Petrol Industry

7/30/2019 Petrol Industry

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An introduction to Petroleum

Petroleum, along with oil and coal, is classified as a fossil fuel. Fossil fuels

are formed when sea plants and animals die, and the remains become

buried under several thousand feet of silt, sand or mud. Fossil fuels takemillions of years to form and therefore petroleum is also considered to be a

non-renewable energy source.

Petroleum is formed by hydrocarbons (a hydrocarbon is a compound made

up of carbon and hydrogen) with the addition of certain other substances,

primarily sulphur. Petroleum in its natural form when first collected is

usually named crude oil, and can be clear, green or black and may be

either thin like gasoline or thick like tar.

There are several major oil producing regions around the globe. The

Kuwait and Saudi Arabia's crude oil fields are the largest, although Middle

East oil from other countries in the region such as Iran and Iraq also make

up a significant part of world production figures.

The North Sea crude oil fields are still fairly full, and are arguably the

second most influential oil field in economic terms. Texas, once the world's

major oil region, is now almost completely dry.

In 1859 Edwin Drake sank the first known oil well, this was in Pennsylvania.

Since this time oil and petroleum production figure grew exponentially.

Originally the primary use of petroleum was as a lighting fuel, once it had

been distilled and turned into kerosene. When Edison opened the world's

first electricity generating plant in 1882 the demand for kerosene began to

drop.

However, by this time Henry Ford had shown the world that the automobile

would be the best form of transport for decades to come, and gasolinebegan to be a product in high demand.

World War I was the real catalyst for petroleum production, with more

petroleum being produced throughout the war than had ever been

produced previously. In modern times petroleum is viewed as a valuable


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commodity, traded around the world in the same way as gold and

diamonds.

Most people tend to believe that petroleum is mostly used to power internal

combustion engines in the form of gasoline or petrol. Although ourautombiles and other forms of transport do consume the highest quantity of

petroleum it is used for a vast array of applications.

In its thickest form, the almost black petroleum is named bitumen, this is

used for paving road, forming the blacktop, it is also an excellent water

repellent and is used in roofing.

Petroleum is also a major part of the chemical makeup of many plastics

and synthetics. Possibly the most startling usage of petroleum for many

people is its appearance in foodstuffs such as beer and in medications

such as aspirin.

The world has a limited supply of petroleum, and current estimations tell us

that within the next few decades mankind will have completely depleted this

valuable natural resource. Although measures have been taken to ensure

that there are cheap, renewable fuel options in place for the eventuality it is

still obvious that mankind faces a serious problem when petroleum supplies

finally run out.Another crucial point with petroleum, is the price it plays with regards to

travel costs. Most travel companies whose main line of business

concentrates on cheap travel and cheap holidays could be threatened in

the future if petroleum supplies are completed depleted.

The future is not as bleak as it may sound though, many companies are

already preparing themselves for the widespread usage of biofuels, which

experts are prediciting are less than 10 years away from main stream use.

It is interesting to note that from the wikipedia page which explains about

biofuel, is that it is a renewable source of fuel, so it would be impossible to

ever run out of biofuels.

(http://www.petroleum.co.uk/_)
http://www.petroleum.co.uk/http://www.petroleum.co.uk/http://www.petroleum.co.uk/


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PETROL INDUSTRY : EVERYONES CONCERN

INTRODUCTION

Gasoline or petrol is a transparentpetroleum-derived liquid that is primarily used as a fuel

ininternal combustion engines. It consists mostly oforganic compoundsobtained by

thefractional distillationof petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives. Some gasolines also

containethanolas analternative fuel. In North America the term gasolineis often shortened in

colloquial usage to gasbut some people use the term petrolwhich is the common name in Britain.

Under normal ambient conditions its material state is liquid, unlikeliquefied petroleum

gasor natural gas.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum


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Properties

Volatility

Gasoline is morevolatilethandieseloil, Jet-A, orkerosene, not only

because of the base constituents, but also because ofadditives. Volatility is

often controlled by blending withbutane, which boils at 0.5 C. The

volatility of petrol is determined by theReid vapor pressure(RVP) test. The

desired volatility depends on the ambient temperature. In hot weather,

petrol components of highermolecular weightand thus lower volatility are

used. In cold weather, too little volatility results in cars failing to start.

In hot weather, excessive volatility results in what is known as"vapor lock",

where combustion fails to occur, because the liquid fuel has changed to a

gaseous state in the fuel lines, rendering the fuel pump ineffective and

starving the engine of fuel. This effect mainly applies to camshaft-driven

(engine mounted) fuel pumps which lack a fuel return line. Vehicles

withfuel injectionrequire the fuel to be pressurized within a set range.

Because the camshaft speed is nearly zero before the engine is started, an

electric pump is used. It is located in the fuel tank so the fuel may also coolthe high-pressure pump. Pressure regulation is achieved by returning

unused fuel to the tank. Therefore, vapor lock is almost never a problem in

a vehicle with fuel injection.

In the US, volatility is regulated to reduce the emission of unburned

hydrocarbons by the use of so-called reformulated gasoline that is less

prone to evaporation. In Australia, summer petrol volatility limits are set by

state governments and vary among states. Most countries simply have asummer, winter, and perhaps intermediate limit.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet-Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline_additivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reid_Vapor_Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_weighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_lockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_lockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_weighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reid_Vapor_Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline_additivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet-Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)


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Volatility standards may be relaxed (allowing more gasoline components

into the atmosphere) during gasoline shortages. For example, on 31

August 2005, in response toHurricane Katrina, the US permitted the sale

of non-reformulated gasoline in some urban areas, effectively permitting an

early switch from summer to winter-grade gasoline. As mandatedbyEPA administratorStephen L. Johnson, this "fuel waiver" was made

effective until 15 September 2005.

Modern automobiles are also equipped with an evaporative emissions

control system ( 'EVAP system' in automotive jargon), which collects

evaporated fuel from the fuel tank in a charcoal-filled canister while the

engine is stopped, and then releases the collected vapors to the engine for

consumption when the engine is running (usually after it has reachednormaloperating temperature). The evaporative emissions control system

also includes a sealed gas cap to prevent vapors from escaping via the fuel

filler tube.

Octane rating

Spark ignition engines are designed to burn gasoline in a controlledprocess calleddeflagration. But in some cases, the unburned mixture can

auto ignite, which results in rapid heat release and can damage the engine.

This phenomenon is often referred to asengine knockingor end-gas

knock. One way to reduce knock in spark ignition engines is to increase the

gasoline's resistance toauto ignition, which is expressed by its octane

rating.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Katrinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_L._Johnsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflagrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_knockinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoignition_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoignition_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_knockinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflagrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_L._Johnsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina


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Octane rating is measured relative to a mixture of2,2,4-

Trimethylpentane(anisomerofoctane) and n-heptane. There are different

conventions for expressing octane ratings, so a fuel may have several

different octane ratings based on the measure used. Research octane

number (RON) for commercially-available gasoline varies by country.InFinland, Sweden, andNorway, 95 RON is the standard for regular

unleaded petrol and 98 RON is also available as a more expensive option.

In the UK, ordinary regular unleaded petrol is 91 RON (not commonly

available), premium unleaded petrol is always 95 RON, and super

unleaded is usually 97-98 RON. However, both Shell and BP produce fuel

at 102 RON for cars with high-performance engines, and the supermarket

chainTesco began in 2006 to sell super unleaded petrol rated at 99 RON.

In the US, octane ratings in unleaded fuels can vary between 86 and 87AKI (91-92 RON) for regular, through 89-90 AKI (94-95 RON) for mid-grade

(European premium), up to 90-94 AKI (95-99 RON) for premium (European

super).

The octane rating became important as the military sought higher output

foraircraft enginesin the late 1930s and the 1940s. A higher octane rating

allows a highercompression ratioorsuperchargerboost, and thus higher

temperatures and pressures, which translate to higher power output. Somescientists even predicted that a nation with a good supply of high octane

gasoline would have the advantage in air power. In 1943, theRolls Royce

Merlinaero engine produced 1,320 horsepower (984 kW) using 100 RON

fuel from a modest 27 litre displacement. Towards the end of thesecond

world war, experiments were conducted using 150 RON fuel.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,2,4-Trimethylpentanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,2,4-Trimethylpentanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superchargerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls_Royce_Merlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls_Royce_Merlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_world_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_world_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_world_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_world_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls_Royce_Merlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls_Royce_Merlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superchargerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,2,4-Trimethylpentanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,2,4-Trimethylpentane


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Stability

Quality gasoline should be stable almost indefinitely if stored properly.

Such storage should be in an airtight container, to prevent oxidation orwater vapors mixing, and at a stable cool temperature to reduce the chance

of the container's leaking. When gasoline is not stored correctly, gums and

solids may accumulate, resulting in "stale fuel". The presence of these

degradation products in fuel tank, lines, and carburetor or fuel injection

components, make it harder to start the engine. Upon resumption of regular

vehicle usage, the buildups should eventually be cleaned out by the flow of

fresh petrol. A fuel stabilizer can be used to extend the life of fuel that is not

or cannot be stored properly. Fuel stabilizer is commonly used for small

engines, such as lawnmower and tractor engines, to promote quicker and

more reliable starting. Users have been advised to keep gasoline

containers more than half full and properly capped to reduce air exposure,

to avoid storage at high temperatures, to run an engine for ten minutes to

circulate the stabilizer through all components prior to storage, and to run

the engine at intervals to purge stale fuel from thecarburetor.

Energy content(high and low heating value)

Energy is obtained from the combustion of gasoline by the conversion of a

hydrocarbon tocarbon dioxideandwater. The combustion of octane

follows this reaction:

2 C8H18+ 25 O2 16 CO2+ 18 H2O
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Gasoline contains about 35MJ/L (9.7 kWh/L, 132 MJ/US gal, 36.6

kWh/US gal) (higher heating value) or 13 kWh/kg. Gasoline blends differ,

and therefore actual energy content varies according to the season to

season and producer by up to 4% more or less than the average, according

to the US EPA. On average, about 19.5 US gallons (16.2 imp gal; 74 L) ofgasoline are available from a 42-US-gallon (35 imp gal; 160 L) barrel of

crude oil (about 46% by volume), varying due to quality of crude and grade

of gasoline. The remaining residue comes off as products ranging from tar

to naptha.

A high-octane-rated fuel, such asliquefied petroleum gas(LPG) has an

overall lower power output at the regularcompression ratioof an engine

run at on gasoline. However, with an enginetunedto theuse of LPG(i.e.via higher compression ratios, such as 12:1 instead of 8:1), this lower

power output can be overcome. This is because higher-octane fuels allow

for a higher compression ratio, hence a higher cylinder temperature, which

improves efficiency. Also, increased mechanical efficiency is created by a

higher compression ratio through the concomitant higher expansion ratio

on the power stroke, which is by far the greater effect. The higher

expansion ratio extracts more work from the high-pressure gas created by

the combustion process. AnAtkinson cycleengine uses the timing of thevalve events to produce the benefits of a high expansion ratio without the

disadvantages, chiefly detonation, of a high compression ratio. A high

expansion ratio is also one of the two key reasons for the efficiency of

Diesel engines, along with the elimination of pumping losses due to

throttling of the intake air flow. A high compression ratio can be viewed as a

necessary evil to have a high expansion ratio.

The lower energy content (per liter) of LPG in comparison to gasoline isdue mainly to its lowerdensity. Energy content per kilogram is higher than

for gasoline (higherhydrogentocarbonratio, see for

exampleStandard_enthalpy_of_formation#Examples:_Inorganic_compoun

ds_.28at_25_.C2.B0C.29).
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Density

Thespecific gravity(orrelative density) of gasoline ranges from 0.710.77

kg/l (719.7kg/m3

; 0.026lb/in3

;6.073 lb/US gal;7.29 lb/imp gal), higherdensities having a greater volume of aromatics. Gasoline floats on water;

water cannot generally be used to extinguish a gasoline fire, unless used in

a fine mist.
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Tetraethyl lead

Gasoline, when used in high-compressioninternal combustion engines, has a

tendency to auto ignite (detonate) causing damaging "engine knocking"(alsocalled "pinging" or "pinking") noise. Early research into this effect was led by

A.H. Gibson andHarry Ricardoin England andThomas Midgleyand Thomas

Boyd in the United States. The discovery thatleadadditives modified this

behavior led to the widespread adoption of their use in the 1920s, and therefore

more powerful, higher compression engines. The most popular additive

was tetra-ethyl lead. With the discovery of the extent of environmental and

health damage caused by the lead, however, and the incompatibility of lead

with catalytic convertersfound on virtually all newly sold US automobiles since1975, this practice began to wane (encouraged by many governments

introducing differential tax rates) in the 1980s.In the US, where lead had been

blended with gasoline (primarily to boost octane levels) since the early 1920s,

standards to phase out leaded gasoline were first implemented in 1973 due in

great part to studies conducted byPhilip J. Landrigan. In 1995, leaded fuel

accounted for only 0.6% of total gasoline sales and less than 2000 short

tons(1814 t) of lead per year. From 1 January 1996, the Clean Air Actbanned

the sale of leaded fuel for use in on-road vehicles. Possession and use of leadedgasoline in a regular on-road vehicle now carries a maximum $10,000 fine in the

US. However, fuel containing lead may continue to be sold for off-road uses,

including aircraft, racing cars, farm equipment, and marine engines.[6]Similar

bans in other countries have resulted in lowering levels of lead in

people's bloodstreams.

Gasolines are also treated withmetal deactivators, which are compounds that sequester

(deactivate) metal salts that otherwise accelerate the formation of gummy residues. The

metal impurities might arise from the engine itself or as contaminants in the fuel.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_(physical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_(physical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_knockinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_knockinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_knockinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Ricardohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley,_Jr.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_converterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_J._Landriganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_J._Landriganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_tonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_tonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Air_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_deactivatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_deactivatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_deactivatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_deactivatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Air_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_tonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_tonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_J._Landriganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_converterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley,_Jr.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Ricardohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_knockinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_(physical)


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Detergents

Gasoline, as delivered at the pump, also contains additives to reduce internal engine carbon

buildups, improvecombustion, and to allow easier starting in cold climates. High levels of

detergent can be found inTop Tier Detergent Gasolines. These gasolines exceed the U.S.EPA's minimum requirement for detergent content. The specification for Top Tier Detergent

Gasolines was developed by four automakers: GM, Honda, Toyota and BMW. According to the

bulletin, the minimal EPA requirement is not sufficient to keep engines clean.Typical

detergents include alkyl amines and alkyl phosphates at the level of 50-100 ppm.

Ethanol

European Union

In the EU, 5% ethanol can be added within the common gasoline spec (EN 228). Discussions

are ongoing to allow 10% blending of ethanol (available in Finnish and French gas stations).

Most gasoline sold in Sweden has 5-15% ethanol added.

Brazil

In Brazil, theBrazilian National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels(ANP)

requires gasoline for automobile use to have from 18 to 25% of ethanol added to its

composition.

Australia

Legislation requires retailers to label fuels containing ethanol on the dispenser, and limits

ethanol use to 10% of petrol in Australia. Such petrol is commonly calledE10by major

brands, and its price per litre is less than that of regular unleaded petrol.

United States

In most states, ethanol is added by law to a minimum level which is currently 5.9%. Most

fuel pumps display a sticker stating the fuel may contain up to 10% ethanol, an intentional

disparity which allows the minimum level to be raised over time without requiring

modification of the literature/labeling. Until late 2010, fuels retailers were only authorized

to sell fuel containing up to 10 percent ethanol (E10), and most vehicle warranties (except

for flexible fuel vehicles) authorize fuels that contain no more than 10 percent ethanol.In

parts of the United States,ethanolis sometimes added to gasoline without an indication that

it is a component.

India

Thegovernment of Indiain October 2007 decided to make 5% ethanol blending (with

petrol) mandatory. Discussions are ongoing to increase the blending of ethanol to 10%.

Fuel dyes
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In Australia, petrol tends to be dyed a light shade of purple.

In India petrol is dyed red.

In South Africa, unleaded fuel is dyed green and lead-replacement fuel is dyed red.

In the United States, the most commonly used aircraft gasoline,avgas(aviation gas, known

as 100LL for 100 octane, low lead) is dyed blue. In the United States, 80, 100, and 145

(although rare) octane avgas sometimes are dyed red, green, and purple respectively. Red

dye has also been used for identifying untaxed (off highway use) agricultural diesel.

Oxygenate blending

Oxygenateblending addsoxygen-bearing compounds such asMTBE,ETBEandethanol.

The presence of these oxygenates reduces the amount ofcarbon monoxideand unburned

fuel in the exhaust gas. In many areas throughout the US, oxygenate blending is mandated by

EPA regulations to reduce smog and other airborne pollutants. For example, in Southern

California, fuel must contain 2% oxygen by weight, resulting in a mixture of 5.6% ethanol in

gasoline. The resulting fuel is often known as reformulated gasoline (RFG) or oxygenated

gasoline, or in the case of California,California reformulated gasoline. The federal

requirement that RFG contain oxygen was dropped on 6 May 2006 because the industry had

developedVOC-controlled RFG that did not need additional oxygen.

MTBE use is being phased out in some states due to issues with contamination of ground

water. In some places, such as California, it is already banned. Ethanol and, to a lesser extent,

the ethanol-derived ETBE are common replacements. Since most ethanol is derived from

biomass, such as corn, sugar cane or grain, it is referred to as bioethanol. A common ethanol-

gasoline mix of 10% ethanol mixed with gasoline is calledgasoholor E10, and an ethanol-

gasoline mix of 85% ethanol mixed with gasoline is calledE85. The most extensive use of

ethanol takes place inBrazil, where the ethanol is derived fromsugarcane. In 2004, over 3.4

billion US gallons (2.8 billion imp gal/13 million m) of ethanol was produced in the United

States for fuel use, mostly fromcorn, and E85 is slowly becoming available in much of the

United States, though many of the relatively few stations vending E85 are not open to thegeneral public. The use ofbioethanol, either directly or indirectly by conversion of such

ethanol to bio-ETBE, is encouraged by the European UnionDirective on the Promotion of

the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport. Since producing bioethanol

from fermented sugars and starches involvesdistillation, though, ordinary people in much

of Europe cannot legally ferment and distill their own bioethanol at present (unlike in the

US, where getting aBATFdistillation permit has been easy since the 1973 oil crisis).


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Safety

Environmental considerations

Combustion of one US gallon of gasoline produces about 19.4 pounds (8.8 kg) of carbondioxide (converts to 2.33 g/litre), agreenhouse gas.

The main concern with gasoline on the environment, aside from the complications of its

extraction and refining, is the potential effect on theclimate. Unburnt gasoline

andevaporation from the tank, when in theatmosphere, react insunlightto

producephotochemical smog. Addition of ethanol increases the volatility of gasoline,

potentially worsening the problem.

The chief risks of such leaks come not from vehicles, but from gasoline delivery truckaccidents and leaks from storage tanks. Because of this risk, most (underground) storage

tanks now have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent any such leaks, such as

monitoring systems (Veeder-Root, Franklin Fueling).

Toxicity

Thematerial safety data sheetfor unleaded gasoline shows at least 15 hazardous chemicals

occurring in various amounts, includingbenzene(up to 5% by volume),toluene(up to 35%

by volume),naphthalene(up to 1% by volume),trimethylbenzene(up to 7% byvolume),methyl tert-butyl ether(MTBE) (up to 18% by volume, in some states) and about

ten others.[17]Hydrocarbons in gasoline generally exhibit low acute toxicities, withLD50of

700 2700 mg/kg for simple aromatic compounds.[18]Benzene and many antiknocking

additives arecarcinogenic.

Inhalation

Huffedgasoline is a common intoxicant that has become epidemic in some poorer

communities and indigenous groups in Australia, Canada, New Zealand,and some PacificIslands.[19]In response,Opalfuel has been developed by theBPKwinanaRefinery in

Australia, and contains only 5%aromatics(unlike the usual 25%) which weakens the

effects of inhalation.[20]

Flammability
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14/21

Uncontrolled burning of gasoline produces large quantities ofsoot.

Like other alkanes, gasoline burns in a limited range of its vapor phase and, coupled with its

volatility, this makes leaks highly dangerous when sources of ignition are present. Gasoline

has a lower explosion limit of 1.4% by volume and an upper explosion limit of 7.6%. If the

concentration is below 1.4% the air-gasoline mixture is too lean and will not ignite. If the

concentration is above 7.6% the mixture is too rich and also will not ignite. However,

gasoline vapor rapidly mixes and spreads with air, making unconstrained gasoline quickly

flammable. Many accidents involve gasoline being used in an attempt to light bonfires; the

gasoline readily vaporizes after being poured and mixes with the surrounding air.

Usage and pricing

Main articles:Gasoline usage and pricing,Global warming, andPeak oil
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UK petrol prices

The US accounts for about 44% of the worlds gasoline consumption.[21]In 2003 The US

consumed 476.474 gigalitres (1.258711011 US gal; 1.048101011 imp gal),[22]which equates

to 1.3gigalitresof gasoline each day (about 360 million US or 300 million imperialgallons).The US used about 510 billion litres (138 billion US gal/115 billion imp gal) of gasoline in

2006, of which 5.6% was mid-grade and 9.5% was premium grade.[23]

Western countries have among the highest usage rates per person.[citation needed]

Europe

Unlike the US, countries in Europe impose substantialtaxeson fuels such as gasoline. The

price of gasoline in Europe is typically more than twice that in the US. In Italy, due to theamendments imposed by Monti's Government in December 2011, the price of gasoline has

passed, in the period of two weeks, from 1.50 /l (7.48 US$/gal) to 1.75 /l (8.72 US$/gal);

on March, 17th, in a Gasoline Station located nearAncona, has reached the psychological

threshold of 2 /l: the price was 2.001/l (this means 9.97 US$/gal) This chart needs to be

compared to the USA national average price of gasoline of 0.71 /l .

Pump price (in Euro/liter) 2004 to 2012 lead-free 95 Octane gasoline in selected European

countries. To convert prices for Euro/liter to US$/gal, multiply by 4.985 (19 March 2012 US$1.317 =1.00 Euro).

Countr

y

Dec

.

200

4

May

200

5

July

200

7

Apri

l

200

8

Jan

200

9

Mar

201

0

Feb

201

1

Jan

201

2

Feb

201

2

Mar

201

2

May

201

2

Germany 1.19 1.18 1.37 1.43 1.09 1.35 1.50

France 1.05 1.15 1.31 1.38 1.07 1.35 1.53

Italy 1.10 1.23 1.35 1.39 1.10 1.34 1.46 1.75 1.78 1.88 1.82
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Pump price (in Euro/liter) 2004 to 2012 lead-free 95 Octane gasoline in selected European

countries. To convert prices for Euro/liter to US$/gal, multiply by 4.985 (19 March 2012 US$1.317 =

1.00 Euro).

Countr

y

Dec

.

200

4

May

200

5

July

200

7

Apri

l

200

8

Jan

200

9

Mar

201

0

Feb

201

1

Jan

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Feb

201

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Mar

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May

201

2

Netherland

s1.26 1.33 1.51 1.56 1.25 1.54 1.66 1.72

Poland 0.80 0.92 1.15 1.23 0.82 1.12 1.26

Switzerlan

d0.92 0.98 1.06 1.14 0.88 1.12 1.29 1.40 1.47

Hungary 1.00 1.01 1.13 1.13 0.86 1.22 1.32

United States

From 1998 to 2004, the price of gasoline fluctuated between $1 and $2 USDperU.S. gallon. After 2004,

the price increased until the average gas price reached a high of $4.11 per U.S. gallon in mid-2008, but

receded to approximately $2.60 per U.S. gallon by September 2009. More recently, the U.S. experienced

an upswing in gas prices through 2011,[25]and by 1 March 2012, the national average was $3.74 per

gal.[26]

Unlike most consumer goods, the prices of which are listed before tax, in the United States, gasoline

prices are posted with taxes included. Taxes are added by federal, state and local governments. As of

2009, the federal tax is 18.4 per gallon for gasoline and 24.4 per gallon for diesel (excludingred

diesel).[27]Among states, the highest gasoline tax rates, including the federal taxes as of 2005, are New

York (62.9/gal), Hawaii (60.1/gal), and California (60/gal).[25]However, many states' taxes are a

percentage and thus vary in amount depending on the cost of the gasoline.

About 9% of all gasoline sold in the US in May 2009 was premium grade, according to the Energy

Information Administration.Consumer Reportsmagazine says, If [your owners manual] says to use

regular fuel, do sotheres no advantage to a higher grade.[28]The Associated Press said premium

gaswhich is a higher octane and costs several cents a gallon more than regular unleaded should be

used only if the manufacturer says it is required.[29]
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History

The first automotive combustion engines, so-called Otto engines, were developed in the last quarter of

the 19th century in Germany. The fuel was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from coal gas. With

a boiling point near 85 C (octanes boil about 40 C higher), it was well suited for early carburetors

(evaporators). The development of a "spray nozzle" carburetors enabled the use of less volatile fuels.Further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher compression ratios, but early

attempts were blocked by knocking (premature explosion of fuel). In the 1920s, antiknock compounds

were introduced by Migley and Boyd, specifically tetraethyl lead (TEL). This innovation started a cycle of

improvements in fuel efficiency that coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide

more products in the boiling range of gasolines. In the 1950s oil refineries started to focus on high octane

fuels, and then detergents were added to gasoline to clean the jets and carburetors. The 1970s witnessed

greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the

phasing out of TEL and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline

was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems.

Etymology and terminology"Gasoline" is cited (under the spelling "gasolene") from 1863 in the Oxford English Dictionary. It was

never a trademark, although it may have been derived from older trademarks such as "Cazeline" and

"Gazeline".[30]

Variant spellings of "petrol" have been used to refer to rawpetroleumsince the 16th century.[30]"Petrol"

was first used as the name of a refined petroleum product around 1870 by British wholesalerCarless,

Capel& Leonard, who marketed it as a solvent.[31]

When the product later found a new use as a motor

fuel,Frederick Simms, an associate ofGottlieb Daimler, suggested to Carless that they register the trade

mark "Petrol",[32]but by this time the word was already in general use, possibly inspired by the

French ptrole,[30]and the registration was not allowed. Carless registered a number of alternative names

for the product, while their competitors used the term "motor spirit" until the 1930s.[33][34]

In many countries, gasoline has a colloquial name derived from that of the chemical benzene(e.g.,

German Benzin, Dutch Benzine, Italian benzina, Chile bencina, Thai ). Argentina, Uruguay and

Paraguay use the colloquial name naftaderived from that of the chemicalnaphtha.[35]

The terms "mogas", short for motor gasoline, or "autogas", short for automobile gasoline, are used to

distinguishautomobilefuel from aviation gasoline, or"avgas".[36][37][38]InBritish English,gasolinecan refer

to a different petroleum derivative historically used inlamps, but this usage is relatively uncommon.

(WIKIPEDIA)

INDIAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Indian Petroleum Industry started its journey during the fiscal year 1890 in

the north-eastern provinces of India especially in the place called Digboi.

The production of petroleum along with the exploration of new sites was

primarily restricted to north-eastern India up to the 1970s. But the scenario
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changed drastically with the discovery of Bombay High. Indian Petroleum

Industry was entirely state sponsored and was under the management

control of all the industries involved in it were entirely with the government.

After the inception of the Liberalization-Privation-Globalization (L-P-G)policy in the month of July, 1991, the government had started allowing the

Indian Petroleum Industry to go into private as well as government-private

joint ventures. The deregulation process in the Indian Petroleum Industry

got a boost in the year 1997 when it was decided that the process of

liberalization and deregulation would be accelerated in this industry and all

the regulations would go away from the month of April in the year 2002.

Along with globalisation, the rate of growth of the economy along with the

rate of growth of energy consumption increased at the rate of six percent

on an yearly basis especially between the period 1991 and 2001. The

demand for petroleum products increased at an annual rate of 5.5% during

1990-91 and 2000-01 which is more than that of the production rate of

crude oil processing (revolving around 5.1 %). But Indian Petroleum

Industry stumbled a bit in the year 201 when the Indian economy observed

a slow down in its economic rate along with the overall industrial output.

Impediments related to infrastructure also came up as serious problems in

the path of Indian Petroleum Industry.

www.economywatch.com ... Petroleum


19/21


20/21

India enjoys 3% of the international capacity share. To move ahead in

making its presence felt strongly in the global market, Indian petroleum

firms are planning to raise their distillation capacity from the existing 149

mtpa to 243 mtpa by FY 2011-12.

Indian petroleum retail market

Expansion of Indian petroleum retail market is triggered by the growth in

automobile sales that resulted in major foreign investments. The growth is

estimated to sustain and the market is likely to expand further by 20 million

every year till 2030, placing India at the world map in terms of being the

biggest automobile market.

Accordingly, the petroleum dealers Bharat Petroleum Corporation,

Hindustan Petroleum Corporation and Indian Oil Corporation in

collaboration with each other are looking forward to add 2,262 petrol pumps

in India by 2010.

Investments in India Petroleum Industry

In 2010 the state-owned oil firms are expected to splurge US$ 11.34billion on developing supplies and constructing new shipping networks for

petroleum and natural gas.

Indian Oil Corporation is looking forward to establish a petroleum

plant in the state of West Bengal by bringing in investments worth US$

596.63 million.

ONGC will bring in US$ 694 million for raising services at its oil fields

in Assam and adjoining states to enhance the petroleum output. In addition

it will also splurge US$ 5.65 billion on capital expenses in the next two

years.


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GAIL (India) Limited and OVL, the international associate of leading

oil and gas player ONGC, are expected to bring in investments worth US$

250 million.

Future of India Petroleum Industry

As per the latest CII-KPMG analysis, the energy industry of India will help

tin the expansion of the petroleum sector by bringing in investments worth

US$ 120 billion-US$ 150 billion in the next 3-5 years. By 2012, the

prospects in India Petroleum Industry are estimated to accomplish US$ 35

billion to US$ 40.(http://business.mapsofindia.com/india-petroleum-industry/)

Petrol Industry

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