Lesson 3 Language2 hours (120 + 10 min reading time)

Comprehension 30 45 min + 10 min reading timeSummary 10 30 minAdvertisement 10 15 minCartoon 10 15 minLanguage 20 15 min

Parts of speech

NOUNS

If you can use any of your five senses on something, that thing is a NOUN.There are, however, nouns that one cannot physically touch. They are:Emotions – panic, excitement, anger, love, curiosity.Acts – inquiry, agreement, refusal.Ideas – freedom, justice, power, forgiveness.Qualities – colour, beauty, bravery, flexibility.In other words, NOUNS name things.

To make it easier to refer to all the thousands of nouns, we categorise them:The ordinary kind of noun, like pen, is called a common noun. The name we give to a particular thing, place or person, like Bic pen or Mpho is a proper noun.Collections of things, like flock of sheep, crowd of people, pride of lions, are collective nouns.The nouns that we cannot touch or see, are abstract nouns. These nouns can be felt in the heart, like love or hate, or experiences, like freedom or humour.There are nouns that we cannot touch or see or smell, like oxygen – they are not abstract nouns.

VERBS

VERBS provide the action; they tell what’s happening.

She fetches water.The pen writes.

Verbs also describe a “state of being”. They are called linking verbs.

She is happy.They are naughty.The pen is black.

Verbs do not only tell us about the actions or the being of nouns, they also tell us about the time that these actions are performed.

What is the difference between the following:She is happy.andShe was happy.orShe eats an apple.andShe ate an apple?

The first sentences are in the present tense and the second sentences are in the past tense. Can you see that the VERB shows us this difference in time? Every single verb in the English language has different shapes so that we can use them to show different times. You will learn these different shapes later.

Another thing that verbs tell us about is whether the subject, the person or thing that does the verb, is singular (one) or plural (more than one). You will learn more about this when you study concord or subject-verb agreement.

Infinitives

She decided to go to town.Mary wanted to bake a cake.Mother likes to walk in the mornings.

Peter who is very ill didn’t do his work over the weekend.Peter being ill didn’t do the work over the weekend.

Participles

Consider this list of irregular verbs in English:

Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle Present Participle

Awake awoke, awaked awoken, awaked Awaking

Be (is are am) was, were Been Being

Become Became Become Becoming

Begin Began Begun Beginning

Bend Bent Bent Bending

Bet bet, betted bet, betted Etc.

Bite Bit Bitten

Bleed Bled Bled

Blow Blew Blown

Break Broke Broken

Bring Brought Brought

Buy Bought Bought

Can Could Auxiliary verb – no past participle

Cast Cast Cast

Catch Caught Caught

Choose Chose Chosen

Come Came Come

Cost Cost Cost

Cut Cut Cut

Dig Dug Dug

Do Did Done

Dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed

Drink Drank Drunk

Drive Drove Driven

Eat Ate Eaten

Fall Fell Fallen

Fight Fought Fought

Flee Fled Fled

Fly Flew Flown

Forget Forgot Forgotten

flow flowed Flowed

Get Got got, gotten

Give Gave Given

Hang Hung Hung

Have Had Had

Hit Hit Hit

Hurt Hurt Hurt

Lay Laid Laid

Lend Lent Lent

Lie (down) Lay Lain

Lie (tell) Lied Lied

Make Made Made

May Might Auxiliary verb – no past participle

Meet Met Met

Read Read Read

Ring Rang Rung

Rise Rose Risen

Run Ran Run

Shine Shone Shone

Show Showed shown, showed

Sit Sat Sat

Sleep Slept Slept

Swim Swam Swum

Swing Swung Swung

Take Took Taken

Wear Wore Worn

Write Wrote Written writing

ADVERBS

Esther went to the shop yesterday. She walked fast, because her mother needed eggs for the cake she wanted to bake.

1 Where did Esther go?2 When did she go there?3 How did she walk?

“The shop”, “yesterday” and “fast” are all adverbs, because they tell us more about the verbs, “go” and “walk”.

Adverbs also tell you more about adjectives as in:

1 The healthy tall boy runs fast. (both healthy and tall are adjectives)2 The very tall boy runs fast. (very is an adverb because it tells you more about tall and

not about boy)

CONCORDA singular subject gets a singular verb (base form + s)Lerato catcheS the ball.Lerato and Julia catch the ball.

Petros throwS the ball.The boys throw the ball.Kalipha runS very fast.The girls run very fast.

There are two pronouns that are treated as plural even though I is singular and you can be singular: Thandeka eats an apple.The women eat apples.I eat an apple.You eat an apple.

SINGULAR / PLURAL? Everybody, someone, no-one Everything, something, nothing Everybody, somebody, nobody Each and everyone SINGULAR, e.g. Everybody IS here now. Either of them / Neither of them One of the girls Many a man If you start a question with WHO, use a SINGULAR verb, e.g. Who IS there? NOUNS JOINED BY : * AND – PLURAL, e.g. Peter and David are friends. * WITH, AS WELL AS, LIKE, INCLUDING – look at first noun, e.g. The mother, with her children, WAS kept hostage. * OR, EITHER …OR, NEITHER … NOR, NOT ONLY, BUT, ALSO – look at the second noun, e.g. Either the mother or her children ARE guilty. SINGULAR: Athletics, Mathematics, jewelry, fruit, a pair of (glasses, scissors, pliers, trousers), bacon and eggs, macaroni and cheese, curry and rice MUCH, LITTLE, THIS, THAT PLURAL: Glasses, people, the odds, minutes, scissors, a number of people, thanks MANY, FEW, THESE, THOSE

Either the mother or her children is / are expected to attend.Neither the children nor their mother is / are happy in Bloem.The girl or her friends is / are guilty.

The mother, with her children, is/are at home.The children, with their mother, has/have many problems.The headmaster, as well as the staff members, has / have arrived.The learners, as well as their teacher, do / does a great job every day.

PunctuationCapital lettersSentences always start with capital letters. We bought popcorn during intermission.

Proper Nouns and Proper Adjectives need capital letters.

We visited Mexico.

We took part in the Mexican wave.

The main words in titles of books, films or plays start with capital letters.

Lord of the Flies is written by Golding.

The first word in direct speech is capitalised. The teacher asked, “Is anyone absent today?”

Full stopA full stop indicates the end of a sentence.Full stops are found after certain abbreviations.

Note carefully the use of full stops in these abbreviations. British usage favours omitting the full stop in abbreviations which include the first and last letters of a single word, such as Mr, Mrs, Ms, Dr and St; American usage prefers (A) Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr. and St., with full stops. Most other abbreviated titles, however, require a full stop, as shown above.

A person's initials are a kind of abbreviation, and these are usually followed by full stops: John D. Rockefeller, C. Aubrey Smith, O. J. Simpson. Increasingly, however, there is a tendency to write such initials without full stops: John D Rockefeller, C Aubrey Smith, O J Simpson. And note the rare special case illustrated by Harry S Truman: the S in this name never takes a full stop, because it's not an abbreviation for anything; President Truman's parents actually gave him the middle name S.

Two other common abbreviations are a.m. (`before noon') and p.m. (`after noon'): 10.00 a.m., six p.m. These are always acceptable. Note that these are not capitalized in British usage (though American usage prefers (A) 10.00 AM and six PM, with small capitals and no full stops).

Note also that, when an abbreviation comes at the end of a sentence, only one full stop is written. You should never write two full stops in a row.

Apostrophe

ContractionsI + have = I’veI + am = I’mI + had = I’dI + shall = I’llYou + are = you’reThey + are = they’reDoes + not = doesn’tDid + not = didn’tIt + is = it’sCannot = can’t

PossessionPossession is shown with an apostrophe (‘) + an s.The girl’s book.The school’s choir.The children’s books.The dog’s tail.Mrs Pincus’s students.All the bus’s wheels.She is the boss’s wife.

Exception (Only when a plural word ends in an s.)The three girls’ books.The dogs’ tails.The bosses’ wives.The two James’ two cars

The following DO NOT take apostrophesThese are ours.The book is yours.Its tail is long.All the CEOs were there.The Grade 9s had to stay after school.In the 1600s.The 1990s.

Question marks:

These are used at the end of questions.Example: Do you want to join us?

Exclamation mark:These indicate emotionExample: What a surprise!

Come here at once!

The colonUse a colon [ : ] before a list or an explanation that is preceded by a clause that can stand by itself. Think of the colon as a gate, inviting one to go on:There is only one thing left to do now: confess while you still have time.The charter review committee now includes the following people: the mayor, the chief of police, the fire chief, the chair of the town council.You nearly always have a sense of what is going to follow or be on the other side of the colon. We will often use a colon to separate an independent clause from a quotation (often of a rather formal nature) that the clause introduces:The acting director often used her favourite quotation from Shakespeare's Tempest: "We are such stuff as dreams are made on; and our little life is rounded with a sleep."When NOT to use a colon: Remember that the clause that precedes the mark (where you're considering a colon) ought to be able to stand on its own as an independent clause. In other words, we would not use a colon in situations like the following:

● Her recipe for gunpowder included saltpetre, dry oatmeal and ground-up charcoal briquettes. (no colon after "included")

● His favourite breakfast cereals were Rice Krispies, Cheerios and Wheaties. (no colon after "were")

● Her usual advice, I remember, was "Keep your head up as you push the ball up the court." (no colon after "was")

The HyphenHyphens are used in the following situations:Creating compound words, particularly adjectives and adverbs before nouns (the well-known actor, my six-year-old daughter, the out-of-date curriculum) writing numbers (twenty-one to ninety-nine) and fractions (five-eighths, one-fourth)Creating compounds on-the-fly for fly-by-night organizationsAdding certain prefixes to words: When a prefix comes before a capitalized word or the prefix is capitalized, use a hyphen (non-English, A-frame, I-formation). The prefixes self-, all- and ex- nearly always require a hyphen (ex-husband, all-inclusive, self-control) and when the

prefix ends with the same letter that begins the word, you will often use a hyphen (anti-intellectual, de-emphasize), but not always (unnatural, coordinate, cooperate). By all means, use a good dictionary when in doubt! There is no space between a hyphen and the character on either side of it.Suspended CompoundsWith a series of nearly identical compounds, we sometimes delay the final term of the final term until the last instance, allowing the hyphen to act as a kind of place holder, as inThe third- and fourth-grade teachers met with the parents.Both full- and part-time employees will get raises this year.We don't see many 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children around here.

The DashUse a dash [ — ] or dashes as a super-comma or set of super-commas to set off parenthetical elements, especially when those elements contain internal forms of punctuation:

All four of them — Bob, Jeffrey, Jason and Brett — did well in college.

Do not use dashes to set apart material when commas would do the work for you.

"How many times have I asked you not to —" Jason suddenly stopped talking and looked out the window.

"Not to do what?" I prompted.

"Not to — Oh heck, I forget!"

A dash is sometimes used to set off concluding lists and explanations in a more informal and abrupt manner than the colon. We seldom see the dash used this way in formal, academic prose.

The research has been done in the USA, SA and England – all these countries didn’t want to take part.

The Comma● Use a comma to separate the elements in a series (three or more things) "He hit the ball,

dropped the bat and ran to first base." ● Use a comma + a little conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so) to connect

two independent clauses, as in "He hit the ball well, but he ran toward third base."● One of the most frequent errors in comma usage is the placement of a comma after a

coordinating conjunction. ● Use a comma to set off introductory elements, as in "Running toward third base, he

suddenly realized how stupid he looked."● An adverbial clause that begins a sentence is set off with a comma:

o Although Queasybreath had spent several years in Antarctica, he still bundled up warmly in the brisk autumns of Ohio.

o Because Tashonda had learned to study by herself, she was able to pass the entrance exam.

● When both a city's name and that city's state or country's name are mentioned together, the state or country's name is treated as a parenthetical element.

o We visited Hartford, Connecticut, last summer.o Paris, France, is sometimes called "The City of Lights."

Semicolon [ ; ]

Use a semicolon to help sort out a monster list:There were citizens from Bangor, Maine; Hartford, Connecticut; Boston, Massachusetts and Newport, Rhode Island.ORWe had four professors on our committee: Peter Wursthorn, Professor of Mathematics; Ronald Pepin, Professor of English; Cynthia Greenblatt, Professor of Education and Nada Light, Professor of Nursing.

Quotation marks / inverted commas:

Inverted commas have several uses:

● They indicate direct speech:

“Please come here”, said my mother.

● Inverted commas are used to quote someone else’s words.

In his speech to parliament Thabo Mbeki said, “I am African.”

● Inverted commas are used to show that you know you are using a word that is not proper

English but a foreign or slang word.I told him to “voetsek”

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH (REPORTED SPEECH)

What is the difference between direct speech and indirect or reported speech:“I have done my homework.”  She said that she had done her homework.

There are changes because:● She spoke – not I.● She said her sentence in the present and when you report it, it is in the past.● Therefore the verb has to change.

Another example: “I went to the movies last night.”

She said that she had gone to the movies the previous night.

● I – she 

● Went – had gone

● Last night – the previous night

● Make sure that you understand why you have to make these changes. It all depends 

on when the sentence was said and when you report it. Focus on the MEANING.

● Use a checklist when you have to change Direct Speech into Reported Speech:

● Insert THAT;● Pronouns;

● Verbs go back one: present to past and past to past perfect;

● Definite time words (yesterday) change to indefinite time words (the day before).

  Read through the following lists and use this information as well as what you have learned about Direct and Indirect Speech to rewrite no 1 – 10 into the Indirect/Reported Speech. Remember to underline pronouns, verbs and time words, so that you will remember what to change.Remember to insert ‘that’.Remember to leave out the inverted commas.Do not change anything before the inverted commas. Direct Speech Indirect/Reported Speech This ThatToday That dayTomorrow The next/following dayYesterday The previous day/The day beforeLast year/week The previous year/week//The week/year beforeAgo BeforeHere ThereNow ThenThese ThoseMust Had to 1 Kutlwano said, “I cleaned the bathroom this morning.”2 Lerato said, “We will play the game next Saturday.”3 Damian said, “My mother makes the best smoothies.”4 The teacher said, “You must finish chapter 5 for tomorrow.”5 Father said, “I will not allow this again.”6 Rori said, “I washed the car last week.”7 John said, “We went to the swimming pool yesterday.”8 Mother said, “I asked you to do this two days ago.”9 The minister said, “School will be closed next week.”10 The learners said, “We are so unhappy because we cannot come to school.”1 Kutlwano said, “I cleaned the bathroom this morning.”Kutlwano said that she had cleaned the bathroom that morning. 2 Lerato said, “We will play the game next Saturday.”Lerato said that they would play the game the following/the next Saturday. 3 Damian said, “My mother makes the best smoothies.”Damian said that his mother made the best smoothies. 4 The teacher said, “You must finish chapter 5 for tomorrow.”The teacher said that we/she/he/I had to finish Chapter 5 for the next/following day.

 5 Father said, “I will not allow this again.”Father said that he would not allow that again. 6 Rori said, “I washed the car last week.”Rori said that she had washed the car the previous week/the week before. 7 John said, “We went to the swimming pool yesterday.”John said that they had gone to the swimming pool the day before/the previous day. 8 Mother said, “I asked you to do this two days ago.”Mother said that she had asked me/her/him/us to do that two days before. 9 The minister said, “School will be closed next week.”The minister said that schools would be closed the following/next week. 10 The learners said, “We are so unhappy because we cannot come to school.”The learners said that they were so unhappy because they could not go to school.  1 Peter said, “I eat an apple every day.”2 Mary said, “We have not done our work yesterday.”3 Mother said, “I bake a cake every weekend.”4 The teacher said, “You are very quiet today.”5 She said, “I lost my book yesterday.”6 Father said, “We went there last year.”7 My cousin said, “We eat pizza on Fridays.”8 Sivu said, “I saw the movie last year.”9 Lena said, “My sister and I went to the theatre two weeks ago.”10 The driver said, “I cannot drive faster, it is too dangerous.”  1 Peter said, “I eat an apple every day.”Peter said that he ate and apple every day. 2 Mary said, “We have not done our work yesterday.”Mary said that they had not done their work the day before. 3 Mother said, “I bake a cake every weekend.”Mother said that she baked a cake every weekend. 4 The teacher said, “You are very quiet today.”The teacher said that I/she/he was/ we were very quiet that day. 5 She said, “I lost my book yesterday.”She said that she had lost her book the day before. 6 Father said, “We went there last year.”Father said that they had gone there the year before. 7 My cousin said, “We eat pizza on Fridays.”My cousin said that they ate pizza on Fridays. 8 Sivu said, “I saw the movie last year.”Sivu said that he/she had seen the movie the previous year.

 9 Lena said, “My sister and I went to the theatre two weeks ago.”Lena said that she and her sister had gone to the theatre two weeks before. 10 The driver said, “I cannot drive faster, it is too dangerous.”The driver said that he could not drive faster, it was too dangerous. 

PRONOUNS

Lerato thinks that Lerato has left Lerato’s umbrella at Lerato’s friend’s house.

We do not talk or write like this! It sounds ridiculous. How would you change the sentence to make it sound normal? Yes, you would substitute three of the proper nouns with PRONOUNS.Lerato thinks that she has left her umbrella at her friend’s house.

The words that we use in the place of nouns are called PRONOUNS. The following are the different types of pronouns,

TYPE EXPLANATION EXAMPLEPersonal Shows the subject or object. He did it.

We cannot come.You have to go.It will grow fast.

Interrogative Asks questions, like a detective interrogates a criminal.

Who is going to town?What is his name?

Demonstrative

Demonstrates where something is – shows it.

That is mine.I saw them there.

Possessive It shows possession. The book is mine.That house is theirs.

Relative The pronoun is a relative of the person, animal or thing mentioned earlier in the sentence.

Tom is the boy who lives there.The house that we saw, has been sold.

Reflexive It reflects the subject, like a mirror

I wash myself.She shot herself.

Indefinite  An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is vague and "not definite". 

Some typical indefinite pronouns are: all, another, any, anybody/anyone, anything, each, everybody/everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody/someone.

Remember to keep the pronouns in a sentence the ‘same’: They express themselves. One expresses oneself. Not: One expresses themselves.

Do not use he/she anymore. It is now acceptable to say: Every person is exposed to the media, whether they are rich or poor.

Our books, my house – not pronouns, but possessive ADJECTIVES. As well as that door and this car – these are demonstrative ADJECTIVES.

Concerning relative pronouns: Use who, whom and whose to refer to people.

Use whose to show possessive form: The woman whose car is in the garage is here.The girl whose dog ran away is coming this afternoon.(These clauses are called relative clauses.)

Use whom to refer to the object, that is, the person to whom the action is being done:That is the boy whom I like.She is meeting the man whom we saw yesterday.

Use who to refer to the subject of the sentence, that is, the person who is doing the action:The girl who scores the highest mark on the test will win a prize.This is the girl who came looking for you last night.

Use that and which to refer to things:This is the car that is rusty.This is the train which arrived late yesterday afternoon.

1 Fill in the correct pronoun:1.1 My friend and (me/I) went to the rugby match.1.2 She laughed at my brother and (me/I).1.3 One should always wear (your/one’s) hat when the sun shines.1.4 Mother and father went with my cousin and (I/me).1.5 You have to do (your/you’re) homework.1.6 The teacher told Lucia and (I/me) to do our homework.1.7 Last night Joy and (I/me) watched our favourite movie.

2 Rewrite the following sentences, correcting the mistakes:2.1 Me and Refilwe played a match.2.2 One should not believe everything you hear.2.3 Give me you’re sweets.2.4 All learners wear there blazers on Mondays. 2.5 Your supposed to line up alphabetically in the quad.2.6 You’re books have to be covered neatly.2.7 Who’s book bag is this?2.8 Whose the head girl? 2.9 The tuck shop has it’s own rules.2.10 They have done the work themselfs.

MEMO

1 Fill in the correct pronoun:1.1 My friend and (I) went to the rugby match.1.2 She laughed at my brother and (me).1.3 One should always wear (one’s) hat when the sun shines.1.4 Mother and father went with my cousin and (me).1.5 You have to do (your) homework.1.6 The teacher told Lucia and (me) to do our homework.1.7 Last night Joy and (I) watched our favourite movie.

2 Rewrite the following sentences, correcting the mistakes:2.1 Refilwe and I played a match.2.2 One should not believe everything one hears.2.3 Give me your sweets.2.4 All learners wear their blazers on Mondays. 

2.5 You’re supposed to line up alphabetically in the quad.2.6 Your books have to be covered neatly.2.7 Whose book bag is this?2.8 Who’s the head girl? 2.9 The tuck shop has its own rules.2.10 They have done the work themselves.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE Why do writers use the passive voice sometimes, if it is more natural to use the active voice: When it is not necessary to mention the subject (doer) for example, “Refreshments will be served.”When we are not sure who did the action for example, “The diamonds were stolen.”When demands are made anonymously, for example, “Smoking is not permitted in the cinema.”When a nameless accusation is made, for example, “This shirt has been ruined in the wash.”In the passive voice we use the third part of the verb or the past participle and the verb changes in the following way: CHANGE FROM ACTIVE TO PASSIVE 

 A: Simple Present Tense: kicks ► is / are kickedThe boy kicks the ball. ………………………………………………The girl eats lunch. ………………………………………………She plays the piano. ………………………………………………The man drives the car. …………………………………They send a letter.……………………………………………… B: Simple Past Tense: kicked ► was / were kickedThe boy kicked the ball. ………………………………………………The girl ate lunch. ………………………………………………She played the piano. ………………………………………………The man drove the car. ………………………………………………They sent a letter. …………………………………………… C: Simple Future Tense: will /shall kick ► will be kickedThe boy will kick the ball. ………………………………………………The girl will eat lunch. ………………………………………………She will play the piano. ………………………………………………The man will drive the car. ………………………………………………

They will send a letter. …………………………………………… D: Present Continuous Tense: is kicking ► is being / are being kicked1. The boy is kicking   the ball. ………………………………………………2. The girl is eating her lunch. ………………………………………………3. She is playing the piano. ………………………………………………4. The man is driving the car. ………………………………………………5. They are sending a letter. …………………………………………… E: Past Continuous Tense: was/were kicking ► was being / were being kicked6. The boy was kicking the ball. ………………………………………………7. The girl was eating her lunch. ………………………………………………8. She was playing the piano. ………………………………………………9. The man was driving the car. ………………………………………………10. They were sending her a letter. …………………………………………….. G: Present Perfect Tense:  has/have kicked ► has/have been kicked 1. The boy has kicked the ball.………………………………………………2. The girl has eaten lunch.……………………………………………3. She has played the piano. ………………………………………4. The man has driven many cars……………………………………………5. They have sent letters. ………………………………………… H: Past Perfect Tense:  had kicked ► had been kicked 6. The boy had kicked the ball.………………………………………………7. The girl had eaten lunch.……………………………………………8. She had played the piano.……………………………………………9. The man had driven the car.………………………………………………10. They had sent a letter. ………………………………………

Tense Active PassivePresent simple Lerato shows the tourists

around.The tourists are shown around.

Present continuous

Lerato is showing the tourists around.

The tourists are being shown around.

Present perfect Lerato has shown the tourists around.

The tourists have been shown around.

Past simple Lerato showed the tourists around.

The tourists were shown around.

Past continuous Lerato was showing the tourists around.

The tourists were being shown around.

Past perfect Lerato had shown the tourists around.

The tourists had been shown around.

Future simple Lerato will show the tourists around.

The tourists will be shown around.

Future continuous Lerato will be showing the tourists around.

The tourists will be being shown around.

Future perfect Lerato will have shown the tourists around.

The tourists will have been shown around.

Activities

1. The principal has forbidden smoking on the campus. 

2. The principal has forbidden students to smoke on the campus. 3. I advise consulting a good doctor. 4. I advise you to consult a good doctor. 5. They don’t allow parking in front of their gate. 6. They don’t allow people to park in front of their gate. 7. We advise early booking. 8. We advise passengers to book their tickets early. 9. They made her repeat the whole story. 10. We don’t advise pregnant women to go on a diet. 

1. I did not beat her. 2. I will never forget this experience. 3. Mother made a cake yesterday. 4. The boy teased the girl. 5. Did she do her duty? 6. The tiger was chasing the deer. 7. She has written a novel. 8. She has learned her lessons. 9. Have you finished the report? 10. The police have caught the thief. 11. My brother has completed the work. 12. Somebody stole my pen yesterday. 13. Our team may win the match. 14. Nurses look after patients.      1. The boy killed the spider. 2.       The police caught the thief. 3.       The boy made a kite. 4.       The sudden noise frightened the dog. 5.       Edison invented the light bulb. 6.       He made a very remarkable discovery. 7.       His own brother betrayed him. 8.       I have sold my old car. 9.       They opened the store only last month. 10.   We do not permit smoking in the kitchen. 11.   The cat chased the mouse. 12.   Your behaviour disgusts me. 13. The cat drank all the milk. 14. A stone struck me on the head.

MEMO

1 Smoking on the campus has been forbidden.2 Students have been forbidden to smoke on the campus.3 Consulting a good doctor is advised.4 You are advised to consult a good doctor.5 Parking in front of their gate is not allowed.6 People are not allowed to park in front of their gate.7 Early booking is advised.8 Passengers are advised to book their tickets early.9 She was made to repeat the whole story.10 Pregnant women are not advised to go on a diet.

1 She was not beaten.2 This experience will never be forgotten.

3 A cake was made yesterday.4 The girl was teased.5 Was her duty done?6 The deer was being chased by the tiger.7 A novel has been written by her.8 Her lessons have been learned.9 Has the report been finished?10 The thief has been caught.11 The work has been completed.12 My pen was stolen yesterday.13 The match may be won.14 Patients are looked after.

1 The spider was killed.2 The thief was caught.3 A kite was made.4 The dog was frightened.5 The light bulb was invented.6 A very remarkable discovery was made.7 He was betrayed by his own brother.8 My old car has been sold.9 The store was opened last month.10 Smoking is not permitted in the kitchen.11 The mouse was chased.12 I am disgusted by your behaviour.13 All the milk was drunk.14 I was struck on the head by a stone.

TENSES

1 Joe Sanders was walking through the forest when two men stopped him.2 Joe Sanders had walked through the forest when two men stopped him.

In sentence 1 Joe Sanders was still in the forest when the men stopped him. In sentence 2 he has left the forest when they stopped him. The verb, was walking, in sentence 1 is in the past continuous tense and the second verb, stopped, is in the simple past tense. The verb, had walked, in sentence 2 is in the past perfect tense and the verb, stopped, is in the simple past tense. It is really important that learners understand how the meaning of a sentence changes when you use a different tense. Here is another example:1 I will be swimming when you bring the books tomorrow.2 I will have swum when you will bring the books tomorrow.

In sentence 1 I am telling my friend that she has to look for me in the swimming pool the next day when she brings back my books. In sentence 2 I am saying that she does not have to worry about my swimming practice – it will be over when she comes. The verb, will be swimming, is in the future continuous tense and the verb, will have swum, is in the future perfect tense. The verb, bring, in both sentences is in the simple future tense. One could also say, “...when you bring the books back.”

The first part of a verb is also the base form to which ‘s’ is added for singular. The second part of the verb is the past tense and the third part is the past participle which is used with the perfect tenses and in the passive voice. For example:

First part / base form Second part / past tense Third part / past participle

Go Went Gone

Do Did Done

Warn Warned Warned

be (is, are and am) was / were been

have (has) Had Had

Tense How When Example

Present Simple First part of the verb

When something happens all the time, regularly, often, seldom, frequently or when something is stated as a fact.

Lerato eats apples quite often.It is better to plant indigenous trees.

Present Continuous

Is, are or am + base form of verb + -ing

When something is busy happening.

She is eating an apple at the moment. He is planting an indigenous tree now.

Present Perfect Has/have + 3rd part of the verb

When the time is not important.When something is true up to this point in time.

She has eaten apples before.They have planted indigenous trees in their garden.They have had alien trees as well but not anymore.

Past Simple Second part of verb When something happened in the past.

She ate an apple this morning.They planted a tree yesterday.

Past Continuous Was / were + base form + -ing.

When something was busy happening while something else happened.

She was busy eating an apple when the phone rang.They were planting a tree when their neighbour’s dog bit the child.

Past Perfect

Had + third part of the verb

Two things happened in the past – the one before the other one.

After she had eaten the apple she washed her hands.Before they planted the tree they had dug a hole.

Future Simple Will + base form of verb.

Anything that will happen in She will eat the apple tomorrow.

Shall is not really used anymore. The rule; however is: we take shall and everything else will except if the speaker wants to emphasise something, then he/she would say I will and the boy shall.

the future. They will plant indigenous trees when they have taken out the alien trees.

Future Continuous

Will + be + base form + -ing

When something will be happening in the future when something else happens.

She will be eating the apple when her mother asks her about her diet.They will be planting the trees when the minister arrives there tomorrow.

Future Perfect Will + have + third part

Something will be completed in the future when something else happens.

She will have eaten the apple when she has to go.They will have planted the trees when the camera team arrives.(Note the difference in meaning between when the minister arrives and when the camera team arrives.)

NEGATIVE AND QUESTION FORMS

Consider the following examples:

Targa reads only classical novels.Targa does not read only classical novels.1 What is added to the second sentence?2 What happened to the verb reads?Now consider these sentences:Targa and Jane go to the Mall every Saturday.Targa and Jane do not go to the Mall every Saturday.1 What is added to the second sentence?2 Does the verb go change?

Finally:Targa went to the Mall.Targa did not go to the Mall.

Can you work out a rule for forming the negative form? You can use the same examples for the question form.

Targa reads novels.Does Targa read novels?Targa and Jane go to the mall.Do Targa and Jane go to the mall?Targa went to the mall.Did Targa go to the mall?

A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a mini-question. The whole sentence is a "tag question", and the mini-question at the end is called a "question tag". A "tag" is something small that we add to something larger. We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for confirmation. They mean something like: "Am I right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very common in English.The basic structure is:

+Positive statement,

-negative tag?

Snow is white, isn't it?-

Negative statement,

+positive tag?

You don't like me, do you?

Statements with negative adverbs.The adverbs never, rarely, seldom, hardly, barely and scarcely have a negative sense. Even though they are in a positive statement the feeling of the statement is negative. We treat statements with these words like negative statements, so the question tag is normally positive. Look at these examples:● He never came again, did he?

● She rarely comes, does she?

● You hardly ever come late, do you?

● I barely know you, do I?

● You can scarcely expect her to know that, can

you?

I am right, aren't I? aren't I (not amn't I)You have to go, don't you? you (do) have to go...I have been answering, haven't I? use first auxiliaryNothing came in the post, did it? treat statements with

nothing, nobody etc like negative statements

Let's go, shall we? let's = let usHe'd better do it, hadn't he? he had better (no auxiliary)

SPELLING

Gonna – going toKinda – I am kind of happyBeginning NOT begginningCause – BECAUSE They’re (they are) happy because their parents bought them a dog. I am living in Bloemfontein but I am leaving it at the end of the month.Rather say MANY instead of A LOT OFThey are ( not their) facing a challenge.Lose and loose. You can never say loosing.One life but many lives. My life but their lives. I live my life.I was writing a letter.I have written a letter.I am better than you.You can do the work then.I advise you to take my advice.I went to the practice to practise.I am in love – NOT inlove.We decided to do the work too, because she has two books.

You’re (you are) responsible for your work.