Part1:,Re’ordering,for...
Transcript of Part1:,Re’ordering,for...
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Syntax-‐based Transla0onPart 1: Re-‐ordering forPhrase-‐based transla0on
March 13, 2012
Thanks to Michael Collins for many of today’s slides.Take a look at Mike’s course: http://www.cs.columbia.edu/~cs4705/
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Goals
• Understand why syntax is important for reordering models
• Review non-‐syntac0c reordering models for phrase-‐based machine transla0on
• Review the “Clause Restructuring” approach of Collins, Koehn, and Kucerova
• Understand why it is a good fit for phrase-‐based machine transla0on
• Discuss its limita0ons2
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Phrase-‐based model
• Foreign input is segmented in phrases • Each phrase is translated into English • Phrases are reordered
3
natuerlich hat john spass am spiel
of course john has fun with the game
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Some Reordering Already Captured
4
natuerlich hat john spass am spiel
of course john has fun with the game
natuerlich hat john spass am spiel
of course john has fun with the game
• Local reordering can be captured within phrases
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Phrase transla0on table
• Main knowledge source: table with phrase transla0ons and their probabili0es
• Example: phrase transla0ons for natuerlich
5
Source Transla,on Probability φ(e|f)natuerlich of course 0.5natuerlich naturally 0.3natuerlich of course , 0.15natuerlich , of course , 0.05
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Probabilis0c Model
• Bayes rule–ebest = arg maxe p(e|f) = arg maxe p(f|e) plm(e)
– transla0on model p(e|f) – language model plm(e)
• Reordering score can be incorporated in the TM
– phrase transla0on probability φ – reordering probability d 6
Probabilistic Model
• Bayes rule
ebest = argmaxe p(e|f)= argmaxe p(f |e) plm(e)
– translation model p(e|f)– language model plm(e)
• Decomposition of the translation model
p(
¯
f
I
1 |eI
1) =
IY
i=1
�(
¯
f
i
|ei
) d(start
i
� end
i�1 � 1)
– phrase translation probability �
– reordering probability d
Chapter 5: Phrase-Based Models 6
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Log-‐linear model
7
Weighted Model as Log-Linear Model
p(e, a|f) = exp(�
�
IX
i=1
log �(
¯
f
i
|ei
)+
�
d
IX
i=1
log d(a
i
� b
i�1 � 1)+
�
LM
|e|X
i=1
log p
LM
(e
i
|e1...ei�1))
Chapter 5: Phrase-Based Models 19
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Distance-‐based Reordering
8
Distance-Based Reordering
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
d=0
d=-3
d=-2
d=-1
foreign
English
phrase translates movement distance
1 1–3 start at beginning 02 6 skip over 4–5 +23 4–5 move back over 4–6 -34 7 skip over 6 +1
Scoring function: d(x) = ↵
|x| — exponential with distance
Chapter 5: Phrase-Based Models 7
Scoring function: d(x) = α|x| – exponential with distance
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Values of α
9
0
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.990.750.50.250.1
Distance of move
Pro
babi
lity
α=
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Discussion: Distance-‐based reordering
• What do you think of it?• Is it a good model for how reordering works across languages?
• What is it missing?
(Discuss with your neighbor)
10
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Distance-‐based reordering
• Small values of α, severely discourage reordering–Limit reordering to monotonic or a narrow window–OK for languages with very similar word orders–Bad for languages with different word orders
• The distance-‐based penalty applies uniformly to all words and all word types–Doesn’t know that adjec0ves and nouns should swap when transla0ng from French to English
• Puts most responsibility on the language model11
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How else could we model reordering?
• Why not assign a dis0nct reordering probability to each word/phrase in the phrase table?–p(reorder | f, e)
• This is known as lexicalized reordering• How can we es0mate that probability?
12
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Lexicalized Reordering model
13
Howmuch
you
foryour
FacebookW
ievi
el
man
aufrg
und
sein
es
profile
Pro
fils
in Face
book
charge
verd
iene
n
should
sollt
e
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Lexicalized Reordering model
13
Howmuch
you
foryour
FacebookW
ievi
el
man
aufrg
und
sein
es
profile
Pro
fils
in Face
book
charge
verd
iene
n
should
sollt
e
m
m: monotone (keep order)
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Lexicalized Reordering model
13
Howmuch
you
foryour
FacebookW
ievi
el
man
aufrg
und
sein
es
profile
Pro
fils
in Face
book
charge
verd
iene
n
should
sollt
e
m
s
m: monotone (keep order)s: swap order
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Lexicalized Reordering model
13
Howmuch
you
foryour
FacebookW
ievi
el
man
aufrg
und
sein
es
profile
Pro
fils
in Face
book
charge
verd
iene
n
should
sollt
e
m
s
d
md
m
m: monotone (keep order)s: swap orderd: become discontinuous
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Lexicalized Reordering model
13
Howmuch
you
foryour
FacebookW
ievi
el
man
aufrg
und
sein
es
profile
Pro
fils
in Face
book
charge
verd
iene
n
should
sollt
e
m
d
md
m
s
Reordering features are probability estimates of s, d, and m
d
md
m
m: monotone (keep order)s: swap orderd: become discontinuous
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Lexicalized Reordering table
• Iden0cal phrase pairs <f,e> as in the phrase transla0on table
• Contains values for p(monotone|e,f), p(swap|e,f), p(discon>nuous|e,f)
14
Source Transla,on p(m|e,f) p(s|e,f) p(d|e,f)natuerlich of course 0.52 0.08 0.40natuerlich naturally 0.42 0.10 0.48natuerlich of course , 0.50 0.001 0.499natuerlich , of course 0.27 0.17 0.56
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Discussion: Is this beler?
• Do you think that this is a more sensible reordering model than the distance-‐based one?
• How could you determine if it is beler or not?• What do you think that it s0ll lacks?
(Discuss with your neighbor)
15
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Empirically, yes!
16
0
15.0
30.0
45.0
60.0
Arabic Japanese Korean Chinese En-Chinese
16.6
38.642.3
47.650.9
15.2
34.635.7
45.149.9
Baseline Lexicalized Reordering
Koehn et al, IWSLT 2005
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The Awful German Language The Germans have another kind of parenthesis, which they make by splitting a verb in two and putting half of it at the beginning of an exciting chapter and the OTHER HALF at the end of it. Can any one conceive of anything more confusing than that? These things are called ‘separable verbs.’ The wider the two portions of one of them are spread apart, the better the author of the crime is pleased with his performance.”
“
Mark Twain
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German verbs
18
Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the report pass_on .
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German verbs
18
Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the report pass_on .
Ich werde Ihnen die entsprechenden Anmerkungen aushaendigen . I will to_you the corresponding comments pass_on .
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German verbs
18
Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the report pass_on .
Ich werde Ihnen die entsprechenden Anmerkungen aushaendigen . I will to_you the corresponding comments pass_on .
Ich werde Ihnen die entsprechenden Anmerkungen am Dienstag aushaendigen I will to_you the corresponding comments on Tuesday pass_on
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German free word order
19
I will to_you the report pass_on
To_you will I the report pass_on
The report will I to_you pass_on
The finite verb always appears in 2nd position, but Any constituent (not just the subject) can appear in the 1st position
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German verbs
20
Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen , I will to_you the report pass_on ,
Main clause
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German verbs
20
Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen , I will to_you the report pass_on ,
Main clause
damit Sie den eventuell uebernehmen koennen .so_that you it perhaps adopt can .
Subordinate clause
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Collins’ Mo0va0on
21
Phrase-based models have an overly simplistic way of handling different word orders.
We can describe the linguistic differences between different languages.
Collins defines a set of 6 simple, linguistically motivated rules, and demonstrates that they result in significant translation improvements.
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Collins’ Pre-‐ordering Model
22
Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen , damit Sie den eventuell uebernehmen koennen .
Step 1: Reorder the source language
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Collins’ Pre-‐ordering Model
22
Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen , damit Sie den eventuell uebernehmen koennen .
Ich werde aushaendigen Ihnen den Report , damit Sie koennen uebernehmen den eventuell .
Step 1: Reorder the source language
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Collins’ Pre-‐ordering Model
22
Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen , damit Sie den eventuell uebernehmen koennen .
(I will pass_on to_you the report, so_that you can adopt it perhaps .)
Ich werde aushaendigen Ihnen den Report , damit Sie koennen uebernehmen den eventuell .
Step 1: Reorder the source language
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Collins’ Pre-‐ordering Model
22
Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen , damit Sie den eventuell uebernehmen koennen .
(I will pass_on to_you the report, so_that you can adopt it perhaps .)
Ich werde aushaendigen Ihnen den Report , damit Sie koennen uebernehmen den eventuell .
Step 1: Reorder the source language
Step 2: Apply the phrase-based machine translation pipeline to the reordered input.
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Example Parse Tree
23
S
PPER-SBI
VFIN-HDwill
VP
PPER-DAto_you
NP-OA VVINF-HDpass_on
ART the
NNReport
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Clause Restructuring
24
VP-OC
PDS-OAdenthat
ADJD-MOeventuellperhaps
VVINF-HDuebernehmen
adopt
S
VINF-HDkoennen
can
...
Rule 1: Verbs are initial in VPs Within a VP, move the head to the initial position
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Clause Restructuring
24
VP-OC
PDS-OAdenthat
ADJD-MOeventuellperhaps
VVINF-HDuebernehmen
adopt
S
VINF-HDkoennen
can
...
Rule 1: Verbs are initial in VPs Within a VP, move the head to the initial position
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Clause Restructuring
25
S-MO
KOUS-CPdamit
so-that
...
VP-OC
VVINF-HDuebernehmen
adopt
PPER-SBSieyou
VINF-HDkoennen
can
Rule 2: Verbs follow complementizers In a subordinated clause mote the head of the clause to follow the complementizer
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Clause Restructuring
25
S-MO
KOUS-CPdamit
so-that
...
VP-OC
VVINF-HDuebernehmen
adopt
PPER-SBSieyou
VINF-HDkoennen
can
Rule 2: Verbs follow complementizers In a subordinated clause mote the head of the clause to follow the complementizer
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Clause Restructuring
26
S-MO
KOUS-CPdamit
so-that
...
VP-OC
VVINF-HDuebernehmen
adopt
PPER-SBSieyou
VINF-HDkoennen
can
Rule 3: Move subject The subject is moved to directly precede the head of the clause
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Clause Restructuring
26
S-MO
KOUS-CPdamit
so-that
...
VP-OC
VVINF-HDuebernehmen
adopt
PPER-SBSieyou
VINF-HDkoennen
can
Rule 3: Move subject The subject is moved to directly precede the head of the clause
![Page 40: Part1:,Re’ordering,for Phrase’based,translaonu.cs.biu.ac.il/~yogo/courses/mt2016/l9/l9-slides.pdf · German,verbs 18 Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022050206/5f58ff209adeb750ad380405/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Clause Restructuring
27
S
PPER-SBWirwe
PTKVZ-SVPauf
*PARTICLE*
VVINF-HDfordemaccept
Rule 4: Particles In verb particle constructions, the particle is moved to precede the finite verb
NP-OA
ARTdasthe
NNPraesidiumpresidency
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Clause Restructuring
27
S
PPER-SBWirwe
PTKVZ-SVPauf
*PARTICLE*
VVINF-HDfordemaccept
Rule 4: Particles In verb particle constructions, the particle is moved to precede the finite verb
NP-OA
ARTdasthe
NNPraesidiumpresidency
![Page 42: Part1:,Re’ordering,for Phrase’based,translaonu.cs.biu.ac.il/~yogo/courses/mt2016/l9/l9-slides.pdf · German,verbs 18 Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022050206/5f58ff209adeb750ad380405/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Clause Restructuring
28
S
PPER-SBWirwe
VVINF-HDkonnten
could
Rule 5: Infinitives Infinitives are moved to directly follow the finite verb within a clause
VVINF-HDeinreichen
submit
PTK-NEGnichtnot
VP-OC
...
OOER-OAesit
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Clause Restructuring
28
S
PPER-SBWirwe
VVINF-HDkonnten
could
Rule 5: Infinitives Infinitives are moved to directly follow the finite verb within a clause
VVINF-HDeinreichen
submit
PTK-NEGnichtnot
VP-OC
...
OOER-OAesit
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Clause Restructuring
29
S
PPER-SBWirwe
VVINF-HDkonnten
could
Rule 6: Negation Negative particle is moved to directly follow the finite verb
PTK-NEGnichtnot
VP-OC
...
VVINF-HDeinreichen
submit
OOER-OAesit
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Clause Restructuring
29
S
PPER-SBWirwe
VVINF-HDkonnten
could
Rule 6: Negation Negative particle is moved to directly follow the finite verb
PTK-NEGnichtnot
VP-OC
...
VVINF-HDeinreichen
submit
OOER-OAesit
![Page 46: Part1:,Re’ordering,for Phrase’based,translaonu.cs.biu.ac.il/~yogo/courses/mt2016/l9/l9-slides.pdf · German,verbs 18 Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022050206/5f58ff209adeb750ad380405/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
A Less Awful German Language
Mark Twain
Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen, damit Sie den eventuell uebernehmen koennen.
I will to_you the report pass_on, so_that you it perhaps adopt can.
![Page 47: Part1:,Re’ordering,for Phrase’based,translaonu.cs.biu.ac.il/~yogo/courses/mt2016/l9/l9-slides.pdf · German,verbs 18 Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022050206/5f58ff209adeb750ad380405/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
A Less Awful German Language
Mark Twain
Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen, damit Sie den eventuell uebernehmen koennen.
I will to_you the report pass_on, so_that you it perhaps adopt can.
Ich werde aushaendigen Ihnen den Report, damit Sie koennen uebernehmen den eventuell.
I will pass_on to_you the report, so_that you can adopt it perhaps .
![Page 48: Part1:,Re’ordering,for Phrase’based,translaonu.cs.biu.ac.il/~yogo/courses/mt2016/l9/l9-slides.pdf · German,verbs 18 Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022050206/5f58ff209adeb750ad380405/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
A Less Awful German Language
Mark Twain
Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen, damit Sie den eventuell uebernehmen koennen.
I will to_you the report pass_on, so_that you it perhaps adopt can.
Ich werde aushaendigen Ihnen den Report, damit Sie koennen uebernehmen den eventuell.
I will pass_on to_you the report, so_that you can adopt it perhaps .
Now that seems less like the ravings of a madman.
![Page 49: Part1:,Re’ordering,for Phrase’based,translaonu.cs.biu.ac.il/~yogo/courses/mt2016/l9/l9-slides.pdf · German,verbs 18 Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022050206/5f58ff209adeb750ad380405/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Experiments
• Parallel training data: Europarl corpus (751k sentence pairs, 15M German words, 16M English)
• Parsed German training sentences • Reordered the German training sentences with
their 6 clause reordering rules• Trained a phrase-based model• Parsed and reordered the German test sentences• Translated them• Compared against the standard phrase-based
model without parsing/reordering31
![Page 50: Part1:,Re’ordering,for Phrase’based,translaonu.cs.biu.ac.il/~yogo/courses/mt2016/l9/l9-slides.pdf · German,verbs 18 Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022050206/5f58ff209adeb750ad380405/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
Bleu score increase
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Baseline Reordered System
26.825.2
Significant improvement at p<0.01 using the sign test
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Human Transla0on Judgments
• 100 sentences (10-‐20 words in length)• Two annotators• Judged two different versions
– Baseline system’s transla0on– Reordering system’s transla0on
• Judgments: Worse, beler or equal• Sentences were chosen at random, systems’ transla0ons were presented in random order
33
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Human Transla0on Judgments
34
+ = –
Annotator 1 40% 40% 20%
Annotator 2 44% 37% 19%
+ = reordered translation better– = baseline better= = equal
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Examples
35
Reference I think it is wrong in principle to have such measures in the European Union
Reordered I believe that it is wrong in principle to take such measures in the European Union
Baseline I believe that it is wrong in principle, such measure in the European Union to take.
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Examples
35
Reference I think it is wrong in principle to have such measures in the European Union
Reordered I believe that it is wrong in principle to take such measures in the European Union
Baseline I believe that it is wrong in principle, such measure in the European Union to take.
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Examples
36
ReferenceThe current difficulties should encourage us to redouble our efforts to promote coorperation in the Euro-Mediterranean framework.
BaselineThe current problems should spur us, our efforts to promote coorperation within the framework of the e-prozesses to be intensified.
ReorderedThe current problems should spur us to intensify our efforts to promote cooperation within the framework of the e-prozesses.
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Examples
36
ReferenceThe current difficulties should encourage us to redouble our efforts to promote coorperation in the Euro-Mediterranean framework.
BaselineThe current problems should spur us, our efforts to promote coorperation within the framework of the e-prozesses to be intensified.
ReorderedThe current problems should spur us to intensify our efforts to promote cooperation within the framework of the e-prozesses.
![Page 57: Part1:,Re’ordering,for Phrase’based,translaonu.cs.biu.ac.il/~yogo/courses/mt2016/l9/l9-slides.pdf · German,verbs 18 Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022050206/5f58ff209adeb750ad380405/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
Examples
37
Reference To go on subsidizing tobacco cultivation at the same time is a downright contridiction.
Baseline At the same time, continue to subsidize tobacco growing, it is quite schizophrenic.
Reordered At the same time, to continue to subsidize tobacco growing is schizophrenic.
![Page 58: Part1:,Re’ordering,for Phrase’based,translaonu.cs.biu.ac.il/~yogo/courses/mt2016/l9/l9-slides.pdf · German,verbs 18 Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022050206/5f58ff209adeb750ad380405/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
Examples
37
Reference To go on subsidizing tobacco cultivation at the same time is a downright contridiction.
Baseline At the same time, continue to subsidize tobacco growing, it is quite schizophrenic.
Reordered At the same time, to continue to subsidize tobacco growing is schizophrenic.
![Page 59: Part1:,Re’ordering,for Phrase’based,translaonu.cs.biu.ac.il/~yogo/courses/mt2016/l9/l9-slides.pdf · German,verbs 18 Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022050206/5f58ff209adeb750ad380405/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
Examples
38
Reference We have voted against the report by Mrs. Lalumiere for reasons that include the following:
ReorderedWe have voted, amongst other things, for the following reasons against the report by Mrs. Lalumiere:
BaselineWe have, among other things, for the following reasons against the report by Mrs. Lalumiere voted:
![Page 60: Part1:,Re’ordering,for Phrase’based,translaonu.cs.biu.ac.il/~yogo/courses/mt2016/l9/l9-slides.pdf · German,verbs 18 Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022050206/5f58ff209adeb750ad380405/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
Examples
38
Reference We have voted against the report by Mrs. Lalumiere for reasons that include the following:
ReorderedWe have voted, amongst other things, for the following reasons against the report by Mrs. Lalumiere:
BaselineWe have, among other things, for the following reasons against the report by Mrs. Lalumiere voted:
![Page 61: Part1:,Re’ordering,for Phrase’based,translaonu.cs.biu.ac.il/~yogo/courses/mt2016/l9/l9-slides.pdf · German,verbs 18 Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022050206/5f58ff209adeb750ad380405/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
Discussion: Clause Restructuring
• Are you convinced that German-‐English transla0on has improved?
• Do you think that this is a good fit for phrase-‐based machine transla0on?
• What limita0ons does this method have?
(Discuss with your neighbor.)
39
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Limita0ons
• Requires a parser for the source language– We have parsers for only a small number of languages – Penalizes “low resource languages”– Fine for transla0ng from English into other languages
• Involves hand craqed rules• Removes the nice language-‐independent quali0es of sta0s0cal machine transla0on
40
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Learning the Rules Automa0cally
• Great term project idea!• “Improving a sta0s0cal MT system with automa0cally learned rewrite palerns”by Fei Xia and Michael McCord (Coling 2004)
41
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Syntac0c LMs
• Our goal is reorder the translated phrases so that they are gramma0cal English
• Isn’t the language model probability supposed to do that already?
• Instead of an n-‐gram model, could we augment the LM with syntac0c informa0on?
42
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Right-corner Incremental Parsing
Motivation Machine Translation Incremental Parsing Integration Results
An Incremental Syntactic Language Model for Statistical Phrase-based Machine Translation Lane Schwartz
Transform right-expanding sequences of constituentsinto left-expanding sequences of incomplete constituents
S
VP
PP
NP
Friday
IN
on
VP
NP
NN
board
DT
the
VB
meets
NP
NN
president
DT
The
S
NP
Friday
S/NP
IN
on
S/PP
VP
NN
board
VP/NN
DT
the
VP/NP
VB
meets
S/VP
NP
NN
president
NP/NN
DT
The
Sta0s0cal parsing
43
Problem: bottom up parsing requires whole sentenceWe need the LM to be able to score partial translations
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One possibility: Incremental parsing
44
Right-corner Incremental Parsing
Motivation Machine Translation Incremental Parsing Integration Results
An Incremental Syntactic Language Model for Statistical Phrase-based Machine Translation Lane Schwartz
Transform right-expanding sequences of constituentsinto left-expanding sequences of incomplete constituents
S
VP
PP
NP
Friday
IN
on
VP
NP
NN
board
DT
the
VB
meets
NP
NN
president
DT
The
S
NP
Friday
S/NP
IN
on
S/PP
VP
NN
board
VP/NN
DT
the
VP/NP
VB
meets
S/VP
NP
NN
president
NP/NN
DT
The
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More later
• Mal will talk more about syntax based LMs, and why they do a poor job selec0ng gramma0cal output later in the term.
• Thursday, I’ll move away from phrase-‐based MT and talk synchronous grammar models
45
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Ques0ons?
• Ques0ons about this material?• Ques0ons about the Project Proposals (due tonight)?
• HW2 is released today
46
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The Awful German LanguageSome German words are so long that they have a perspective. Freundschaftsbezeigungen. Dilettantenaufdringlichkeiten.Stadtverordnetenversammlungen. These things are not words, they are alphabetical processions. And they are not rare; one can open a German newspaper at any time and see them marching majestically across the page–and if he has any imagination he can see the banners and hear the music, too.”
“
Mark Twain
![Page 70: Part1:,Re’ordering,for Phrase’based,translaonu.cs.biu.ac.il/~yogo/courses/mt2016/l9/l9-slides.pdf · German,verbs 18 Ich werde Ihnen den Report aushaendigen . I will to_you the](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022050206/5f58ff209adeb750ad380405/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
The Awful German Language A dog is der Hund; now you put that dog in the genitive case, and is he the same dog he was before? No, sir; he is des Hundes; put him in the dative case and what is he? Why, he is dem Hund. Now you snatch him into the accusative case and how is it with him? Why, he is den Hunden. But suppose he happens to be twins and you have to pluralize him- what then? Why, they'll swat that twin dog around through the 4 cases until he'll think he's an entire international dog show. I don't like dogs, but I wouldn't treat a dog like that. ”
“
Mark Twain
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The Awful German Language The Germans have an inhuman way of cutting up their verbs. Now a verb has a hard time enough of it in this world when it's all together. It's downright inhuman to split it up. But that's just what those Germans do. They take part of a verb and put it down here, like a stake, and they take the other part of it and put it away over yonder like another stake, and between these two limits they just shovel in German. ”
“
Mark Twain
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Clause Restructuring
50
VP-OC
PDS-OAdenthat
ADJD-MOeventuellperhaps
VVINF-HDuebernehmen
adopt
S
VINF-HDkoennen
can
...
Rule 1: Verb initial Within a VP, move the head to the initial position
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Clause Restructuring
51
VP-OC
S-MO
VVINF-HDuebernehmen
adopt
...
KOUS-CPdamit
so-that
PPER-SBSieyou
VINF-HDkoennen
can
Rule 2: Verbs follow complementizers In a subordinated clause mote the head of the clause to follow the complementizer
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Clause Restructuring
52
S-MO
KOUS-CPdamit
so-that
...
VP-OC
VVINF-HDuebernehmen
adopt
PPER-SBSieyou
VINF-HDkoennen
can
Rule 3: Move subject The subject is moved to directly precede the head of the clause
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Clause Restructuring
53
S
PPER-SBWirwe
NP-OA
ARTdasthe
PTKVZ-SVPauf
*PARTICLE*
VVINF-HDfordemaccept
Rule 4: Particles In verb particle constructions, the particle is moved to precede the finite verb
NNPraesidiumpresidency
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Clause Restructuring
54
S
PPER-SBWirwe
PTK-NEGnichtnot
VP-OCVVINF-HDkonnten
could
Rule 5: Infinitives Infinitives are moved to directly follow the finite verb within a clause
VVINF-HDeinreichen
submit
...
OOER-OAesit
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Clause Restructuring
55
S
PPER-SBWirwe
VVINF-HDkonnten
could
Rule 6: Negation Negative particle is moved to directly follow the finite verb
VVINF-HDeinreichen
submit
PTK-NEGnichtnot
VP-OC
...
OOER-OAesit