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Pettijohn_R&B_Poster_APS2015 (1)
1
Facial Feature Assessment of Popular U.S. R & B Music Singers Across Time and Social and Economic Conditions Terry F. Pettijohn II, Jamie N. Glass, Gabriela R. Brito , & Jason T. Eastman Coastal Carolina University, Conway, South Carolina Abstract Introduction Method: Data Collection Top R&B Billboard Artists and Facial Measurements The R&B Billboard song of the year and artists (see Table 1 below) from 1946-2010 were first identified and photographs capturing complete, front, facial views of individual artists or group band members were located. Two judges independently made precise facialmetric assessments (see Cunningham et al., 1995). Averages were used for duets and groups. General Hard Times Measure To test the hypotheses, U.S. social and economic statistics (unemployment rate, change in disposable personal income, change in consumer price index, death rate, birth rate, marriage rate, divorce rate, suicide rate, and homicide rate) for each year (1946-2010) were collected and standardized to create a General Hard Times Measure (GHTM). Higher values on the GHTM indicate more threatening social and economic conditions. The GHTM has been used in past studies. Results Discussion Selected References Contact Information The current study hypotheses were supported by trends, although traditional levels of statistical significance were not reached. We found a negative relationship between the GHTM and R&B artist eye height measurements and positive relationships between the GHTM and R&B artist chin width and chin area, as well as cheek thinness. These outcomes suggest R&B singers with more mature facial characteristics were more popular during more difficult social and economic times and R&B singers with more baby-faced characteristics were more popular in good social and economic conditions across time. This pattern of results replicates previous archival investigations of popular American actresses (Pettijohn & Tesser, 1999), Playboy Playmates (Pettijohn & Jungeburg, 2004), pop music artists (Pettijohn & Sacco, 2009a), and country music performers (Pettijohn et al., 2014). Although correlational, and based on a limited sample size, these results suggest that environmental security may influence perceptions and preferences for R&B performers with certain facial features, similar to pop and country artists. Future research may explore facial feature differences between different genres as well as the connection between the appearance of the artist and the content of music they sing/create. These results have implications for marketing and media promotion. Results of this research contribute new insight into media preferences and their reflection of the state of a culture in a musical genre beyond pop music. Cunningham, M. R., Roberts, A. R., Barbee, A. P., Druen, P. B., & Wu, C. (1995). 'Their ideas of beauty are, on the whole, the same as ours': Consistency and variability in the cross-cultural perception of female physical attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(2), 261-279. Pettijohn, T. F. II, & Sacco, D. F., Jr. (2009). Tough times, meaningful music, mature performers: Popular Billboard songs and performer preferences across social and economic conditions in the USA. Psychology of Music, 37(2), 155-179. Current Study Hypotheses Acknowledgements Facial features of the artists of the top R&B Billboard song for each year from 1946-2010 were investigated across changes in U.S. socioeconomic conditions. When conditions were relatively poor, performers with the more mature facial feature of larger chins were popular. Results extend previous findings with pop singers, movie actresses, country music artists, and Playboy Playmates. Recent investigations of pop music preferences (Pettijohn & Sacco, 2009a; 2009b) and country music (Eastman & Pettijohn, 2015) have been linked to socioeconomic variables across time. Pettijohn & Tesser’s (1999) Environmental Security Hypothesis (ESH) suggests that when social and economic times are threatening, individuals show a greater preference for mature characteristics, content, and themes because these components are more useful in social adaptation and maintenance. Past archival research on American actress facial features (Pettijohn & Tesser, 1999), Playboy Playmate facial and body features (Pettijohn & Jungeberg, 2004), as well as experimental studies (Pettijohn & Tesser, 2005; Swami & Tovee, 2012) have supported this theory. ESH can be used to help understand the reasons behind social preferences for music and musicians. Consistent with the ESH, when social and economic conditions in the U.S. were threatening, longer pop songs with more meaningful content and romantic themes (Pettijohn & Sacco, 2009a; 2009b) and songs with less beats per minute and less familiar key signatures were popular (Pettijohn, Eastman, & Richard, 2012). In addition, the appearance and characteristics of pop musical performers varied with socioeconomic times such that when times were bad, pop artists (Pettijohn & Sacco, 2009a) and country artists (Pettijohn et al., 2014) with more mature characteristics, smaller eyes and larger chins, were more popular compared to good times. Small eye size and large chin size are components of a mature face (see Zebrowitz, 1997), which is associated with the attributes of strength, dominance, competency, expertise, maturity, independence, status, and shrewdness; important characteristics in social and economic threatening times. The appearance of rhythm and blues (R&B) performers have not been investigated. When social and economic conditions are more threatening, R&B singers with smaller eyes and larger chins (mature features) are predicted to be more popular. When social and economic conditions are less threatening, R&B singers with larger eyes and smaller chins (baby-faced features) are predicted to be more popular. We thank Coastal Carolina University for travel assistance to attend this conference and present our findings. Terry F. Pettijohn II, Ph.D. Department of Psychology Coastal Carolina University P.O. Box 261954 Conway, South Carolina 29528-6054 Phone: 843-349-6447 Email: [email protected] Presented at the 27 th Annual Association for Psychological Science Convention, New York, NY, May 22 nd , 2015 r P Eye Width -.01 .48 Eye Height -.10 .25 Eye Area -.08 .30 Cheek Thinness .159 .13 Chin Width .138 .17 Chin Length .198 .08 Chin Area .179 .10 Note. All tests are 1-tailed. N=51. Table 2. Correlations between R&B Artist Facial Feature Measurements and the GHTM. Overall, in more difficult social and economic conditions, R&B singers had slightly smaller eye height and eye area, slightly thinner cheeks, larger chin length, slightly larger chin width, and larger chin area measurements (see Table 2, Figure 1, and Figure 2). These relationship patterns were similar when removing groups, lagging the statistics, and considering different time spans. Year Song Title Artist 1946 Hey! Ba-Ba-Re-Bop Lionel Hampton 1947 Ain't Nobody Here But Us Chickens Louis Jordan 1948 Long Gone Sonny Thompson 1949 Hucklebuck Paul Williams 1950 Pink Champagne Joe Liggins 1951 Sixty Minute Man The Dominoes 1952 Lawdy Miss Clawdy Lloyd Price 1953 (Mama) He Treats Your Daughter Mean Ruth Brown 1954 Work With Me, Annie Midnighters 1955 Pledging My Love Johnny Ace 1956 Honky Tonk Bill Doggett 1957 Jailhouse Rock Elvis Presley 1958 What Am I Loving For Chuck Willis 1959 Stagger Lee Lloyd Price 1960 Kiddio Brook Benton 1961 Tossin' and Turnin' Bobby Lewis 1962 Soul Twist King Curtis 1963 Part Time Love Little Johnny Taylor 1964 Where Did Our Love Go The Supremes 1965 I Can't Help Myself Four Tops 1966 Hold On! I'm Comin' Sam/Dave 1967 Respect Aretha Franklin 1968 Say It Loud - I'm Black And I'm Proud James Brown 1969 What Does It Take To Win Your Love Jr. Walker/The All Stars 1970 I'll Be There Jackson 5 1971 Mr. Big Stuff Jean Knight 1972 Let's Stay Together Al Green 1973 Let's Get It On Marvin Gaye 1974 Feel Like Making Love Roberta Flack 1975 Fight The Power Pt. 1 Isley Brothers 1976 Disco Lady Johnnie Taylor 1977 Float On Floaters 1978 Serpentine Fire Earth/Wind/Fire 1979 Good Times Chic 1980 Let's Get Serious Jermaine Jackson 1981 Endless Love Diana Ross/Lionel Richie 1982 That Girl Stevie Wonder 1983 Sexual Healing Marvin Gaye 1984 When Doves Cry Prince & The Revolution 1985 Rock Me Tonight Freddie Jackson 1986 On My Own Patti LaBelle/Michael McDonald 1987 Stop To Love Luther Vandross 1988 I Want Her Keith Sweat 1989 Superwoman Karyn White 1990 Hold On En Vogue 1991 Written All Over Your Face Rude Boys 1992 Come and Talk to Me Jodeci 1993 I Will Always Love You Whitney Houston 1994 Bump N' Grind R. Kelly 1995 Creep TLC 1996 You're Makin' Me High/Let It Flow Toni Braxton 1997 In My Bed Dru Hill 1998 Too Close Next 1999 Fortunate Maxwell 2000 Let's Get Married Jagged Edge 2001 Fiesta R. Kelly/Jay-Z 2002 Foolish Ashanti 2003 In Da Club 50 Cent 2004 If I Ain't Got You Alicia Keys 2005 Let Me Love You Mario 2006 Be Without You Mary J. Blige 2007 Lost Without You Robin Thicke 2008 Like You'll Never See Me Again Alicia Keys 2009 Blame It Jamie Foxx Featuring T-Pain 2010 Un-Thinkable (I'm Ready) Alicia Keys Figure 2. R&B Artist Chin Area and GHTM Across Time. Table 1. R&B Billboard Song of the Year and Artists (1946-2010). Figure 1. R&B Artist Eye Area and GHTM Across Time.
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Transcript of Pettijohn_R&B_Poster_APS2015 (1)
Facial Feature Assessment of Popular U.S. R & B Music Singers Across Time and Social and Economic Conditions
Terry F. Pettijohn II, Jamie N. Glass, Gabriela R. Brito, & Jason T. EastmanCoastal Carolina University, Conway, South Carolina
Abstract
Introduction
Method: Data Collection
Top R&B Billboard Artists and Facial MeasurementsThe R&B Billboard song of the year and artists (see Table1 below) from 1946-2010 were first identified andphotographs capturing complete, front, facial views ofindividual artists or group band members were located.Two judges independently made precise facialmetricassessments (see Cunningham et al., 1995). Averageswere used for duets and groups.
General Hard Times MeasureTo test the hypotheses, U.S. social and economicstatistics (unemployment rate, change in disposablepersonal income, change in consumer price index, deathrate, birth rate, marriage rate, divorce rate, suicide rate,and homicide rate) for each year (1946-2010) werecollected and standardized to create a General HardTimes Measure (GHTM). Higher values on the GHTMindicate more threatening social and economicconditions. The GHTM has been used in past studies.
Results
Discussion
Selected References
Contact Information
The current study hypotheses were supported by trends,although traditional levels of statistical significance werenot reached. We found a negative relationship betweenthe GHTM and R&B artist eye height measurements andpositive relationships between the GHTM and R&B artistchin width and chin area, as well as cheek thinness.These outcomes suggest R&B singers with more maturefacial characteristics were more popular during moredifficult social and economic times and R&B singers withmore baby-faced characteristics were more popular ingood social and economic conditions across time.
This pattern of results replicates previous archivalinvestigations of popular American actresses (Pettijohn &Tesser, 1999), Playboy Playmates (Pettijohn & Jungeburg,2004), pop music artists (Pettijohn & Sacco, 2009a), andcountry music performers (Pettijohn et al., 2014).
Although correlational, and based on a limited samplesize, these results suggest that environmental securitymay influence perceptions and preferences for R&Bperformers with certain facial features, similar to popand country artists. Future research may explore facialfeature differences between different genres as well asthe connection between the appearance of the artist andthe content of music they sing/create. These results haveimplications for marketing and media promotion.
Results of this research contribute new insight intomedia preferences and their reflection of the state of aculture in a musical genre beyond pop music.
Cunningham, M. R., Roberts, A. R., Barbee, A. P., Druen, P. B.,& Wu, C. (1995). 'Their ideas of beauty are, on the whole, thesame as ours': Consistency and variability in the cross-culturalperception of female physical attractiveness. Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 68(2), 261-279.
Pettijohn, T. F. II, & Sacco, D. F., Jr. (2009). Tough times,meaningful music, mature performers: Popular Billboardsongs and performer preferences across social and economicconditions in the USA. Psychology of Music, 37(2), 155-179.
Current Study Hypotheses
Acknowledgements
Facial features of the artists of the top R&B Billboardsong for each year from 1946-2010 were investigatedacross changes in U.S. socioeconomic conditions. Whenconditions were relatively poor, performers with themore mature facial feature of larger chins were popular.Results extend previous findings with pop singers,movie actresses, country music artists, and PlayboyPlaymates.
Recent investigations of pop music preferences(Pettijohn & Sacco, 2009a; 2009b) and country music(Eastman & Pettijohn, 2015) have been linked tosocioeconomic variables across time. Pettijohn &Tesser’s (1999) Environmental Security Hypothesis (ESH)suggests that when social and economic times arethreatening, individuals show a greater preference formature characteristics, content, and themes becausethese components are more useful in social adaptationand maintenance. Past archival research on Americanactress facial features (Pettijohn & Tesser, 1999),Playboy Playmate facial and body features (Pettijohn &Jungeberg, 2004), as well as experimental studies(Pettijohn & Tesser, 2005; Swami & Tovee, 2012) havesupported this theory. ESH can be used to helpunderstand the reasons behind social preferences formusic and musicians.
Consistent with the ESH, when social and economicconditions in the U.S. were threatening, longer popsongs with more meaningful content and romanticthemes (Pettijohn & Sacco, 2009a; 2009b) and songswith less beats per minute and less familiar keysignatures were popular (Pettijohn, Eastman, & Richard,2012). In addition, the appearance and characteristics ofpop musical performers varied with socioeconomictimes such that when times were bad, pop artists(Pettijohn & Sacco, 2009a) and country artists (Pettijohnet al., 2014) with more mature characteristics, smallereyes and larger chins, were more popular compared togood times. Small eye size and large chin size arecomponents of a mature face (see Zebrowitz, 1997),which is associated with the attributes of strength,dominance, competency, expertise, maturity,independence, status, and shrewdness; importantcharacteristics in social and economic threatening times.
The appearance of rhythm and blues (R&B) performershave not been investigated.
When social and economic conditions are morethreatening, R&B singers with smaller eyes and largerchins (mature features) are predicted to be morepopular. When social and economic conditions are lessthreatening, R&B singers with larger eyes and smallerchins (baby-faced features) are predicted to be morepopular.
We thank Coastal Carolina University for travel assistance to attendthis conference and present our findings.
Terry F. Pettijohn II, Ph.D.Department of PsychologyCoastal Carolina UniversityP.O. Box 261954Conway, South Carolina 29528-6054
Phone: 843-349-6447Email: [email protected]
Presented at the 27th Annual Association for Psychological Science Convention, New York, NY, May 22nd, 2015
r P
Eye Width -.01 .48
Eye Height -.10 .25
Eye Area -.08 .30
Cheek Thinness .159 .13
Chin Width .138 .17
Chin Length .198 .08
Chin Area .179 .10
Note. All tests are 1-tailed. N=51.
Table 2. Correlations between R&B Artist Facial Feature Measurements and the GHTM.
Overall, in more difficult social and economic conditions,R&B singers had slightly smaller eye height and eyearea, slightly thinner cheeks, larger chin length, slightlylarger chin width, and larger chin area measurements(see Table 2, Figure 1, and Figure 2).
These relationship patterns were similar when removinggroups, lagging the statistics, and considering differenttime spans.
Year Song Title Artist1946 Hey! Ba-Ba-Re-Bop Lionel Hampton1947 Ain't Nobody Here But Us Chickens Louis Jordan1948 Long Gone Sonny Thompson1949 Hucklebuck Paul Williams1950 Pink Champagne Joe Liggins1951 Sixty Minute Man The Dominoes1952 Lawdy Miss Clawdy Lloyd Price1953 (Mama) He Treats Your Daughter Mean Ruth Brown1954 Work With Me, Annie Midnighters1955 Pledging My Love Johnny Ace1956 Honky Tonk Bill Doggett1957 Jailhouse Rock Elvis Presley1958 What Am I Loving For Chuck Willis1959 Stagger Lee Lloyd Price1960 Kiddio Brook Benton1961 Tossin' and Turnin' Bobby Lewis1962 Soul Twist King Curtis1963 Part Time Love Little Johnny Taylor1964 Where Did Our Love Go The Supremes1965 I Can't Help Myself Four Tops1966 Hold On! I'm Comin' Sam/Dave1967 Respect Aretha Franklin1968 Say It Loud - I'm Black And I'm Proud James Brown1969 What Does It Take To Win Your Love Jr. Walker/The All Stars1970 I'll Be There Jackson 51971 Mr. Big Stuff Jean Knight1972 Let's Stay Together Al Green1973 Let's Get It On Marvin Gaye1974 Feel Like Making Love Roberta Flack1975 Fight The Power Pt. 1 Isley Brothers1976 Disco Lady Johnnie Taylor1977 Float On Floaters 1978 Serpentine Fire Earth/Wind/Fire1979 Good Times Chic1980 Let's Get Serious Jermaine Jackson1981 Endless Love Diana Ross/Lionel Richie1982 That Girl Stevie Wonder1983 Sexual Healing Marvin Gaye1984 When Doves Cry Prince & The Revolution1985 Rock Me Tonight Freddie Jackson1986 On My Own Patti LaBelle/Michael McDonald1987 Stop To Love Luther Vandross1988 I Want Her Keith Sweat1989 Superwoman Karyn White1990 Hold On En Vogue1991 Written All Over Your Face Rude Boys1992 Come and Talk to Me Jodeci 1993 I Will Always Love You Whitney Houston1994 Bump N' Grind R. Kelly1995 Creep TLC1996 You're Makin' Me High/Let It Flow Toni Braxton1997 In My Bed Dru Hill1998 Too Close Next1999 Fortunate Maxwell 2000 Let's Get Married Jagged Edge2001 Fiesta R. Kelly/Jay-Z2002 Foolish Ashanti2003 In Da Club 50 Cent2004 If I Ain't Got You Alicia Keys2005 Let Me Love You Mario2006 Be Without You Mary J. Blige2007 Lost Without You Robin Thicke2008 Like You'll Never See Me Again Alicia Keys 2009 Blame It Jamie Foxx Featuring T-Pain 2010 Un-Thinkable (I'm Ready) Alicia Keys
Figure 2. R&B Artist Chin Area and GHTM Across Time.
Table 1. R&B Billboard Song of the Year and Artists (1946-2010).
Figure 1. R&B Artist Eye Area and GHTM Across Time.
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