 Paths of wastewater in the hydrologic cycle 77

Figure 29 An exposure pathway showing relationship between quantity of pollutants, dose, and health effects in humans 78

Figure 30 General conceptual model of sources of pollutants and fate and transportin tropical marine ecosystems 78

Figure 31 Effects of wind and other factors on the movement of polluting oil at sea 79

Figure 32 Dispersion of pesticides through the environment 79Figure 33 Features of a watershed protection approach 87

Figure 34 Watershed level planning framework 88

Figure 35 Partnerships in Batangas Bay ambient water quality monitoring 89

Figure 36 Techniques for the prevention of wastes and emissions 92

Figure 37 Cross-section of a typical modern sanitary landfill 95

Figure 38 Pollution monitoring framework for East Asian seas 97

Figure 39 The coastal management planning process adapted for the Philippinelocal government 101


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ix

List of acronyms and abbreviations

AC authority to constructBFAR Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic ResourcesBOD biochemical oxygen demandCBBE countryside businesses and barangay entitiesCCO chemical control orderCDO cease-and-desist orderCOD chemical oxygen demandCR M coastal resource management

CR MP Coastal Resource Management ProjectD A Department of AgricultureDAO Department Administrative OrderDENR Department of Environment and Natural ResourcesDDT dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethaneD ILG Department of the Interior and Local GovernmentDND Department of National DefenseDOE Department of EnergyDOTC Department of Transportation and CommunicationsDPWH Department of Public Works and H ighways

ECA environmentally critical areaECC environmental compliance certificateECP environmentally critical projectEGF environmental guarantee fundEIA environmental impact assessmentEI ARC Environmental Impact Assessment Review CommitteeEIS environmental impact statementEMB Environmental Management BureauEMF environmental monitoring fundEMP environmental management plan

EMPAS Environmental Management and Protected Areas SectorERA environmental risk assessmentFPA Fertilizer and Pesticide AuthorityICM integrated coastal managementID A industrial development areaIEE Initial Environmental ExaminationIEMP Industrial Environmental Management ProjectLGC Local Government Code


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x Managing Impacts of Development in the Coastal Zone

LGU local government unitMBAS methylene blue active substancesMP P-EAS Marine Pollution Prevention for the East Asian SeasMOA memorandum of agreementN AMR I A N ational Mapping and R esource Information AuthorityNEDA National Economic and Development AuthorityNGO nongovernment organizationN IPAS National Integrated Protected Areas SystemNO COP National Operations Center for Oil PollutionNPSP non-point source pollutionPAB Pollution Adjudication BoardPAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonPCB polychlorinated biphenylPCG Philippine Coast GuardPD Presidential DecreePICCS Philippine Inventory of Chemicals and Chemical SubstancesPO permit to operatePPA Philippine Ports AuthorityR A Republic ActR ED Regional Executive DirectorR GC Regional Agro-Industrial Growth CenterSAMP Special Area Management Plan


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xi

Acknowledgments

This book represents the composite work of many individuals and organizations. The authorsare:

Mary Gleason, Ph.D., Coastal Resource Management ProjectJames Maragos, Ph.D ., U nited States Fish and Wildlife Service, H awaiiLloly de Jesus, Tetra Tech EM, Inc.

The following Departments have endorsed, reviewed, and made contributions to this book:Department of Environment and Natural Resources

Department of AgricultureDepartment of the Interior and Local Government

The technical editors include:Catherine Courtney, Ph.D., Chief of Party, Coastal Resource Management ProjectAlan White, Ph .D., D eputy Chief of Party, Coastal Resource Management ProjectR . Steven Nakashima, M.P.A., M.S.P.H ., Environmental Specialist, New Rochelle, New

York Annabelle Cruz-Trinidad, M.A., Policy Advisor, Coastal Resource Management Project

The reviewers include:Reynaldo Alcances, Chief, Environmental Impact Assessment Divison, Department of

Environment and Natural ResourcesSandra Arcamo, Chief, Fisheries Resource Management Division, Bureau of Fisheries and

Aquatic Resources Central OfficeZoraida Aquende, Division Chief, Department of the Interior and Local Government -

Bureau of Local Government DevelopmentFlorendo Barangan, Director III, Department of Environment and Natural Resources-

CEPCOEphraim Batungbacal, Research Officer, Tambuyog

Ruby Buen, Policy and Planning, Department of Environment and Natural ResourcesRom elo Cabangon, Project D evelopment O fficer IV, Department o f Environment andNatural Resources

Leonard Faller, Tetra Tech EM Inc.Efren Flores, Ph.D., Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources-Fisheries Resource

Management ProjectFlordeliz Guarin, Ph.D., Vice President, Pirnie/Australian Power and Water


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xii Managing Impacts of Development in the Coastal Zone

Rudolf H ermes, Research Fellow, Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Researchand Development

Esmeralda Manalang, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Region 4Teresita Mistal, Director, Department of Interior and Local Government - Bureau of

Local Government DevelopmentRoy Olsen de Leon, Silliman University Center of Excellence for Coastal Resource

ManagementRolando Pablo, Engineer, Land Management BureauMichael Pido, Technical Officer, International Maritime OfficeManuel Tacorda, Assistant Chief, Legal, Land Management BureauMayette Rodriguez, Project Development Office, City Environment and Natural Resource

OfficeEngr. Samuel Serna, Local Government Unit, Polillo

This book has been supported by the Coastal Resource Management Project of theDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources with support from the United States Agencyfor International Development. Copy editing was done by Leticia Dizon and final production wasassisted by Ysolde Collantes, Leslie Tinapay, and Dexter Allen Besa.


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xiii

Foreword

Department technical personnel have reviewed and fully endorse the Philippine Coastal M anagement Guidebook Series as an essential information guide to assist in improving the status of Philippine coastal resources and their management. This series of guidebooks strengthens ourcapacity to enhance coastal management efforts in the count ry. It clearly identifies roles andresponsibilities for all concerned departments, agencies, and organizations in this collaborativecoastal environmental management effort.

Let us enjoin all users of these guidebooks to collectively work for sustainable management of

our coastal resources for the economic and environmental well-being of our country!

Department of Environment and

Natural Resources

Department of Agriculture - Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic

Resources

Department of theInterior and Local

Government


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xiv Managing Impacts of Development in the Coastal Zone

Preface and orientation to this

guidebook series

This book is the seventh in a series of eight guidebooks on coastal management in the Philippines.The tit les and basic content of these eight books are shown next page. The series covers majortopics concerning all aspects of coastal management in the Philippines and follows a theme of local government perspective, while highlighting the role of various stakeholders and other factorsthat affect coastal environments.

This seventh book, M anaging Impacts of Development in the Coastal Z one , addresses the

important role of planning and assessment of impacts of development activities as a component of coastal resource management . Essential steps in assessing environmental impacts under thePhilippine Environmental Impact Statement System administered by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources are described with an emphasis on the role of localgovernment and communities. O ther import ant management tools such as spatial planning,economic evaluation, and environmental risk assessment are also described, as well as the impactsof ten import ant categories of development activities and mitigation measures. Sources and typesof pollution in the coastal environment are identified and local level management strategies tominimize pollution impacts are emphasized.

Coastal management is the theme of these books because of the urgent need to manage andpro tect the coastal resources of the Philippines. These resources are known to be incrediblyvaluable and import ant to the countrys security. If the management problems are not addressedusing integrated approaches, the environmental and food security of the country will be furtherthreatened. These guidebooks lay out a process to address deteriorating coastal environments,loss of resources, increasing poverty, and to reverse current t rends. They are holistic in approachwhile offering many specific solutions that are easy to implement. Read, comprehend, and makeuse of these guidebooks!


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xv

Philippine Coastal Management Guidebook SeriesTitles and contents

1 . Coasta l ManagementOrientation and

Overview

2. Legal and Jurisdict ionalFramework for CoastalManagement

3 . Coast al ResourceManagement Planning

4. Involving Communit iesin Coastal Management

5 . Manag ing Coast alH abitats and MarineProtected Areas

6 . Managing MunicipalFisheries

7 . Managing Impacts of Development in theCoastal Zone

8 . C o ast al L awEnforcement

Definitions and trends in coastal managementIssues, resources, and impacts of concern in the Philippines

Introduction to the coastal management process in thePhilippinesGuidebook series and how to use it

All laws pertaining to coastal managementAll jurisdictions affecting coastal areas and resourcesThe roles and mandates of government agencies

Coastal management planning process from local governmentperspectiveKey steps and procedures in the processH ow to develop the coastal management p lan

Importance of involving coastal communitiesCommunity organization process and participatory approachesInformation, education, and communication techniquesSustainability of community-based coastal management

The coastal marine ecosystem and how it functionsManagement considerations of critical coastal habitatsCreating and managing marine protected areas

Municipal waters and legal jurisdiction for fisheriesmanagementPlanning for fisheries managementManagement interventions and how to apply them

Roles of planning and environmental impact assessmentEnvironmental guidelines for coastal developmentGovernment role and mandate to prevent development impactsManaging coastal and marine pollution

Major issues in effective law enforcement in coastalmanagementRoles and responsibilities of major law enforcement groupsInitiatives to improve fishery law enforcement


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xvi Managing Impacts of Development in the Coastal Zone


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chapter 1 Introduction

The coastal ecosystems of the Philippines are very productive and represent a huge natural andeconom ic resource for the count ry. Coastal resources provide food and livelihood for thePhilippine people and make a large contribut ion to the national economy. Clean coastal watersand healthy coastal habitats provide sustained economic benefits to the Philippines.

Due to the archipelagic nature of the Philippines and the interconnectedness of the land andsea, most development activities have the potential to cause negative impacts on the coastalenvironm ent. Planning, environmental assessment, and pollution management are the beststrategies for minimizing adverse effects of development in the coastal zone. All developmentactivities should be evaluated to ensure consistency with existing land use and coastal resourcemanagement (CRM) plans, subject to the environmental impact assessment (EIA) process, andimplemented using best management practices. Although the government has the primaryresponsibility for controlling coastal development activities and managing pollution, non-government organizations (NGOs) and local communities can play an important role asstakeholders and protectors of local culture, economic opportunities, and the coastal environment.

This guidebook describes the role of planning, EIA, and pollution management strategies tominimize adverse impacts on the environment and human health from development activities.The focus is on local level management, primarily through the local government units (LGUs)supported by national agencies and the community. The target audience of the guidebook is theLGU . Other guidebooks in this series provide additional information to support the managementof impacts of development; these other guidebooks describe the legal basis for coastalmanagement ( Guidebook 2: Legal and Jurisdictional Framework for Coastal M anagement ), coastalmanagement planning at the local level ( Guidebook 3: Coastal Resource Management Planning ),tools for improving community participation in the coastal planning process ( Guidebook 4:

Involving Communities in C oastal M anagement ), and habitat management ( Guidebook 5: Managing

Coastal H abitats and M arine Protected Areas ).

WH Y IS IT IMP ORTANT TO MANAGE IMPACTS IN TH E COASTAL ZO NE?Development projects in the coastal zone and in upland areas can have widespread impacts on coastalhabitats such as beaches, mangroves, and coral reefs, as well as on fishery resources that feed thenation. Some of the major impacts of development include habitat destruction, alteration of naturalecosystem processes, and pollut ion. Because it is difficult to reverse development impacts and


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3Chapter 1Introduction

have better knowledge of the environment and history of the area. If a site, scale, or design for aproposal is not suitable, they are in the best position to know what better alternatives areavailable. Local communities are also in the best position to m onitor and enforce theenvironmental conditions imposed on development projects.

More often than not, developments designed, approved, and implemented by outsiders arenot in the best interest of local communities. LGU s need to be involved from the beginning toinsure that the location, scale, design, and operation of development projects will benefit thecommunity. What kind of pollution will be generated and how can it be avoided? What are theenvironm ental and economic consequences, and who will pay to clean up pollution and waste?Will construction cause air, noise, and water pollution, and will fishery resources be degraded?Will the new development overload educational, medical, power, water, trash removal, or sewagetreatment services? The LGU should determine the tangible costs and benefits to establishedcommunities, and what needs to be done for the proposal to gain the support of localcommunities.

Development Decisions Need to be Made CarefullyIf official decisions on proposed developments are made before local communities are

consulted, it is very difficult to compel the decision-makers to back out or change their minds.Often financial loan commitments need to be made quickly to fund construction. Politically-basedcommitments (e.g. deals) are often tied to development projects and are difficult to renege on.Although existing EIA procedures require development proponents to consult with localcommunities, the latter need to be assertive to ensure that t hey truly participate in decision-making.

Local communities need to be involved to advance other development alternatives, mitigation,monitoring, and compensation that need to be covered in the proposal as part of the EIS.

If a poorly conceived development project does not work out, the developer will most likelyabandon the site or project rather than commit additional funds for dismantling and cleaning upstructures and restoring the site to pre-development conditions. Lending institutions will notthrow good money after bad, and the developer will simply walk away and leave the localcommunity holding the bag. Witness the many hectares of failed and abandoned shrimp pondslining many Philippine shores, for example. Thus, there is great value in good advance planning,technical advice, and evaluation of a full range of options as part of any development proposal in the

coastal zone.

Once ecosystems are damaged, ecosystem restoration is costly and technically difficult. Forexample, large-scale restoration of a coral reef ecosystem has only been successfully accomplishedonce in world history (Kaneohe Bay, H awaii) but at a cost of many millions of dollars. The initialdamage was caused by the improper decision to place sewer outfalls inside the bay rather thanoutside where pollut ion would not damage the reefs. Because a government agency was at faultand was successful in budgeting more tax funds to finance the new outfall, the restoration project


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4 Managing Impacts of Development in the Coastal Zone

went forward . But typically a governm ent or private developer cannot afford to make a similarmistake and double project funding to implement corrective measures. Exercising commonsense, good judgement, and consulting the advice of experienced professionals beforedevelopment activities are approved are essential.

THE PHILIPPINE COASTAL ZONEWhat is the coastal zone? A simple definition for the coastal zone is that part of the land influenced by the sea together with the adjacent part of the sea influenced by the land. From anecological perspective, there should be no fixed boundary since the influencing factors will havevarying strengths depending on location or season. In the Philippines, the outermost boundary of the coastal zone is officially defined as the extent to which land-based activities have measurableinfluence on the chemistry of the water or on the ecology or biota. The innermost boundary is definedas one kilometer from the shoreline except at places where measurable indicators for marine influencesexist like mangroves, nipa swamp, beach vegetation, sand dunes, salt beds, marshlands, bayous, recent marine deposits, beach and sand deposits, and deltaic deposits in which case the one-kilometer distanceshall be reckoned from the edges of such features.

Coastal zone boundaries are difficult to fix. For example, the coastal zone modified by theurban environment off Manila would be much wider due to runoff and pollutants from land andthe extensive shipping and fishery activity, compared to a remote uninhabited coast off nor thernPalawan Island. Another example is that during the wet season the land influence extends furtheroffshore due to increased runoff, and during tropical cyclones the ocean influence extends further

landward due to high waves, salt spray, and storm surges. In some locations or during someseasons a rigidly defined coastal zone would be too wide for some circumstances and too narrowfor others. For municipal planning efforts, the municipal waters are defined as extending fromthe shoreline to 15 km out to sea. H owever, due to the archipelagic nature of the Philippines,many land-based activities further inland than the 1 km coastal zone boundary can affect coastalresources and need to be considered in the planning process, especially if rivers or otherwaterways carry pollutants to the sea.

IMPORTANT IMPACTS OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE COASTAL ZONE

The coastal zone is subject to impacts from a wide variety of land-based and marine-baseddevelopment activities (Figure 1). All development , from housing to large-scale industrial sites,have some environmental and socioeconomic impact and should be subject to some type of EIAor environmental review. The major types of impacts resulting from development and associatedpollution are described below.

H abitat Loss or D egradationComplete destruction of habitat and loss of associated values result from some types of

development activities such as reclamation projects, conversion of mangroves to fishponds, clear-


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Figure 1. Various economic activit ies and their impacts on the coastal environment .

cutt ing forested areas, and large-scale industrial and urban developm ent. These types of development activities thus warrant special attention because of the severity of the environmentalimpact. Most other types of development cause some degradation of habitat and loss of value.Building roads, for example, allows access to areas that will subsequently be further developed or

settled by squatters. H ousing settlements and industrial development result in waste streams thatwill eventually reach the sea and cause degradation of coastal habitats.

Declines in Biodiversity and Disruption of Ecosystem FunctionDevelopment that causes habitat loss or degradation will ultimately cause declines in species

diversity and abundance in coastal habitats. This decline in biodiversity represents a net loss of future economic values that could have been gained from these resources. Many types of development disrupt ecosystem functions and reduce productivity of natural systems. Conversionof mangroves to fishponds results in a loss of nursery habitat for fish and can cause declines inproductivity of fisheries. Shoreline developm ent disrupts the ability of coastal habitat s (reefs and

mangroves) to absorb storm energy and can result in extensive erosion and loss of property.

Coastal and Marine PollutionChemical wastes, sediment, and nutrients cause adverse impacts to human health and the

environment. All industries generate waste streams that contribut e to pollution when notproperly managed. H ousing settlements and hotels/resorts not equipped with septic tanks orsewage treatment plants result in runoff of nutrients and pathogens to the sea that severelydegrade coral reefs and seagrass habitats and endanger human health. Runoff of surface water


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from agricultural areas results in fertilizers and pesticides being carried to the sea and pollut ingcoastal waters. Transport of mine tailings or mining wastes to coastal waters causes fish kills andhum an health impacts. Wastewater from intensive aquaculture is a significant source of pollution.

Er osion, Accretion , and H ydrological Im pactsResort and port development and construction of seawalls and groins along the coastline

causes erosion of the shoreline as sediment transport pathways are altered or b locked. Urbandevelopment affects the hydrologic cycle, including groundwater recharge and surface runoff, bycreating non-porous surfaces that stop infiltration of rainwater. Upland forestry development andmining activities that remove forest cover result in extensive erosion and surface runoff of sediments that ultimately smother and kill coral reefs and seagrass along the coast.

Adverse Im pacts on H uman H ealth and WelfareFinally, many types of development activities adversely affect local coastal communit ies.

Polluting industries cause human health impacts from contaminated air, food, and water and canalso cause reductions in productivity or health o f the food supply (crops, fish, etc.). Resortdevelopment often excludes local fisherfolk from foreshore areas and access to fishery resources.Large infrastructure projects force resettlement of people, often with socioeconomic impacts.

DEVELOPMENT PLANNING, ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT, ANDPOLLUTION MANAGEMENTThe most important approaches for managing impacts of development include planning,

environm ental assessment, and pollution m anagement. The LGU has a key role in managingimpacts of development, with support from national agencies and others (Table 1) . An excellentcompilation of local government environmental responsibilities is A Guide in Local Environment Code Formulation (Local Government Development Foundation and Konrad Adenaeur Stiftung1996).

Development PlanningDevelopment planning provides the framework for management in the form of land use

plans, development plans, and CRM plans that describe the desired goals and objectives for thearea and provide specific strategies, such as zoning and environmental guidelines, to guide

development activities. A proposed development project should first be reviewed in the context of its consistency with existing plans; projects at odds with existing plans should not be approved.Reconciliation of national, provincial, and municipal plans is a prerequisite since inconsistentoverlapping plans make it difficult for decision-makers to determine the appropriateness of a projectbeing evaluated . At the local level, municipal development plans, municipal land use plans, andCRM plans provide the local framework for the review of development projects and potentialimpacts (Figure 2).


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Table 1. Key roles and reponsibilit ies in managing impact s of development and pollut ion.

Depart ment of Environment and Natural ResourcesEnvironmental protection for marine and terrestrial habitats and resources and maintenance ofenvironmental qualityRegulate development such as mining and other resource extractive enterprisesImplement the national EISSystem, through EMB and Regional Offices, and review EISand IEEdocumentsIssue environmental compliance certificates (ECCs) for approved projectsProvide technical assistance to LGUsFormulate environmental quality standards for water, air, land, noise, and radiationFormulate rules and regulations for use and disposal of toxic and hazardous wastesIssue authority to construct and permit to operate for pollution-generating industr ies

Enforce pollution control laws and penalize violators

Local Government Unit sManage development impacts in jur isdictional area and participate in national EIS SystemPrepare development plans, land use plans, and CRM plansProvide overall coordination and facilitation for planning and environmental assessmentManage municipal waters and fisheriesManage solid waste and enforce pollution control laws at the local level

(continued)

Figure 2. Spatial extent of municipal planning necessary t o address impacts in t he coastal zone.


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Table 1. (continued)

Approve local pollution control ordinancesEnforce cease-and-desist orders of the Pollution Adjudication BoardSupport local enforcement agenciesProvinces and cities may conduct reclamation projects, subject to oversight by the national PublicEstates Authority and subject to review under the EISSystemProvinces and municipalit ies may establish tourism facilit ies subject to coordination with thePhilippine Tourism Authority and subject to review under the EISSystem

Depart ment of Agriculture (DA) and Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR)DA responsible for regulating agriculture and fisheries developmentBFAR responsible for the development, management, and conservation of fisheries and aquacultureresources

Depart ment of the Interior and Local Government (DILG)Assist to formulate local policies and standards and models in accordance with RA 7160Support LGUs

Philippine Port s Aut hority (PPA)Responsible for government-funded commercial port development and private port development thatis subject to EISrequirements

Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH)Develop and regulate the construction of roads, bridges, reclamation, sewage treatment, dams, andother infrastructure projects that are subject to EISrequirements

Depart ment of Energy (DOE)Develop and regulate energy resources including power plants, petroleum and petrochemicalindustries, offshore oil and gas, and hydroelectric dams that are subject to EIS requirements

Depart ment of National Defense (DN D)Development of military infrastructure that is subject to EISrequirements

Depart ment of Transportation and Communications (DOTC) and the Philippine Coast Guard(PCG)Monitor, investigate, and enforce water pollution violations (PCG)Monitor offshore oil and gas development

Respond to oil spills or other pollution incidences

Depart ment of Tourism (DOT) and Philippine Tourism Authorit y (PTA)Develop and regulate tourism projects, including supporting infrastructure projects and golf coursedevelopment that are subject to EISrequirements

(continued)


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Depart ment of Science and Technology (DOST) - Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine

Research and Development (PCAMRD)Coordinate, plan, monitor, and evaluate research development activities with the country'saquatic resources

Metr opolit an Waterwor ks and Sewerage System (MWSS) - Local Water Ut ilit iesAdministration Authorit y (LWUA)

Ensure compliance to accepted water quality standardsProvide water quality monitoring laboratories nationwide

Nat ional Mapping and Resource Information Author ity (NAMRIA)Provide maps and resources for development planning and EISstudies

National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA)Plan and arrange financing for development projectsFacilitate researchStrenghten science and technology capacity

Nongovernment OrganizationsProvide facilitation and technical assistance to communities and LGUsReview EISand IEE documentsProvide information and education at the community levelProvide legal service for environmental law enforcementAssist with monitor ing of compliance with environmental regulations

Community and Peoples Organizat ionsPart icipate in public hearings and voice community concernsAssist in scoping and review of EISand IEE documentsAssist in local monitoring and enforcement activit ies

Academe and Technical Exper tsProvide technical expertise and data for planning, EIS, and pollution monitoringAssist in data collection and analysisProvide assistance in information management

Environmental AssessmentAll development activities cause some type of environmental impact and therefore all

development projects should go through an environmental review process. EIA, resourcevaluation, and environmental risk assessment (ERA) are important tools that are used, usually atthe project level, to evaluate the impacts of development and to identify ways in which thoseimpacts can be avoided or minimized. The goals of EIA are to describe the need for a proposed


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project, identify environmental and socioeconomic impacts, identify feasible alternatives to theproposed project, and suggest mitigation measures that could reduce impacts if the project isimplemented. The goals of ERA are to identify and evaluate the hazards associated with certaintypes of proposed projects (such as large infrastructure projects or projects involving hazardouswaste) and the risk of significant adverse impacts.

Pollution ManagementManaging impacts of pollution resulting from existing development and ensuring that proposed

future development will not cause significant pollution is of critical importance in protecting theenvironm ent and human health. Careful environmental review of projects, enforcement of existingpollution regulations, and controlling the volume of pollution through source reduction aremanagement strategies that can help to reduce the impact on the coastal zone. DEN R, theLGUs, and local communities have key roles in managing pollution and enforcing existingregulations.

In summary, due to the archipelagic nature of the Philippines, most development activitieshave the potential to cause some adverse impacts on the coastal zone. Coastal waters and coastalresources need to be protected from adverse impacts to ensure continued economic and ecologicalbenefits to the people. Important types of impacts include habitat loss or degradation, declines inbiodiversity and ecosystem health, pollution, and adverse effects on human health and welfare.Development decisions need to be made carefully so that development does not cause unnecessaryimpacts. The LGU has a key role in land use planning, environmental review of developmentprojects, and pollution management. The next chapter provides a framework for development

planning and the assessment of potential impacts of development projects.


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integrated and harmonized with development plans and goals of the next higher LocalDevelopment Council, based on a participatory process, and operationalized with local budgets(DILG et al . 1994a).

Land Use PlansEach LGU is also required to prepare its Municipal Comprehensive Land Use Plan. Land use

plans first describe existing land uses, topography, geology, resource distribution , and o ther featuresof the landscape, and then propose spatial plans and zoning for appropriate land use alternatives inthe area. Land area is allocated into functional classes of land use such as settlement, industry,tourism, agriculture, and conservation and preservation areas that are appropriate given thephysical features, existing land use, policies, and development plans (DILG et al . 1994b).

Coastal Resource Management PlansManaging impacts of development in the coastal zone must also be addressed within the

framework of local level CRM planning. The development of CRM plans as a basic service of localgovernment is described in detail in Guidebook 3: C oastal Resource Management Planning . Specificstrategies to promote careful planning of coastal development are required to ensure thatdevelopment activities are evaluated and implemented according to legal requirements and areconsistent with the local level CRM plans. A municipality may also have a collaborative agreementwith another municipality in the form of an integrated coastal management plan that addresses alarger spatial area, such as a watershed or bay. Proposed development activities should also beevaluated for consistency with these inter-LGU collaborative planning efforts.

Other Existing PlansProposed development activities must also be evaluated for consistency with other existing plans

and with consideration of whether a special area management plan (SAMP) may be appropriate.Such planning is encouraged through national legislation for the Agriculture and FisheriesModernization Act (AFMA), through RA 8435 and DAO 83 on the management and developmentof small islands. Coastal zone development activities that may have cumulative adverse impacts onthe environment or are incompatible with other types of land use are a class of activities warrantingSAMP procedures. Many activities that are small in scope and which individually cause minorenvironmental effects may collectively cause great environmental harm. For example, individualshrimp ponds carved out of former mangrove forests might individually be considered minor.

H owever, shrimp pond development has now destroyed thousands of hectares of mangrovesthroughout the Philippines, and roughly half of the mangroves in the count ry have been lost. Inthis case, many similar pond projects of small individual scope have now resulted in major impacton coastal resources. Applying a regulatory regime and EIA process that treats such pro jects onlyon an individual basis may miss the big picture of the cumulative effects of these developmentson mangroves and coastal fisheries throughout an island or archipelago. Special area planningprocedures would be ideally suited for this dilemma because the scope of the analysis could beincreased to address all similar fishpond development along an entire coast or around an entireisland.


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13Chapter 2 Development planning and environmental assessment

A municipality may contain areas with special management needs such as Marine ProtectedAreas under the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) and their associatedIntegrated Protected Area Plans or a local level marine reserve with a marine reservemanagement plan. Special economic zones such as Industrial Development Areas (IDAs), whichmay include industrial estates or Regional Agro-Industrial Growth Centers (RGCs), may haverequirements that should be considered in the review of proposed development.

PROJECT EVALUATIONProject evaluation involves a careful appraisal of the suitability of a proposed development projectwithin the planning framework, the alternative ways it can be implemented, a prediction of theconsequences of each option, and selection of the best approach that will minimize the adverseenvironm ental consequences of the proposed project. In shor t, project evaluation involves makingpredictions on the future with and without the development and making informed decisionsbefore any action is taken. Figure 3 provides an overview of the evaluation of proposeddevelopment projects.

Figure 3. Local level planning framework for evaluation of proposed development projects.

Municipal ComprehensiveLand Use Plan

ComprehensiveDevelopment Plan

Municipal

Proposed Project Alternatives

Alt. 1 Alt. 2 Alt. 3 No-actionalternative

Project evaluation through EIA in the Design Phase

- Conception - Prefeasibility - Feasibility

Evaluation of impacts and risks of each alternative

Planning Framework

MunicipalCRM Plan

OtherPlans

Alt. 1, 2, or 3 selected No-action alternative selected

Deny- Not consistent with existing

plans- Unacceptable impacts- Not socially acceptable- Poor management practices

Approve- Consistent with existing plans- Acceptable impacts or

mitigation and monitoring- Social acceptability- Best management practices


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MitigationMitigation measures are actions that can be taken to eliminate or reduce the level of impact

from a proposed project (Table 5). Mitigation can take many forms (Clark 1996):

Enhancement: improve or restore ecosystem being impacted;Minimization: reduce adverse impacts to the minimum level;

Compensation: tradeoff of an unavoidable ecological impact for an ecologicalimprovement in another area or of another type;Replacement: exchange a lost resource for another of the same type; orIndemnification: monetary recompensation for loss of ecological resources.

Minimization, or reducing the impacts at the site, is often the simplest approach. Thepreferred location of mitigation should be the project site itself; offsite mitigation should beconsidered secondarily (Clark 1996). Some mitigation measures are technological while others

Table 4. Potent ial impacts of concern in coastal habitat s (adapted from Coast Conservation Department 1990) .

Coastal habitat Impacts of concern

Coral Reefs Physical damage to coral reefs and collection of organismsbeyond sustainable limits

Increases in freshwater runoff and sedimentationExcessive input of nutrientsIntroduction of pollutants

Estuaries/Lagoons EncroachmentChanges in sedimentation patternsChanges to the salinity regimeIntroduction of pollutantsDestruction of submerged and fringing vegetationInlet modificationLoss of fishery habitat

Mangroves Changes in freshwater runoff, salinity regime, and tidal flow patternsExcessive siltationIntroduction of pollutantsConversion of mangrove habitat and overharvesting of resources

Seagrass beds Physical alterationsExcessive sedimentationIntroduction of pollutantsExcessive input of nutrients

Salt marshes/Tidal flats Degradation of bird habitat or larval fish habitatObstruction of stormwater runoff

Barrier beaches, sand dunes, spits Sand miningErosionDune migration


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Environmentally Critical Projects

Environmental ComplianceCertificate signed by

DENR Secretary

Environmental ComplianceCertificate signed by

Regional Executive Director

DENR-EMB

ECCDenied

ECCDenied

ECCApproved

ECCApproved

DENR-EMB Regional Office

Projects in EnvironmentallyCrit ical Ar eas

- EISrequired- Project description and IEE required- EISmay be required

Figure 9. Overview of national EIS System.

H ow decisions are made on a proposed projects ECC;H ow appeals on an ECC can be made;The fees and costs needed for processing and review of an EIS;Monitoring the projects compliance;

The environmental monitoring and guarantee funds;The role of public participation and documenting the social acceptability of a proposal; andPenalties and sanctions for violating requirements of the EIS System.

The LGU has a critical role in ensuring that all development projects in their jurisdiction thatare classified as ECPs or located in ECAs are subjected to the EIA review process. While not allprojects may require a detailed EIA, all proposed development activities should be screened todecide which pro jects need a detailed evaluation of environmental impacts. Many coastal zonehabitats are considered ECAs, so an environmental review of projects in the coastal zone may bewarranted under PD 1586. The LGU should also facilitate community participation through

pub lic outreach. It is in the best interests of all stakeholders to design and choose the bestdevelopment and mitigation options or to encourage DENR to deny an ECC if a project does notmeet environmental standards.

Review Process for Environmentally Critical ProjectsProponents of projects classified as ECPs are required to conduct an EIA study and to submit

an EIS repor t to DEN Rs EMB. The following are basic steps in the EIA process for these typesof projects (Figure 10).


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EIA ScopingScoping should begin as soon as the project is

conceptualized and is focused on identifying issuesand alternatives. Scoping is crucial because itallows stakeholders those affected by the project to identify issues that need to be addressed inthe EIA. If the proposed project requires an EIA,then a preliminary evaluation is accomplished andmeetings are held among DENR, LGU, local

Figure 10. Steps and timet able for review of ECPs.

EIA Scopingfor Environmentally Critical Project

STEPS TIMETABLE

EIAEnvironmental Impact Assessment is done or

contracted out by the project proponent

EISEnvironmental Impact Stat ement is submitt ed by

project proponent to and processed by EMB

ECCEnvironmental Compliance Certificate is decided

on by the DENR Secretary

EIS Submission and Convening of EIA Review Committee

15 days

EIA Review Commit tee (EIARC) W ork 60 days

EIARC Report and Recommendation 15 days

EMB Director s Recommendation 15 days

DENR Secretarys Decision on ECC15 days

The EIS System requires the participation of LGUs, NGOs, and local communities in the

environmental evaluation and decision- making for proposed development projects

and activit ies that may affect t hem. Regular consultation with DENR is warranted to get

advance notice on proposals that may require an ECC and EIS, including

development proposals originating both within and outside DENR.


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Accountability for the Validity of the EIS on IEEAdequate and appropriate information in the EIS or IEE is crucial for the development of

good projects and measures to minimize or avoid significant impacts. The proponent and theEIS/IEE preparers are jointly responsible for the accuracy and completeness of these documents.They sign accountability statements that are attached to the EIS or IEE which requires them toprovide all the necessary inform ation for a complete and valid EIS or IEE. They also promise tobring any new information that comes to light to the attention of DENR . The proponent andpreparers can be charged administratively or criminally if they are found to have provided misleadingor false information or neglected to include important information in the EIS or IEE (EMB-DENR 1994).

Environmental Guarantee FundAn environmental guarantee fund (EGF) should be set up for projects posing significant risks

to people, property, and the environment, based upon the findings of the earlier completed ERA.Normally, a memorandum of agreement on the EGF would be signed by the proponent, D EN R,LGUs (up to barangay level), and affected comm unities. The memorandum would specify themeans to establish, manage, use, and account for the EGF. The specific purposes of the fundwould include rehabilitation of damaged environments, compensation to injured parties andcommunities, raising public awareness, and contingency cleanups required due to project-relatedimpacts.

Social Acceptability and Public ParticipationSocial acceptability is the resolution of all valid concerns regarding the project and is

accomplished through public consultation, public hearings, alternative dispute and conflictresolution procedures, and posting or publishing public notices in advance of scheduled meetings.These strategies provide opportunities for all sectors to learn about proposals and offer input toinfluence the outcome of project decisions. In addition, appropriate attention should be given to theconcerns of indigenous people and women who will be affected by the pro ject. LGU s can playkey roles in achieving compliance with this policy by helping DENR disseminate projectinformation, helping to bring together stakeholders, and encouraging participation in the MMT.

The EIS System has provisions for public involvement and consultation. Pub lic part icipationis strengthened through:

Public consultation : Free and open exchange of information and discussion by theproponent and stakeholders.Public hearings : H earings facilitated by a hearing officer designated by DEN R are heldespecially if the project impacts a lot of people or if there is public concern about the project.Alternative disput e or conflict resolution : Mediation, negotiation, or other methods maybe used to reach consensus if there are complex issues or unresolved issues between theproponent and the stakeholders that stall the EIS process or hinder the determination of social acceptability.


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Public information : Public notice of scoping meetings, submission of documents forreview, and DENRs decisions on ECCs are essential to inform the public and should bepaid for by the proponent.

The community should be involved at all stages, but especially during scoping, review, andmonitoring to ensure community support for the decisions that will be made. Ideas on how toinvolve communities in the EIA process are provided in Table 11 and additional information canbe found in Guidebook 4: Involving Communities in C oastal Management .

Table 11. How t o involve communit ies in the EIA process.

Provide public notice of proposed development and opportunities for public input;

Announce public meetings in newspapers and on the radio;

Conduct public meetings in the affected community;

Make the EIA or EISreports available to community representatives; and

Notify and request comments from affected peoples organizations, NGOs, community groups.

If the project is socially acceptable, agreements should be made on what economic benefitsshould go to the community. Other agreements on environmental protection and compensationin case of damages should be reached. Agreement among parties is forged through amemorandum of agreement (MOA) which is included in the EIS or IEE.

LGU Involvement in the EIS System

Local governments and communities should consult frequently with DENR to learn of newprojects that need to be scoped, the review schedule, decisions on the need for an EIS, andwhether an ECC will be granted. If there are any objections at the local level, the LGU can writeto the DEN R for the rationale of the decision. Additional correspondence or public involvementmay be needed to resolve differences, if any.

At the local level, the following steps should be followed by the LGU to assess impacts of proposed projects:

Screening - Verify that all ECPs or projects in ECAs, including those in the coastal zone

that impact reefs and fisheries, are subject to the EIS requirements. Be aware of DEN Rsscreening process and focus review and participation efforts on proposals with the poten-tial for major adverse impacts. Visit project sites before the scoping sessions to identifypotential impacts.Scoping - Ensure LGU and community participation in the scoping process. Focus on themajor impacts, and outline the feasible alternatives, analyses, mitigation, and monitoringthat needs to be covered for each proposal. H old public meetings to begin the consultativeprocess.


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Many developers prefer to limit their economic analyses to strict financial analyses (e.g.,pro fits and losses based on market prices). Why? Because there is no incentive for their analysesto account for environmental externalities and costs that they would not need to pay (e.g.,compensation and mitigation costs as conditions of project approval), if they are not identified inthe first place. Thus, it is critically important for local communit ies and governm ent regulators toinsist on a broader economic analysis that ensures that all major costs and benefits are accountedfor, and in turn are taken into consideration when comparing the advantages and disadvantages of various development options for a proposal.

Valuation TechniquesValuation techniques are used for estimating the costs and benefits for a proposed project,

including less tangible environmental externalities. In par ticular, these techniques enable someenvironm ental impacts to be quantified as econom ic losses. Some useful examples of quant ifyinglosses or gains resulting from development projects include the following (Carpenter andMaragos 1989; White and Cruz-Trinidad 1998):

Estimating the market value of changes in fish catches (either gains or losses) attributedto a project;Changes in the market value of a house or hotel, which are either increases (e.g., due todevelopment of nearby parks or shopping centers) or decreases (e.g., due to developmentof a fish processing plant or coal fired power plant nearby);Decreases in the cost of health care attributed to pollution abatement (e.g., reduction inintestinal diseases due to treatment of mariculture effluents), or increases due to new

sources of pollut ion (e.g. , mine tailing discharges in coastal waters);Interviews or surveys of peoples preferences, willingness to pay visitation fees ortransportation costs, or demands for compensation, linked to predicted project costs andeffects;The costs of relocation (or re-employment) of people displaced (or their livelihoods lost),or conversely, the benefits of new housing and employment opportunities, attributed to aproposed project; andThe value of increases in scientific research or educational opportunities, habitatrestoration, recreational, conservation, or aesthetic values.

ENVIR ON MENTAL R ISK ASSESSMENTEnvironmental risk assessment is a process used to evaluate potential hazards to the environment,human health or property from development projects or other activities. A hazard is a danger,peril, or source of harm to people, property, or t he environment such as (ADB 1990) :

Chemicals toxic to humans, plants, or animals;Materials highly flammable or explosives;


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Mechanical equipment, the failure of which would endanger persons and property;Structural failure (dams, bridges, etc.);Natural disasters; andEcosystem damage (eutrophication, habitat loss, erosion).

The EIS System now requires ERA for some types of projects if they involve hazardousmaterials or the construction of structures that would endanger people, property, or theenvironment if they fail.

Simply stated, risk = probability of occurrence x severity of impact . ERA is used to estimate theimportance of project impacts for which there is some uncertainty as to whether impacts willoccur, but which may have severe consequences if they do occur. For example, port constructionmay increase the probability of a tanker grounding and oil spill, because tanker traffic wouldincrease from projected use of the proposed facility. Although the probability of occurrence isvery small, the ecological consequences to adjacent reefs and beaches would be disastrous if alarge oil spill or ship grounding was to occur. R isk assessment would help to gauge the relativeimportance of the risk and help planners decide on the level of mitigation or whether analternative port location with less risk of an oil spill should be included in the planning process andEIA. An approach for evaluating probability and severity of a hazard is shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Evaluation of frequency of occurrence and severit y of risks (ADB 1990).

Frequent,repeatable

F r e q u e n c y o

f O c c u r r e n c e

Range of consequences and damage

Reasonableprobable,

several times

A c c e p t a b l e

R i s k r e d u c t i o n m e a s u r e s

s h o u l d b e i m p l e m e n t e d

U n a c c e p t a b l e

Occasional,sometimes

Remote,but possible

Negligible Marginal Critical Catastrophic


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Shorelinestabilization

Seawall

Bulkhead

Beach nourishment(with or without restoration)

Detachedbreakwaters

Sand bypassingat inlet

Revetment

Groins

Seawall

Sand dune

Revetment

Bulkhead

Protective beach(with or without restoration)

Dredging

Jetties

Navigation

Bay circulation

Considerat ions:

Considerat ions:

Considerations:

Considerat ions:

Considerat ions:

HydraulicsSedimentationNavigationControl structureMaintenanceLegal requirementsEnvironmentEconomics

HydraulicsSedimentationNavigationControl structureLegal requirementsEnvironmentEconomics

HydraulicsSedimentationNavigationControl structureMaintenanceLegal requirementsEnvironmentEconomics

HydraulicsSedimentationControl structureMaintenanceLegal requirementsEnvironmentEconomics

HydraulicsSedimentationControl structureMaintenanceLegal requirementsEnvironmentEconomics

Jetties

Shore-connectedbreakwater

Offshorebreakwater

Backshoreprotection

Inletstabilization

Harborprotection

CLASSIFICATION OF COASTAL ENGINEERIN G PROBLEMS

Coastal construction has been the most widespread of activities affecting coastal resources,especially with the advent of modern earth-moving equipment and the use of explosives forconstruction purposes during the past century. Invariably coastal construction in one form oranother is required for most urban-related development including the expansion of settlements,industry, transportation facilities, utilities, businesses, and resorts. Coastal mining is a specialcategory of coastal construction covered elsewhere in this section . Coastal engineering problemscan be classified by their objectives and management considerations (Figure 15).

Figure 15. Classificat ion of coastal construct ion activit ies and some important considerat ions (adapted from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1984) .


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HUMAN SETTLEMENTS AND URBANIZATIONExpansion of existing settlements or founding of new settlements in response to an ever growinghuman population will occur with or without proper planning, especially in the Philippines wherepopulation continues to grow rapidly and concentrate in urban areas. Common features includehousing, parks, schools, medical centers, government centers, utilities (power, water, sewagetreatment, and trash disposal), drainage, local transportation, religious/cultural, and commercialfacilities. Many types of infrastructu re development to suppor t human settlements have seriousimpacts and are typically controlled through a permitting process (Figure 17).

Coastal zones will continue to attract new migrants, including itinerants (e.g., squatters)because of the perception of greater economic and subsistence opportunities there. Properplanning for settlements is complex and requires special attention to the many needs of residentialareas, such as schools, hospitals or health clinics, businesses, police, fire prevention, satellitegovernment centers, water supply, electrical power, trash pickup and disposal, sewage treatmentand discharge, roads, street lighting, traffic control, libraries, parks, churches, etc. Industr ies andother employment centers may also need to be close by if new settlements are expected to attract

Figure 17. Development activit ies that require environmental review and environmental clearance because of potential impacts (adapted from Carroll 1976).


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51Chapter 3 Impacts of selected coastal development activit ies

not sited near incompatible land uses. Land use zoning is an excellent strategy for long-rangeprotection of prime tourism sites from encroachment from conflicting types of development and

activities.

Tourism development can result in many types of adverse impacts to coastal resources. A veryprevalent problem is the encroachment of resorts on beaches. Seasonally large waves or stormactivities can temporarily erode beaches. If resort structu res are too close to the waters edge,they can be severely damaged or destroyed. For concrete or high-rise style resort s, the structurescannot be moved or removed and resort owners are often forced to install seawalls andrevetments to prevent structural damage or offshore breakwaters and groins to help trap newbeach sand. In t urn these structures invariably prevent natural replenishment of beaches duringfavorable weather or cause beach erosion at adjacent lands (Figure 20). The net effect is anexpanding cycle of beach loss and increase in coastal fortifications, degraded aesthetics, andincreased costs for protection and art ificial beach replenishment. New sources of sand then mustbe obtained elsewhere to place on the eroded beaches, potentially expanding impacts to beachesand sand deposits in other areas, well outside of the resort area. In retrospect, a good resort plancould have avoided these environmental and economic problems in the first place by requiring allpermanent structures to be set back far enough inland so as not to be threatened by wave actionand subsequent beach erosion. If shoreline protection measures are required, appropr iate designsto minimize environmental impacts should be used (Figure 21).

Figure 19. Frequent environmental impacts of t ourism development and act ivit ies on the coastal zone.


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Table 18. Environmental consequences of tourism (Carpenter and Maragos 1989) .

Activity

Solid wastedisposal

Sewagedisposal

Land usechanges

Touristactivities:

sightseeingreef walkssouvenir

collectionEmployment

of localresidents

Immigrantemployees

Landscaping& golfcourses

Consequences to

the environmenttrash and litter

pollutionleaching from landfillssmoke & fumes from

burning

suspended solidspathogenic organismschlorinefreshwater demandeutrophication

secondarydevelopment

enhanced access

enhanced accessincreased contact

with local culture

labor shift to servicefrom production

round-the-clock workshifts

increased population

fertilizers & pesticidesground clearingmaintenancewater demand

increaseexotic species

Ecosystem impacts

degraded waterquality

degraded air qualitytoxicity to speciesdegraded habitatentanglement of

marine lifedegraded water

qualityeutrophicationspecies toxicityhabitat loss

land cover changesoverfishing & resource

depletionecosystem changesresource depletionecosystem changes

loss in non-tourismproduction capacity

increased demand onfisher resources

toxicity & habitat losssoil erosion and

sedimentationloss of speciesspread of exotics

Human health and

welfare impactspublic health riskeconomic losses (tourism)aesthetic lossescleanup costs

public health risks frompathogen exposures &food web toxicity

subsistence lossesrecreational losseseconomic losses to

fisheries & tourismaesthetic degradationcleanup costsair pollutionurbanizationwater pollutionreduced quality of lifeloss of agricultural landsoverburdening of

infrastructureaesthetic changes

disruption of traditionalfamily values

cultural conflictssocial differentiationreliance on cashnew mobilitylifestyle changesdependence on importshousing shortagesoverburdening of

infrastructure

social gaps (outsiders fillhigh-level jobs)subsistence lossespublic health risksubsistence losseschanges in recreationagricultural lossesother land use losses

Mitigation

plentiful supply of litterreceptacles

routine cleanupsadequate t reatment &

disposal technologywaste management

programwaste management

programsewerage treatment

plants andinfrastructure

land use planning andcontrols

fish catch limitspublic educationsiting away from

sensitive areas

employee trainingupward mobility

housing impact feesemployee trainingemployee interpretation

educate outsiders onlocals' resource needs

manage chemical useintercept & treat runoff

watersoil erosion controluse native species


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The proper design and operation of mining projects requires careful and often sophisticatedanalyses that can on ly be handled by specialists. Mon itoring and mitigation of adverse effects arecomplex, and require advice from experts. Table 21 is a summary of the possible impacts fromand mitigation for upland mining.

Table 21. Environment al consequences of upland mining (Carpenter and Maragos 1989) .

Activity

ExplorationExploratory

mining &testing

Sitepreparation

Open pit &surfacemining

Subsurfacemining

Sluicing &washing ore

Separatingore fromwaste(tailings)

Transport ofores frommine to shipor rails

On-siteprocessingof ores

Consequences tothe environment

land clearing & soilexposure

fracturing rock

land clearing &grading

roads, power & waterpermanent landscape

changes & clearingcollect & stockpile ore

surface accumulationof rock and ore

mine tailingscontaminated runoffwastewater discharge

downstream to

coastthermal & chemicaltreatment of ore

slag, sludge & tailingsstorage of fuel, water,

chemicals,containers

construction of roads,bridges, rails, ports

processing & smeltingplants

Ecosystem impacts

soil erosion &downstreamsedimentation

habitat & species losscoastal sedimentationsame as above

major increase inimpacts listed above

disposal of toxicwaste

same as abovemassive sedimentation

water pollutionpoisoning of species

downstreamdischarge of tailings& water

open accumulation oftoxic & hazardouswaste

additional habitat &species losses

coastal habitat lossesmore sedimentaitonmore species losses

chemical wastedisposal

oil & air pollution

Human health andwelfare impacts

reduction in speciesnoise and shockloss of recreationloss of aesthetics

subsistence lossesrecreational losses

all of the above plus:nuisance dust & smokecontaminated water

same as abovepublic health hazards

all of the aboveadditional water & food

contaminationpublic health hazardssubsistence lossesrecreational lossescommercial losses to

fishery & tourismaesthetic degradation

traffic & noisedust & air emissionschanges in access

all of the abovetemporary housing

Mitigation

prohibit exploration invaluable areas

land use plans & zoningnoise buffer zones

erosion control & re-vegetation plans

the above plus dust &emission controls

sedimentation basins

worker safety planspollution containment

additional sediment &water recycling

effluent controlsdewatering basins for

tailings & sludgetailing disposal planprohibit coastal tailings

disposal

land use & zoning plantraffic control planair quality control plan

all of the above plus slagwaste disposal plan


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OFFSHO RE OIL AND NATURAL GAS DEVELOPMENTThis category includes coastal or offshore exploration for commercially valuable oil or natural gasdeposits, and associated offshore and onshore pumping, extraction , recovery, storage, refinery, ordistribution facilities. Offshore oil and natural gas deposits have been discovered and developedon the extensive submerged shelves off the west coast of Palawan Island. Underwater pipelinesare of major concern due to destruction of the seabed during pipeline construction and thepotent ially severe impacts from spills if pipelines break or leak. So far there have been no otherpetroleum or other fossil fuel deposits reported from the Philippines, although it is possible thatfuture oil fields or deposits may become known.

The present worldwide demand for energy resources, development of oil and gas reserves,and the corresponding concern over environmental safeguards has led to reasonably well planneddevelopment o f the Philippine oil and gas deposits. H owever, pot ential adverse environmentalimpacts are still possible from expanded development, including onshore pipeline transfers,offshore oil tanker moorings, and onshore oil refineries and tank farms (storage sites for variouskinds of fuels and oil products). Underground storage tanks have now been documented to causesevere contamination of groundwater reserves outside of the Philippines, and the need for properplanning and preventive measures is always warranted for containing and cleaning up oil spills,both on land and sea. Catastrophes such as tanker collisions and ship groundings, refinery fires,and blowouts on oil platforms can lead to collateral damage and destruction of coastal resourcessuch as fisheries, coral reefs, beaches, wetlands, and marine mammals and reptiles, and can impairother coastal development such as tourism, mariculture, and subsistence activities.

Table 22 provides a summary of the impacts and mitigation measures for offshore oil and gasdevelopment. There are also other useful references in the literature, including Gilbert (1982)and Maragos et al. (1983).

Table 22. Environmental consequences of offshore oil and gas development (adapted from Gilbert 1982; Maragos 1983).

Activity

Seismicexploration

Exploratorydrilling

Platformconstruction

Consequences to t heenvironment

use of explosives & lowfrequency sound

holes drilled in bottomdrilling mud wastemetallic wasteerection of permanent

& large structures

Ecosystem impacts

injury to fish, marinemammals & reptiles

habitat disturbance

disturbance to bottomspecies displacedwater pollutionwater pollutionsolid waste pollutionshading effectscirculation changesloss of bottom habitatchanges in fisheries

Human health andwelfare impacts

subsistence lossesloss of income from fishing

loss of subsistenceloss of income during

explorationsloss of access to fishing

groundscontaminated fishloss of subsistenceloss of incomesocial conflicts

Mitigation

survey during non-breeding & non-migratory seasons

reduce size of chargesconduct drilling during

non-fishing seasons

site platforms awayfrom fishing grounds

establish solid waste &water pollutioncontrol plan

controls over workers

(continued)


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AQUACULTUREAquaculture development has been extensive throughout the Philippines over the last severaldecades. Aquaculture is defined in the Fisheries Code (RA 8550) as fishery operat ions involvingall forms of raising and culturing fish and other fishery species in fresh, brackish, and marineareas. Prior to the establishment of facilities for aquaculture projects, an ECC is required fromDENR and a permit is required from the local government. Guidebook 6: M anaging M unicipal

Fisheries provides guidelines for appropriate aquaculture practices.

Key aquaculture development includes: 1) coastal earthen ponds for rearing shrimp andmilkfish, 2) cages suspended above the bottom for rearing groupers and other fish, and 3) plotsof red algae ( Eucheuma ) attached to stretched lines staked to the bottom over shallow reef flats.Less widespread aquaculture development includes giant clam and crab grow-out in cages andreef flat enclosures, pearl shell, mussel, or oyster culture on suspended rafts or baskets, and grow-out areas for other species (green snail, Trochus , etc).


Activity Consequences to theenvironment

Ecosystem impacts Human health andwelfare impacts

Mitigation

Productiondrilling

Productionpumping &pipelinetransfers

Offshorestorage

Surfacetransfer &transport bytankers

Pipelinelandfall &onshorestorage

Refineries

Underwaterpipelines

drilling activitydrilling mud wasteoil leakage

pipelines and pumpscause oil leaks

leaks from tanks

accidental ruptures,leaks & spills

air & noise pollutionwater pollutionhabitat lossaccidental ruptures,

leaks, and spills

bottom disturbancechanges to fisheriessedimentationcontamination of fishoil pollutionoil pollution during

pumpingoil pollution & spills

oil spills & pollutionmajor fisheries losses

habitat disturbancewildlife lossesoiling of beaches

loss of land habitatwildlife lossesoil spills and pollutionfisheries lossesloss of bottom

habitats

loss of subsistenceloss of commercial

fisheries

loss of subsistencefishery losses

loss of subsistenceincome from fish

recreation lossestourism losseshigh cleanup costs

disturbed communitiespolluted water & foodsubsistence losseshigh cleanup costs

drilling plans to reducethreat of pollution &bottom disturbance

seasonal suspension ofdrilling for fishing

contingency spill plansregular inspections

regular maintenance

oil spill prevention planoil spill contingency planrequire on-site cleanup

& contain. equipmentdouble hulled tankers

pollution controlsland use plans/controlsminimize use of pipelinesregular maintenancelist pipelines on

navigational chartsoil spill contingency plan


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By far the most damaging activity has been pond culture because historically mostdevelopment involved clearing of mangroves to provide space for ponds (Siddall et al. 1995).Over half of the mangroves in the Philippines were damaged or destroyed due to ponddevelopment, leading to declines in the abundance of coastal fisheries dependent on mangrovesand loss of other mangrove values (shore protection, construction materials, firewood, etc.).Furthermore, many of the ponds have now been abandoned due to poor technical design andmanagement , lower than expected shrimp and fish yields, and comm ercial failure. Mangroveshave recovered slowly in some of the abandoned ponds, but the quality of mangrove habitatthroughout the nation r

Philippine Coastal Management Guidebook Series No. 7

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Transcript of Philippine Coastal Management Guidebook Series No. 7