tnd,cdDm

ES

L.,let,F.

calAnof

tndofIn

, of

i7).of

N.calng.~ric

'ofof

Pakistan Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology2010, Vol. 8, NO.2, 119 - 131

PERCEIVED STRESS, STRESS APPRAISAL ANDCOPING STRATEGIES USED IN RELATION TOTELEVISION COVERAGE OF TERRORIST

INCIDENTS

Rukhsana Kausar and Tahera AnwarDepartment of Applied Psychology

University of theiPunjab, Lahore, Pakistan

The present study examined perceived stress, stress appraisal, and copingstrategies used in relation to exposure to television coverage of terroristincidents. It was bypothesized that there is relationship betwccn perceivedstress,"stress appraisal, coping strategies and television exposure of terrorism.Ninety eight students comprised the sample and were selected from differenldepartments of Faculty of Life Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore.Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983), StressAppraisal Measure (Peacock & Wong, 1990), and Coping StrategyQuestionnaire (Kausar & Munir, 2004) were used for assessment. There wasrelationship between perceived stress, stress appraisal and coping strategies.Stress appraisal predicted the type of coping strategies used by the participants.Significant gender differences were found in perceived stress, stress appraisaland coping strategies. Female participant<;perceived more stress than malestudents, Male participants were watching terrorism on TV significantly morethan female participants. Male participants were found to be using significantlymore active~practical coping than female participants who used significantlymore religious focused coping strategies.

Keywords: perceived stress, stress appraisal, coping strategies, terrorism

ne,

'W"-:smtheledom'gl

110110

Defining 'terrorism' is bothdifficult and complex and it IS

important to understand this term inorder to conduct research on it. Mediacoverage has complicated the situationby offering various terms to describeterrorism; as the work offundamentalists, commandos,guerillas, Jihadis and extremists.

Prof. Dr. Rukhsana Kausar, and TahewAnwar, MSc Student, Department of AppliedPsychology, University of the Punjab, Lahorc-54000, Pakistan

Correspondence concerning this articleshould be addrcssed to Prof. Dr. RukhsanaKausar, Chairpcrson, Department of AppliedPsychology, University of the Punjab. Lahore54000, PakisLan.Email: rukhsana.saddul@gmail.com

Attempts to coin an objectivedefinition of terrorism has beenfurther complicated due to negativeconnotations associated with the word'terrorism' (Rapport, 1977; Hoffman,1988). By operating in civilianclothes, targeting non-combatants andtaking hostages, the terrorist violateswar laws codified in the GenevaConventions by the United Nations.Therefore, anyone using such tacticsis considered a terrorist (UN Office onDrugs and Crime, 2010).

Terrorism can be defIned as anintended and planned use, or threat ofuse of violence for attaining goals thatare of ideological, political orreligious nature (Keet, 2002). In order

120 KAUSAR ANDANWAR PERCIEVED STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES 121

to recapture media aUention, terroristsrespond in horrific ways makingcommon public numb. Terrorists maystrike at various targets using diversemodes of operation in order to create ageneral atmosphere of fear and panic.This causes immense difficulty forauthorities to predict the nature andtarget place of the subsequentincidents. In such situations, where}terrorist acts appear to be random, thetargeted society spends large amountsof resources to avoid wider level ofatrocities and casualties (Enders &Sandler, 2004).

Terrorism has been exercisedthrough diverse ways such askidnapping or shooting civilians andpublic officials; by blowing upbuildings and public facilities, andhijacking of public transportation. Theterrorist creates uncertainty; enhancesstress, and makes governmentmachinery paralyzed. Killing ofofficials and security personnel resultsin demoralization of survivors.Terrorism is used as the ultimatesymbolic powerful weapon tomobilize and demoralize people.Effectiveness of terrorism depends onthe reaction of the victims as theterrorist tries to achieve goals throughreactions to their actions (Bootzin,Acocella, & Alloy, 1993; Keet, 2002).

Subsequent to the terrorist attackson 9111/200 I in the USA, researchershave extensively studied impact ofmedia coverage on the viewers.Through extensive media coverage,people tend to indirectly witness theterrorist attacks (Otto, Henin, Pollack,Biederman, & Rosenbaum, 2007) andare reported to experience symptomssimilar to those of PTSD (Keinan,Sadeh, & Rosen, 2003; OUo, Henin,

Pollack, Biederman, &. Rosenbaum,2007), increased memory distortionsregarding traumatic event (Ost,Granhag, Udell, & Roos, 2007), stressand anger (Barnes, Treiber, &Ludwig, 2005) and depression (Ahern,Galea, Resnick, & Kilpatrick, 2002).Research has reported that exposure toterrorism through media causes avariety of psychological distresssymptoms (Pfefferbaum, 2004; Slone,& Shoshani, 2008).

Exposure of terrorism throughmedia affects people across differentages. For younger children, theamount of television viewing has beenreported to predict increased risk ofPTSD symptoms (Ost, Granhag,Udell, & Roos, 2007). Children aremore vulnerable to experience distresssymptoms in relation to mediacoverage of terrori'st attacks. In caseof adolescents, the media exposure ofterrorist attacks has significant impacton their emotional and behavioralfunctioning and is manifested withvaried intensity and variety ofpsychopathological responses (Kenne-dy, Charlesworth, & Chen, 2004).Subsequent to the 1995 OklahomaCity bombing, middle ',chool studentsreported posttraumatic stress sympto-ms ineluding intrusion, arousal andavoidance in relation to viewingbomb-related coverage on television(Sara, Rick, Debby, Robert, 1999).Media exposure of anthraxbioterrorism attacks predictednegative changes in outlook of thepeople (Dougal, Hayward, & Baum,2005). The available researchevidence suggests that followingterror auacks, media plays crucial rolein deterrnining mental healthoutcomes (Lewensohn, Westreich, &

Celestin, 2009).Role of coping is important to

understand the process by whichvictims of terror attacks either remainpsychologically healthy or developpsychological problems (Lewensohn,Westreich, & Celestin, 2009). Theprocess of evaluating a stressful eventin accordance with an individual'smemories, beliefs, and expectationsbefore responding is called stressappraisal and is also referred to ascognitive appraisal. Lazarus (1991)argued that emotions are "products ofcognition" and cognitive interpretationof events has been considered animportant component of emotionalresponses. Cognitive appraisal hastwo types i.e. primary and secondaryappraisal. In primary appraisal, anindividual evaluates the potentialharm resulting from a stressfulencounter. Secondary appraisal is anevaluative process by which anindividual reviews the availablecoping options, outcome of aparticular coping option and how aparticular coping option can be usedeffectively (Lazarus & Folkman1984). '

Coping has been categorized intotwo types: problem-solving strategiesare efforts to do something active toimprove a stressful situation; andemotion-focused strategies involveefforts to regulate associated emotion-nal responses. According to Lazarusand Folkman (1984), both types ofstrategies are used to deal with moststressful events. An individual'spreferred use of a particular typc ofcoping is determined in part bypersonal style (e.g., some people usemore active strategies than others) andalso by the type of stressful event; for

example, in controllable situations.peoplc use more problem-focusedcoping, whereas less controllablesituations (terminal illness) necessitateemotional regulations thereby increas-ses use of emotion-focused coping(Taylor, 1998).

Coping strategies and emotionalreactions have been reported tomediate the effect of televisioncoverage of terrorism on post-traumatic growth and posttraumaticstress after 9111 terrorist attacks(Park, Aldwin, Fenster, & Snyder,2009). In another study, thoseexperiencing high stress werereported to employ more spiritual andnon-spiritual types of copingstrategies (Meisenhelder & Marcum,2008)

Pakistan' has become the directtarget of terrorism after 2001.Between summer 2007 and end of2007, suicidal and other attacks oncivilians have killed more than 1,500people (Rizvi, 2007). Pakistan hasbeen confronting massive levels ofterrorist attacks which have badlyshaken it socially and economically(Michael, 2007). In the USA, mediahas been extensively coveringterrorism particularly the 9111 terrorattack with the main focus on howpeople responded, and how to helpthem (Keet, 2002). In Pakistan also,there is an excessive and livecoverage of terrorist attacks onmedia. Direct and excessive mediacoverage has exposed peopleextensively to terrorism, even whilethey are inside their houses. Despiteterrorist attacks being a regularfeature since 2002, very littleattention has been focused by theresearchers to examine psychological

PERCIEVED STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES 121

(

I

I,

)

5eh

Celestin, 2009).Role of coping is important to

understand the process by whichvictims of terror attacks either remainpsychologically healthy or developpsychological problems (Lewensohn,Westreich, & Celestin, 2009). Theprocess of evaluating a stressful eventin accordance with an individual'smemories, beliefs, and expectations I

before responding is called stressappraisal and is also referred to ascognitive appraisal. Lazarus (1991)argued that emotions are "products ofcognition" and cognitive interpretationof events has been considered animportant component of emotionalresponses. Cognitive appraisal hastwo types i.e. primary and secondaryappraisal. In primary appraisal, anindi vidual evaluates the potentialharm resulting from a stressfulencounter. Secondary appraisal is anevaluative process by which anindividual reviews the availablecoping options, outcome of aparticular coping option and how aparticular coping option can be usedeffectively (Lazarus & Folkman,1984).

Coping has been categorized intotwo types; problem-solving strategiesare efforts to do something active toimprove a stressful situation; andemotion-focused strategies involveefforts to regulate associated emotion-nal responses. According to Lazarusand Folkman (1984), both types ofstrategies are used to deal with moststressful events. An individual'spreferred use of a particular type ofcoping is determined in part bypersonal style (e.g., some people 'usemore active strategies than others) andalso by the type of stressful event; for

example, in controllable situations,people use more problem-focusedcoping, whereas less controllablesituations (terminal illness) necessitateemotional regulations thereby increas-ses use of emotion-focused coping(Taylor, 1998).

Coping strategies and emotionalreactions have been reported tomediate the effect of televisioncoverage of terrorism on post-traumatic growth and posttraumaticstress after 9/11 terrorist attacks(Park, Aldwin, Fenster, & Snyder,2009). In another study, thoseexperiencing high stress werereported to employ more spiritual andnon-spiritual types of copingstrategies (Meisenhelder & Marcum,2008)

Pakistan .has become the directtarget of terrorism after 200 I.Bctween summer 2007 and end of2007, suicidal and other attacks oncivilians have killed more than 1,500people (Rizvi, 2007). Pakistan hasbeen confronting massive levels ofterrorist attacks which have badlyshaken it socially and economically(Michael, 2007), In the USA, mediahas been extensively coveringterrorism particularly the 9/11 terrorattack with the main focus on howpeople responded, and how to helpthem (Keet, 2002). In Pakistan also,there is an excessive and Jivecoverage of terrorist attacks onmedia. Direct and excessive mediacoverage has exposed peopleextensively to terrorism, even whilethey are inside their houses. Despiteterrorist attacks being a regularfeature since 2002, very littleattention has been focused by theresearchers to examine psychological

KAUSAR AND ANWAR

2. Stress Appraisal Measure (SAM,.Peacock & Wong, 1990)

a letter explaining purpose and natulof the study. Out of eleven, heads (seven departments allowed dalcollection. The heads willing to pernldata collection referred the rescarchlto program coordinators for furthlhelp and to finalize logistiarrangements for data collectiolProgram coordinators were alsinformed about the details on natmand procedure of the study. Jnformeconsent was obtained from tilparticipants. Students meetininclusion criteria and those consenteto participate, completed assessmelmeasures in classes in the researcherpresence. It took approximateltwenty minutes for a participant tcomplete assessment measures.

Data were analyzed usmdescriptive and inferential statisticiDescriptive statistics was used for 1"viewing and participants' rating of 1"channels regarding coverage cterrorism, perceived stress, stresappraisal subscales and types ccoping strategies used in relation tTV coverage of terrorism.

Majority of the participants werwatching terrorism coverage 1-2 hourdaily. Geo News channel was rated athe most frequently watched channcand also rated on the top for depictin,gruesome live coverage of terrorisr(Table I). In order to examine stresappraisal and coping strategie!descriptive statistics of stress apprais2subscales coping strategies we'computed.

Participants scored higher on stre.ss, challenge and threat subscales and

Results

PERCIEVED STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES

Coping Strategies Questionnaire(CSQ; Kausar & Munir, 2004)

, Data were gathered after seekingformal permission from chairpersonsof the departments who were provided

CSQ is an indigenously developedquestionnaire for Pakistani population(in Urdu) following Lazarus'sc,ognitive behavioral perspective.There are 62 items in CSQ and extentto which a particular strategy is usedis estimated through an individual'srating of each item on 4 point scale.CSQ has four subscales named asactive practical coping; activetlistractive coping; avoidance copmg,and religious focused copingstrategies. Active practical coping';"fers to practical. efforts to deal withstressful event; Active distractivestrategies involve active but notproblem focused efforts such as goingout with friends, indulging inrecreational activities; avoidancecoping included strategies such asv.;ithdrawal, getting isolated; religiousfocused coping strategies includedstrategies such as praying more thanusual, recitation of the Quran morethan usual. Owing to the variednumber of items in subscales, rawscores were converted into scaleds~ores. CSQ subscales showed highreliability for the present study (alphacoefficient ranging from .70-.85)

individual is required to rate each itemon four point scale .. Urdu translated

. version of SAM was used in the•present study and it showed high.reliability for the present study (.78).

- (SAM) andQuestionnaire

MeasureStrategies

SAM consists of 28 items andassesses different aspects of primaryand secondary appraisal. Primaryappraisal includes three subscales, i.e.threat, challenge, and centrality. Threesubscales, I.e., controllable-by-self,controllable-by-others and uncontroll-able constitute secondary appraisal.There is one additional subscale thatmeasures overall stressfulness. An

Perceived Stress Scale consists of.10 items and it measures the degree towhich a particular simation isevaluated by an individual as beingstressful or more precisely, unpredict-able and uncontrollable. An individualis required to rate each item using fivepoint scale to indicate intensity ofstress. The scale was translated inUrdu after seeking permission fromthe author. The scale was translatedusing formal procedure of translatingin Urdu and back translation inEnglish by separate sets of translators.During translation, the focus was onretaining the conceptual meaning andthe context in which a particular termwas used instead of literal translation.Six Psychology students and theirsupervisors were involved in theprocess of translation, back translationand the final consensus. Internalconsistency of the translated PSS forthe present study was .80.

AppraisalCoping(CSQ).1. Perceived Stress Scale (PSS;

Cohen, Kamarck, & Merrnelstein,1983)

Method

Sample

impact of terrorism in general andeffect through media coverage inparticular. The present study wasdesigned to examine the perceivedstress in the viewers in relation totelevision coverage of terrorism, andto investigate relationship betweenperccived stress, stress appraisal andcoping strategies used in relation totelevision coverage of terrorism. HIwas hypothesized that:I. There would be a relationshipbetween perceived stress, stressappraisal and coping strategies usedby the viewers.2. Perceived stress and stressappraisal would be likely to predictthe type of coping strategies used.3. Male and female participants wouldlikely to differ in perceived stress,stress appraisal and coping strategiesused.

Measures

Assessment was carried out usingPerceived Stress Scale (PSS), Stress

The sample consisted of ninetyeight University MSc level studentsincluding an equal number of men andwomen. They ranged in ages between20-25 years with the mean age of21.17 years. Sample was recruitedfrom different departments fallingunder the Faculty of Life Sciences,University of the Punjab, Lahore.Only day scholars, those who hadbeen regularly watching newschannels and willing to participatewere included in sample.

122

PERCIEVED STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES 123

[) and:ionnaire

(PSS;nelstein,

lsists oflegree totion isIS beingpredict-ldividualsing fivensity oflated inon fromranslatedanslatingltion inmslators,

was onning andliar termmslation.nd theirin the

anslationInternalPSS for

'e (SAM;

ems and, primaryPrimarycales, i.e.ty, Three"-by-self,controll-lppraisal.:cale that~ss. An

individual is required to rate each itemon four point scale. Urdu translatedversion of SAM was used in thepresent study and it showed highreliability for the present study (.78).

3, Coping Strategies Questionnaire(CSQ; Kausar & Munir, 2004)

CSQ is an indigenously developedquestionnaire for Pakistani population(in Urdu) following Lazarus'scognitive behavioral perspective.There are 62 items in CSQ and extentto which a particular strategy is usedis estimated through an individual'sraling of each item on 4 point scale.CSQ has four subscales named asactive practical coping; activedistractive coping; avoidance copmgand religious focused copingstrategies. Active practical copingrefers to practical efforts to deal withstressful event; Active distractivestrategies involve active but notproblem focused efforts such as goingout with friends, indulging inrecreational activities; avoidancecoping included strategies such aswithdrawal, getting isolated; religiousfocused coping strategies includedstrategies such as praying more thanusual, recitation of the Quran morethan usual. Owing to the variednumber of items in subscales, rawscores were converted into Scaledscores. CSQ subscales showed highreliability for the present study (alphacoefficient ranging from .70-,85)

Procedure

Data were gathered after seekingformal permission from chairpersonsof the departments who were provided

a letter explaining purpose and natureof the study. Out of eleven, heads ofseven departments allowed datacollection. The heads willing to permitdata collection referred the researcherto program coordinators for furtherhelp and to finalize logisticarrangements for data collection.Program coordinators were alsoinformed about the details on natureand procedure of the study, Informedconsent was obtained from theparticipants. Students meetinginclusion criteria and those consentedto participate, completed assessmentmeasures in classes in the researcher'spresence, It took approximatelytwenty minutes for a participant tocomplete assessment measures.

Results

Data were analyzed usingdescriptive and inferential statistics.Descriptive statistics was used for TVviewing and participants' rating of TVchannels regarding coverage ofterrorism, perceived stress, stressappraisal subscales and types ofcoping strategies used in relation toTV coverage of terrorism.

Majority of the participants werewatching terrorism coverage 1-2 hoursdaily. Geo News channel was rated asthe most frequently watched channeland also rated on the top for depictinggruesome live coverage of terrorism(Table I), In order to examine stressappraisal and coping strategies,descriptive statistics of stress appraisalsubscales coping strategies werecomputed.

Participants scored higher on stre-ss, challenge and threat subscales and

I

/1

I"I,)

11

Religiou

-.25*.24*-,20*-.07.11

Perceived Stress.46**.40*-.21 *

Avoidancefocused-.20*.25*-.25*-.25*.22*

Subsequent to correlatiqanalyses, regression analysis w~carried out to examine predictors'~coping strategies. Time spent ',jwatching terrorism on TV, perceivestress and stress appraisal subscal~were entered as prcdictors of copinstrategies. Separate sets of regressiqanalysis were carried out for eaacopmg strategy as an OUlcomvariable (Table 5).

Active practical coping wapredicted by appraisal of controllabij;ity-by-self. Active distractive copinwas predicted by appraisal of controllability-by-self and controllability-b)others. Appraisal of centrality, contr:ollability-by-others, and uncontroilaI5ility emerged as significant predictorsof avoidance focused coping. Apprailal of challenge and centraliipredicted religious focused coping.

Activedistractive-.26**.12

-.45**-,38**-.05

PERCIEVED STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES

Activepractical

Ghallenge .02Centrality -.02Controllable-by-self .44**Gontrollable-by-others .33**

"Uncontrollable -.09.- 05"l~<. - p<.Ol.N9te: only significant results arc reported

Tablc 4Relationship between Stress Appraisal Subscales and Coping Strategies (N=98)

Table 3. Relationship between Perceived Stress and Stress Appraisal (N=98)

.Stress Appraisal Measure (SAM)StressThreat'Control1able-b -self*p < ,05. **p < .01.

used in relation to television coverageof terrorism (Tables 3.& 4).

Perceived stress had significantpositive relationship with appraisal ofthreat and stressfulness. Negativerelationship was found betweenperceived stress and controllability byself. Perceived stress showed no. significant relationship with coping.

Analysis pertaining to cognitiveappraisal and coping showed thatappraisal of challenge had negativerelationship with active distractive,avoidance and religious focusedcoping. Appraisal of centrality showedpositive relationship with avoidance, focused and religious focused coping., Controllability by self and controllabi-.~lity by others showed positiverelationship with active practical

. coping and negative relationship with

.' other types of coping.'.

%4.118.425.5

%63.216.310.210.2

SD2.623.652.562.183.503.112.672.241.97J .651.73

f41825

300 preferencef %7 7.13 3.1IS 15.3

f6216.1010

5.131.628.6

M14.4714.0214.4810.5613.6213.1311.9413.2211.6911.3213.34

were the least used strategies (Table2).

Pearson Correlation analysis wascarried out to examine rclationshipbetween perceived stress, stressappraisal, and coping strategies

f53128

KAUSARAND ANWAR

%85.75.13.1

Most frequently watched TV channels1St preference 2nd preference

f % f %64 65.3 12 12.212 12.2 6 6.110 10.2 27 27.6

f8453

Live and gory coverage of terrorism by different TV ChannelsI S[ 2nd 3rd

%

1-22-33-44-more

Geo News!'TVARYNews

GeoNewsExpress NewsARYNewsTable 2Means and Standard Deviations of Stress Appraisal and Coping Strategies Usedby the Participants (N=98)Stress appraisal and copingStressThreatChallengeCentralityControllable-by-selfControll able- by-othersUncontrollableActive practical copingActive distractive copingAvoidance focused copingReligious coping

Table ICoverage and Viewing of Terrorist Incidents on TVDuration of terrorism viewing (hours/day)

lower on centrality and uncontrollabil-ility. Religious focused copingstrategies were the most frequentlyused followed by active practicalstrategies, whereas active distractivecoping and avoidance focused coping

124

/'

, I

PERCIEVED STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES 125

:les (Table

alysis was,Iationship.s, stressstrategies

%63,216,310,210,2

erence%7.13,115.3

used in relation to television coverageof terrorism (Tables 3 & 4).

Perceived stress had significantpositive relationship with appraisal ofthrcat and stressfulness. Negativerelationship was found betweenperceived stress and controllability byself, Perceived stress showed nosignificant relationship with coping.

Analysis pertaining to cognitiveappraisal and coping showed thatappraisal of challenge had negativerelationship with active distractive,avoidance and religious focusedcoping. Appraisal of centrality showedpositive relationship with avoidancefocused and religious focused coping.Controllability by self and controllabi-lity by others showed positiverelationship with active practicalcoping and negative relationship withother types of coping.

Subsequent to correlationanalyses, regression analysis wascarried out to examine predictors ofcoping strategies. Time spent inwatching terrorism on TV, perceivedstress and stress appraisal subscaleswere entered as predictors of copingstrategies, Separate sets of regressionanalysis were carried out for eachcoping strategy as an outcomevariable (Table 5).

Active practical coping waspredicted by appraisal of controllabil-ity-by-self. Active distractive copingwas predicted by appraisal of controll-ability-by-self and controllability-by-others. Appraisal of centrality, con~r-,ollability-by-others, and uncontrollab-ility emerged as significant predictorsof avoidance focused copiug, Apprais-al of challenge and centralitypredicted religious focused coping.

ilI"

~ i

Table 3Relationship between Perceived Stress and Stress Appraisal (N=98)%

4,118.425.5

ries Used

Stress Appraisal Measure (SAM)StressThreatContrail able-by -self*p < .05. **p < ,01.

Perceived Stress.46**.40*-,21* I

i.!

Table 4Relationship between Stress Appraisal Subseales and Coping Strategies (N=98)

Religious

-,25*.24*-.20'-,07.11

Avoidancefocused-,20*.25*-,25*-.25*,22*

Activedistractive-.26**

,12-.45**-.38**

-.05

Activepractical.02-.02,44**,33**-,09

Subscales

ChallengeCentralityControllable-by-selfControllable-by-othersUncontrollable*p < .05. **p < .OJ.Note: only significantresults are reported

Table 6Gender-wise Comparison on Perceived Stress, Stress Appraisal and CopingStrategies

Variables Men (n = 50) Women (n = 48) t PM SD M SD

Perceived stress 31.26 5.45 34.25 4.75 -2.88 0.001Controllable-by- self 14.52 2.85 12.76 3.85 2.55 0.01Uncontrollable 11.86 2.85 12.04 2.50 -2.88 0.001Active practical coping 14.08 2.30 12.32 1.8 4.19 0.001Religious coping 12.98 1.43 13.69 1.93 -2.06 0.04df=96.

Table 5Perceived Stress, Stress Appraisal and Television Exposure of Terrorism asPredictors of Coping Strategies

Outcome variables Predictors B SEB fJ R R2 dR'Active practical Control-by-self -.18 .07 .31-- .52 .27 .27copingActive distractive

Control-by-self -.16 .06 -.29* .50 .24 .23COpIng

Control-by-others -.14 .09 -.23'Avoidance coping Centrality .21 .07 .28** .54 .29 .29

Control by-others -.13 .05 -.26-Uncontrollability .16 .06 .26*

Religious focusedChallenge -.19 .07 -.29* .44 .20 .20

copingCentrality .18 .07 .23*

*p < .05.Note: only significant resull'i are reported

1

with avoidance coping stratc£Appraisal of controllable-by-self h,positive relationship with acti'practical coping strategy alcontrollable-by-others had negati'relationship with avoidance focus,coping.

Stress appraisal emergedsignificant predictor of eopilstrategies. Appraisal of controllabiliby self and controllability by othepredicted active distractive cop inAvoidance coping was predicted Iappraisal of centrality, controllabiliby others and uncontrollabilitAppraisal of challenge and centraliemerged as significant predictors I

Religious coping strategies. In Iiiwith our findings, Pakenham arMachelle (2001) in their study fourmV/AIDS patients' better adjustmepredicted by symptomatic illne,stage, fewer HIV -related symptomgreater social support, challenge arcontrollability appraisals, problenfocused coping, lower thre;appraisals and reliance on emoticfocused coping. Similarly, Maest"Esteve, and Lopez (2008) report,high levels of challenge apprais,associated with low levels of passi,coping and high levels of acti,coping strategies, whereas the harnloss or threat appraisal predicted higusc of passive coping strategies.

There were gender differences ipercei ved stress and coping. Womereported more stress than men. In linwith our findings, Sever, SomelRuvio and Sorel' (2008) reported thlwomen's vulnerability to the threats cterrorism was higher than their malcounterparts despite being lesexposed to terrorist incidents thaiwere the men. In another study, Nelli:

PERCIEVED STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES

Discussion

than female participants who usedmore religious coping than men.

To summarize, exposure to TVcoverage of terrorism was appraisedas threatening, stressful and uncontr-ollable. Religious focused coping wasmost frequently used strategy. Thercwas relationship between cognitiveappraisal and coping. Genderdifferences were found in percei vedstress and the use of coping strategies.

The objectives of the study wereto examine psychological implicationsof indirect (through television)exposure to terrorism on the viewers.Specifically, perceived stress, stressappraisal and coping strategies used inrelation to media coverage ofterrorism were examined. Earlierresearch has provided evidence thatmedia coverage is associated withemotional reactions and PTSD(Pfefferbaum, 2004).

It was hypothesized that there wasa relationship between cop1l1gstrategies and television exposure ofterrorism. Religious focused copingwas the most frcquently employedwhereas avoidance focused copingwas the least frequently used strategyby the participants to deal with stressin relation to television exposure ofterrorism. This finding is consistentwith McCubbin, Needle, and Wilson's(1985) research in which they foundthat adolescents with many health-riskbehaviors frequently used strategiesthat focused on externalizing feelings.

In the present study, significantrelationship was found between stressappraisal and coping. Appraisal ofchallenge had negative relationship

watching terrorism on TV. assignificantly more stressful comparedto male students. Male participantsappraised terrorism coverage assignificantly more controllable-by-selfcompared to their female counterparts.Women, on the other hand, perceivedterrorism more uncontrollablecompared to men. Male participantsused more active practical coping

KAUSAR AND ANWAR

However, time spent in watchingterrorism on TV and perceived stressdid not predict coping strategies usedby the participants.

To compare male and femaleparticipants on perceived stress, stressappraisal, "and coping strategies, aseries of independent sample t-testanalysis was carried out (Table 6).

Female participants perceived

126

rPERCTIiVED STRESS AND COPING STRATEGTIiS 127

,J

than female participants who usedmore religious coping than mcn.

To summarizc, exposure to TVcoverage of lerrorism was appraisedas threatening, strcssful and uncontr-ollable. Religious focused coping wasmost frequently used strategy. Therewas relationship between cognitiveappraisal and coping. Genderdifferences were found in perceivedstress and the use of coping strategies. I

Discussion

The objectives of the study wereto examine psychological implicationsof indirect (through television)exposure to terrorism on the viewers.Specifically, percei ved stress, stressappraisal and coping strategies used inrelation to media covcrage ofterrorism were examined. Earlicrresearch has provided cvidcnce thatmedia coverage is assoeiated withcmotional rcactions and PTSD(Pfcffcrbaum, 2004).

It was hypothesized that there wasa relationship betwccn copingstrategies and television exposure oftcrrorism. Religious focuscd copingwas the most frequently employedwhereas avoidance focused copingwas the least frequcntly nsed strategyby the participants to dcal with stressin relation to television exposure ofterrorism. This finding is consistentwith McCubbin, Needle, and Wilson's(l985) research in which they foundthat adolescents with many hcalth-riskbehaviors frequently used strategiesthat focused on externalizing feelings.

In the present study, significantrelationship was found betwcen stressappraisal and coping. Appraisal ofchallenge had negative relationship

with avoidance coping stratcgy.Appraisal of controllable-by-self hadpositive relationship with activepractical coping strategy andcontrollable-by-others had negativerelationship with avoidance focusedcoping.

Stress appraisal emerged assignificant predictor of copingstrategies. Appraisal of controllabilityby self and controllability by otherspredicted active distractive coping.Avoidance coping was predicted byappraisal of centrality, controllabilityby others and uncontrollability.Appraisal of challenge and centralityemerged as significant predictors ofReligious coping strategies. In linewith our findings, Pakenham andMachelle (200 I) in their study foundHIV/AJDS patients' better adjustmentpredicted by symptomatic illnessstage, fewcr mv-related symptoms,greater social support, challenge andcontrollability appraisals, problem-focused coping, lower threatappraisals and reliance on emotionfocused coping. Similarly, Maestre,Esteve, and Lopez (2008) reportedhigh levels of challenge appraisalassociated with low levels of passivecoping and high levels of activccoping strategies, whereas the harm,loss or threat appraisal predicted highusc of passive coping strategies.

There were gender differences inperceived stress and coping. Womenreported more stress than men. In linewith our findings, Sever, Somer,Ruvio and Sorel' (2008) reported thatwomen's vulnerability to the threats ofterrorism was higher than their malecounterparts despite being lessexposed to terrorist incidents thanwere the men. In another study, Nellis

KAUSAR AND ANWAR PERCIEVED STRESS AND COPING STRA TEOlES128

(2009) explored gender differences inreactions to terrorism. Women weremore fearful, engaged in moreavoidant 'behaviors, and were morelikely to seek information pertainingto terrorism. Matud (2004) whileexamining gender differences in stressand coping found women scoringsignificantly higher in chronic stressand minor daily stressors than mery.Similarly, Kimhi, Eshel, Zysberg andHantman (2009) found significantlyhigher level of stress symptoms andlower level of post-war recoveryamong females compared to males.

Analysis pertaining to genderdifferences indicated that maleparticipants used more active practicalcoping strategies and perceivedexposure of terrorism through TV ascontrollable-by-self than femaleparticipants. Females used morereligious coping and appraisal ofuncontrollability compared to theirmale counterparts.

Limitations and Suggestions

One needs to be cautious whileinterpreting the findings of the presentstudy as it was conducted on students,who may not be spending much timeIn watching TV. Moreover, theparticipants of this study beingstudents could be spending more timein their academic activities.Participants being of younger agegroup who have very participatorylife, could have been affected less bywatching terrorism on TV. Futureresearch must include people fromdifferent walks of life in order to gettrue impact of exposure to terrorismthrough viewing TV channels.

Implications of the study

Our findings can be interpreted inthe context of gender role orientationwhich highlights role of society andculture in shaping masculine orfeminine behaviors, roles andexpectations. These roles areconsidered culturally acceptable andappropriate and get embodied in thebehavior of an individual male and afemale (O'Neil, 1990). Gray (2003)asserts that women are morcvulnerable to stressful events thanmen, and both genders employdifferent types of coping strategies.Men and women are reported topossess different coping resources andemploy differential ways to cope withstressful situations (Sigmon, Stanton,& Snyder, 1995).

References

Ahern, J., Galea, S., Resnick, H., &Kilpatriek,D. (2002). Television.mages and psychologicalsymptoms after the SeptemberII terrorist attacks. Psychiatry,Interpersonal & BiologicalProcesses, 65(4),289-300.

Barnes, V. A., Treiber, F. A., &Ludwig, D. A. (2005). African-American adolesccnts' stressresponses after the 9111101tcrrorist attacks. Journal ofAdolescent Health, 36 (3), 201-207.

Bootzin, R. R., Acocella, J. R., &Alloy, L. B. (1993). Abnormalpsychology: Current perspec-tive. (6'h ed.). NY: McGrawHills Inc.

Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., &Mermelstein, R. (1983). A globalmeasure of Perceived Stress.Journal of Health and SocialBehavior, 24(4), 385-396.

Dougall, A. L., Hayward, M. C., &Baum, A. (2005). Media expos-ure to bioterrorism: Stress andthe anthrax attacks. Psychiatry:Interpersonal & BiologicalProcesses, 28-42.

Enders, W., & Sandler, T. (2004). Aneconomic perspective on trans-national terrorism. EuropeanJournal of Political Economy,20 (2). 301-316.

Gray, D. E. (2003). Gender andcoping the parents of childrenwith high functioning autism.Social Science & Medicine56(3),631-642. '

Hoffman, B. (1988). Inside terrorism.NY: Columbia University Press.

Kausar, R., & Munir, R. (2004).Pakistani adolescents' copingwith stress: Effecl of loss of aparent and gender ofadolescents. Journal ofAdolescence, 27, 599-610.

Keet, CM. (2002). Towards a Theoryof Terrorism. Retrieved June 23,2009, from http://www.met-eck.org/theoryterroris m.html

Keinan, G., Sadeh, A., Rosen, S.(2003). Attitudes and reactionsto media coverage of terroristacts. Journal of CommunityPsychology, 31(2), 149-165.

Kennedy, C., Charlesworth, A., &Chen, J. (2004). Disaster at adistance: Impact of 9.11.200 Itelevised news coverage onmothers' and children's health.

Journal of Pediatric Nursing,l(5),329-339. .

Kimhi, S.. Eshel, Y., Zysberg, L.,);Hantman, S. (2009). Getting,life: Gender di ffereneespostwar recovery. Sex Roles, ~(78),554-565.

Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Progress oncognitive-motivational relati,nal theory of emotion. Americ;Psychologist, 46 (8), 819-934.

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S: (l98~Definition of cognitive appaisal. Retrieved Oct. 22, 20tfrom http://resolirccs.as.rmiledu .au/exam pIes/stres s/Proeeslsignificance.html

Lewensohn, O. B., Westreieh, S. (& Celestin, L.P. (2009). Copilstyles as moderating IIrelationships between terroriattacks and well-beiroutcomes. Journal of Adolecenee, 32(3), 585-599.

Maestre, R. C, Esteve, R., & LopeA. E. (2008). Cognitive app"isal and coping in chronic papatients. European Journal I

Pain, 12(6), 749-756.Matud, M. P. (2004). Gelld,

differences ill stress and eopirslyles. Personality w;

Individual Dijferenc~s, 37(71401-1415.

McCubbin, H., Needle, R., & WilsolM. (1985). Adolescent heallrisk behaviours: Family streland adolescent coping as critic!factors. Family Relations,. J(1),51-62.

Meisenhelder, J. B., & Marcum. J. I(2008). Terrorism, post-traunatic stress, coping strategie:and spiritual outcomes. Jour",

PERCIEVED STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES

Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., &Mermelstein, R. (1983). A globalmeasure of Perceived Stress.Journal of Health and SocialBehavior, 24(4), 385-396.

Dougall, A. L., Hayward, M. C., &Baum, A. (2005). Media expos-ure to bioterrorism: Stress andthe anthrax attacks. Psychiatry;Interpersonal & iiologic~11Processes, 28-42.

Enders, W., & Sandler, T. (2004). Aneconomic perspective on trans-national terrorism. EuropeanJournal of Political Economy,20 (2), 301-316.

Gray, D. E. (2003). Gender andcoping the parents of childrenwith high functioning autism.Social Science & Medicine,56(3),631-642.

Hoffman, B. (1988). Inside terrorism.NY: Columbia University Press.

Kausar, R., & Munir, R. (2004).Pakistani adolescents' copingwith stress: Effect of loss of aparent and gender ofadolescents. Journal ofAdolescence, 27, 599-610.

Keet, C.M. (2002). Towards a TheOl}'of Terrorism. Retrieved June 23,2009, from http://www.met-eck .orgltheoryterrorism. html

Keinan, G., Sadeh, A., Rosen, S.(2003). Attitudes and reactionsto media coverage of terroristacts. Journal of Communi!}'Psychology, 31(2), 149-165.

Kennedy, c., Charlesworth, A., &Chen, J. (2004). Disaster at adistance: Impact of 9.11.2001televised news covcrage onmothers' and children's health.

129

Jounwl of Pediatric Nursing, 19(5), 329-339.

Kimhi, S., Eshel, Y., Zysberg, L., &Hantman, S. (2009). Getting alife: Gender differences inpostwar recovery. Sex Roles, 61(78),554-565.

Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Progress on acognitive-motivational relatio-nal theOlYof emotion. AmericanPsychologist, 46 (8), 819-934.

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S; (1984).Definition of cogn;th,e appr-aisal. Retrieved Oct. 22, 2008from http://resources.as.rmit.-edu .au/exam ples/stresslProcess/signi ficanc'e. html

Lewensohn, O. B., Westreich, S. c.,& Celestin, L.P. (2009). Copingstyles as moderating therelationships between terroristattacks and well-beingoutcomes. Journal of Adoles-cence, 32(3), 585-599.

Maestre, R. C., Esteve, R., & Lopez,A. E. (2008). Cognitive appra-isal and coping in chronic painpatients. European Journal ofPain, 12(6),749-756.

Matud, M. P. (2004). Genderdifferences in stress and copingstyles. Personality andIndividual Differences, 37(7),1401-14J5.

McCubbin, H., Needle, R., & Wilson,M. (1985). Adolescent healthrisk behaviours: Family stressand adolescent coping as criticalfactors. Family Relations, 34(I), 51-62.

Meiscnhelder, J. B., & Marcum, 1. P.(2008). Terrorism, post-traum-atic stress, coping strategies,and spiritual outcomes. Journal

130 KAUSAR AND ANWAR PERCIEVED STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES

of Religion and Health, 48(1),571-573.

Michael, S. (2007). Terrorism a socio-economic and political phenom-enon with special reference toPakistan. Journal of Managem-elll and Social Sciences, 3(1),35-46.

Nellis, A. M. (2009). Genderdifferences in fear of terrorism.Journal of Contemporary Crilminal Justice, 25(3), 322-340.

O'Neil, J. M. (1990). Assessing men'sgender role conflict. In: D.Moore & F. Leafgren (Eds.),Problem solving strategies andinten1entions for men in conflict(pp. 23-38). Alexandria:American Association forCounseling and Development.

Ost, J., Granhag, P., Udell, J., & Roos,E. (2007). Familiarity breedsdistortion: The effects of mediaexposure on false reportsconcerning media coverage ofthe terrorist atacks in London on7 July 2005. Memory, 16 (I),76-85.

Otto, M. W., 1.lenin, A., Pollack, M.H., Biederman, 1., &Rosenbaum, 1. F. (2007).Posttraumatic stress disordersymptoms following mediaexposure to tragic events:Impact of 9/11 on children atrisk for anxiety disorders.Journal of Anxiety Disorders,21(7),888-902.

Pakenham, K. 1., & Machelle, R.(2001). The role of illness,resources, appraisal, and cnpingstrategies in adjustment toHIV IAIDS: The direct andbuffering effects. Journal of

Behavioral Medicine, 24(3), 1-21.

Park., C. L., Aldwin, C. M., Fenster, J.R., & Snyder, L. B. (2009).Pathways to posttraumaticgrowth versus posttraumaticstress: Coping and emotionalreactions following theSeptember 11, 2001 terroristattacks. American Journal ofOrthopsychiatry, 78(3), 300-312.

Peacock. E. J., & Wong, P. T. (1990).The Stress Appraisal Measure(SAM): A multidimensionalapproach to cognitive appraisal.Stress Medicine, 6 (3), 227-236.

Pfefferbaum, B. (2004). Mediaexposure in children onehundred miles from a terroristbombing. Annals of ClinicalPsychiatry, 15 (I), 37-40.

Rapport, D. (1977). The Politics ofAtrocity. In Y. Alexander, & S.Maxwell Finger (Eds.),Terrorism: Interdisciplinaryperspectives, (p. 46). NY: JohnJay Press.

Rizvi, H. A. (2007). Terrorism inPakistan. Retrieved on July 22,2009 from http://en.wikipedia-.org/wikilT errorism_in_Pakistan

Sara, N., Rick, T. D., Debby, D. E., &Robert, P. S. (1999). Televisionexposure in children after aterrorist incident. Psychiatry:Interpersonal & BiologicalProcesses, 64(3),202-211.

Sever, I., Somer, E., Ruvio, A., &Soref, E. (2008). Gender,distress, and coping in responseto terrorism. Affilia, 23 (2), 156-166.

Sigmon, S. T., Stanton, A. L., &

Snyder, C. R. (1995). Genderdifferences in coping: A furthertest of socialization and roleconstraint theories. Sex Roles,33, 565-587.

Slone, M., & Shoshani, A. (2008).Indirect victimization fromterrorism: A proposed post-exposure intervention. Journalof Mental Health Counseling,3(1),54-70.

Taylor, S. (1998). Coping strategies.Retrieved July 2, 2009, from

http://www .macses. ucsf.edulRearch/Psyehosoc ial/notebook/.ping.html

United Nations Office on Drugs aCrime. Definitions of TerrorisRetrieved December 14, 20 Ifrom http://www.unodc.org/urode/terrorism_ defi nitions.h tm]

Recei ved March 20Revision received November 20

PERCIEVED STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES 131

l1

a

e

Snyder, C. R. (1995). Genderdifferences in coping: A furthertest of socialization and roleconstraint theories. Sex Roles,33,565-587.

Slone, M., & Shoshani, A. (2008).Indirect victimization fromterrorism: A proposed post-exposure intervention. Journalof Mental Health Counseling,3(1), 54-70. I

Taylor, S. (1998). Coping strategies.Retrieved July 2, 2009, from

http://www.maeses.ucsf.edulResearchlPsychosociallnotebookicoping.html

United Nations Office on Drugs andCrime. Definitions of Terrorism,Retrieved December 14, 2010,from http://www.unodc.org/un-odc/terrori sm_defini tions .hlml.

Received March 2010Revision received November 2010