Part 3. Monetization of benefits - Europa...1 Part 3. Monetization of benefits WTP and WTA The VSL...

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1 Part 3. Monetization of benefits WTP and WTA The VSL – theory and practice Valuing health improvements Valuing the environment Stated preferences

Transcript of Part 3. Monetization of benefits - Europa...1 Part 3. Monetization of benefits WTP and WTA The VSL...

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Part 3. Monetization of benefits

WTP and WTA

The VSL – theory and practice

Valuing health improvements

Valuing the environment

Stated preferences

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Difficult and controversial task

“Environmental valuation is an essential component of economics but its results have been greeted with indifference, scepticism, suspicion, or even hostility.”(Horowitz)

“Knowing the price of everything and the value of nothing.” (Ackerman and Heinzerling)

“Is some number better than no number?” (Diamond and Hausman)

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Model-dependent results

Source: Ecorys, 2004, « The Impact of REACH », compilation of 36 impact studies

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Utility (or welfare, or well-being)

A gain in an individual’s utility from a policy change can bemeasured by the maximum amount of good and services – or money income (wealth) – that he or she would bewilling to give up in order to obtain the policy change

This amount is the WTP

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Theory: WTP and utility

Consider an individual with utility U(w,z) in which w is wealth and z isa public good (health, environment) provided by the government

Let consider a policy that changes the level of public good providedfrom z to z’.

Assume U(w,z’)>U(w,z): the change is beneficial

Then WTP is defined by U(w-WTP,z’)=U(w,z)

The WTP is the individual’s compensating variation, and it ismeasured relative to an initial level of utility

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Willingness to accept (WTA)

The WTA is defined by U(w,z’)=U(w+WTA,z)

The WTA is the individual’s equivalent variation, and it ismeasured relative to level of utility after the change

Remark: there exist two other measures when the policychange decreases utility. Compensating variation is thenmeasured by WTA, and equivalent variation is thenmeasured by WTP

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WTP vs. WTA

Until a few decades ago, economists assumed the difference between WTP and WTA was modest

That is, for BCA purposes it did not matter whether WTP or WTA was used

There are theoretical reasons for supposing that WTA and WTP should be similar

But empirical estimates have tended to show that WTP and WTA differ significantly in practice

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WTA/WTP ratios

0.97.2All goods

0.21.9Timing

0.22.1Lotteries

0.32.9Private goods

2.310.1Health and safety

2.510.4Public or non-market

Standard errorRatioType of good

Source: Horowitz and McConnell (2002, JEEM) based on 45 usable studies

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An hypothetical example

Assume you are forced to play Russian Roulette using a revolver with 10,000 chambers, 5 of which are loaded

You are offered the opportunity to buy the removal of one bullet from the revolver before playing. What is the most you would pay to remove one bullet (from 5 to 4)? = WTP

What is the minimum you would need to receive to accept to add one more bullet (from 5 to 6)? = WTA

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WTP/WTA for changes in risk

Indifference curve

Wealth

0 Survival probability ( = 1 - risk) 1

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WTP/WTA for changes in risk

Indifference curve

WTP

Wealth

0 Survival probability ( = 1 - risk) 1

Δp

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WTP/WTA for changes in risk

Indifference curve

WTA

WTP

Wealth

0 Survival probability ( = 1 - risk) 1

Δp

Δp

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An analytical framework

Let define a (state-dependent) expected utility as U(w,z) = (1-p+z)u(w)+ (p-z)v(w)

In which u(w) is the utility of wealth if alive, and v(w) is the utility of wealth if dead (bequest), with u>v and u’>v’>=0

In the Russian Roulette example: p=5/10,000 (baselinerisk) with z=0 and z’=1/10,000

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The Value of a Statistical Life (VSL)

N (= 10,000) identical citizens in a community

Each willing to pay $500 to prevent a 1 in 10,000 risk of death

Value of a statistical life is $5 million in this community

( )Total WTPVSLlives saved

WTP N WTPp N p E

⋅= = =

Δ ⋅Δ

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VSL: Analytical framework

( )d w u ( w ) v ( w )V S Ld p 1 p u '( w ) p v '( w )

−= =

− +

Let V=(1-p)u(w) + pv(w)

VSL: marginal rate of substitution between money and risk

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The VSL

Does not measure what an individual is willing to pay to avoid his/her own death with certainty

It measures the WTP (resp. WTA) for an infinitesimal mortality risk reduction (resp. increase)

VSL :

i) Increases with baseline risk p (“dead-anyway effect”, Pratt and Zeckhauzer, 1997, JPE)

ii) Increases with wealth w (the sum of two effects)

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A calibration exercise

742 ,500V S L # 1.5 m illions euros0 .997*0 .5

=

Let y=16,500 euros (french yearly income, INSEE 2004)

Let p=3/1,000 (average yearly death probability for people aged 25-40)

Let a life expectancy of 45, neglecting change in income and interest rate, w=16,500*45=742,500

Assume v=0, no bequest

Assume relative risk aversion equals 0.5

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Remark: The human capital approach

Traditionally, two conceptual approachesHuman Capital

WTP

Human Capital: Opportunity cost of early death, or say earning ability

In practice: proportional to net income over lifetime

Problem: The human capital approach may not properly account for risk preferences (e.g., risk aversion) and baseline risk, and may underestimate the social value of life savings

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How to estimate the VSL?

Revealed preferences: mainly wage differential studiesand road safety studies (about 100 published studies)

Stated preferences: mainly contingent valuation studies

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Wage differentials studies

A workers’ wage is a function of job attributes and individual characteristics

Workers accept riskier jobs if compensated

See Viscusi and Aldy (JRU, 2003) for an overview of empirical studies

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Hedonic wage function

Source: Viscusi and Aldy (JRU, 2003)

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Sketch of the hedonic technique

Let the following equation: W =a+bP+cX+e

with a,b and c the estimated coefficients, W the hourlywage, P a measure of the mortality risk at occupation, Xother variables (e.g., personal workers and jobs’characteristics) and e the error term

For this model, the estimated VSL= ∂W/ ∂P = b

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Some limits of the hedonic technique

Individuals must understand the implications of their choices (e.g., workers must correctly perceive the risk)

Need good variables (e.g., a good proxy the risk)

Need many different options (e.g., jobs) so that individuals can findthe « optimal package »

Multi-collinearity in the data (correlation between variables)

The model assumes that market prices adjust fully

See Siebert and Wei (JRU, 1994) in Annex

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A sample of wage differential studies

Source: Viscusi and Aldy (2003)

Taiwan$0.2-$0.91997Liu et al.India$0.81993KimSwitz.$6.3-$8.62001Baranzini et al.US$8.1-$16.81995Leigh

Canada$2.2-$6.81992Cousineau et al.US$2.71991Gegax et al. US$8.6-$10.91991Berger-Gabriel US$3.2-$6.81988Moore-ViscusiUK$4.21982Marin et al.US$3.2-$6.81977DillinghamUS$5.5-$15.21978-79ViscusiUS$1.7-$1.91975Thaler-Rosen

CountryVSL

USD Million (2000 prices)YearAuthor(s)

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Road safety studies

Source: Andersson and Treich (2007)

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Some « official » VSL for road safety

Countries VSL (Ecus 1994 millions)

Germany 0.79

Austria 1.39

Belgium 0.37

Denmark 0.72

Finland 1.21

France 0.56

Greece 0.13

Ireland 0.95

Holland 0.11

UK 1.01

Sweden 1.64

Source: Boiteux (2001)

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Cost-efficiency of US safety programsPrograms (Agency) Estimated cost per avoided death – US $ Million ($1990)

Underground construction (OSHA) 0.1

Trihalomethane drinking water standards (EPA) 0.2

Crane suspended personnel platform (OSHA) 0.7

Children’s sleepwear flammability ban (CPSC) 0.8

Low altitude windshear equipment (FAA) 1.3

Hazard communication (OSHA) 1.6

Arsenic/copper smelter (EPA) 2.7

Grain dust explosion prevention standards (OSHA-S) 2.8

Radionuclides/uranium mines (EPA) 3.4

Ethylene dibromide drinking water standard (EPA) 5.7

Abestos occupational exposure limit (OSHA-S) 8.3

Ethylene oxide (OSHA) 20.5

Uranium mill tailings (EPA) 31.7

Abestos ban (EPA) 110.7

Diethylstillbestrol cattlefeed ban (FDA) 124.8

Hazardous waste land disposal ban (EPA) 4,190.4

Source: Viscusi (1998), Sunstein (2001)

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Determinants of VSL

Econometric analysis of the effect of different variables on the WTP/risk relationship

Benefit transfer method: Useful for « transferring » VSL values from one study to another, adjusting for population and risk’s characterisitics

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Effect of wealth/baseline risk on the VSL

Empirical evidence that VSL increases with wealth is quite strong (Liu et al., 1997; Miller, 2000; Mrozek and Taylor, 2002; Viscusi and Aldy, 2003)

Income-elasticity of VSL positive and usually < 1 (Viscusi and Aldy, 2003; Hammitt et al., 2006), but sometimes higher than 1 (Costa and Kahn, 2004)

Empirical evidence that VSL increases with baseline risk is mixed - positive in de Blaeij et al. (2004) and Persson et al. (2001) – negative in Andersson(2007)

DG Environment (2001): “it is not recommended that values be changed according to the income of the population affected” ; “it does not seem appropriate to adjust for the health status of the population at risk”

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Effect of the risk type on the VSL

VSL usually higher for acute risks compared to latent risks, « in the range of 50-80% for a 20-year latency period » according to Pearce et al. (2005)

There is a « cancer premium », estimated to be about one-thirdaccording to Hammitt and Liu (2003) – no effect found in Hammittand Haninger (2008=9)

VSL usually higher for uncontrollable risks and small risks (Carlsson et al., 2004)

UK (HM Treasury) and the EU DG Environment have recommendedto use respectively a 100% and 50% premium for cancer risks

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Effect of age on the VSL

Ambiguous theoretical predictions - using a life-cycle models, VSL should track the life pattern of consumption(Johansson, 2002)

Empirical evidence suggests that the relationship betweenVSL and age follows an inverted-U relationship, or isindependent of age (Alberini et al., 2004; Viscusi and Aldy, 2007)

US OMB issued a memorendum advising regulatory agenciesagainst adjusting VSL for age

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VSL of adults vs. children

Estimates of parental (or guardian’s) WTP for children, since children are not autonomous economic agents

Blomquist et al. (1996), Liu et al. (2000), Dickie and Gerking (2006) and Hammitt and Haninger (2007) all estimate VSL of children about twice that of adults

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VSL Year

How to account for the effect of age on the VSL?

Adjust VSL to the age of the population affected (theoretical and empiricalambiguities, life cycle models inadequately developed)

A change in mortality risk can also be described in terms of the numbers of statistical life years saved

« A one in a million reduction in today’s mortality risk for one million average20 (60) year-old Americans saves one statistical life and about 58 (22) statistical life years » Hammitt (2007)

Alternative method => VSLY= VSL divided by (discounted) life expectancy

Most plausible labor market estimate of VSLY is $300,000 (Aldy and Viscusi, 2008)

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VSLY (VSL = $5 million, LE = 40 years)

Discount

rate

Discounted life

expectancy

VSLY

0% 40 $125,000

3% 23 $220,000

5% 17 $290,000

10% 10 $510,000

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Health: valuing morbidity, avoided Injury

The WTP conceptual framework above could be used to estimate the value of reducing risks to health

Theory: Simply assume that v(w) is the utility of wealth if sick or injured (instead of dead)

Collect WTP for a change in (expected) health

One practical difficulty: difficult to use data on medical services and drugs as the price actually paid for these goods and services by consumers hardly reflect the real price

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Some recommended figures

Most occupational studies have estimated a value of a statisticalinjury in the range of $20,000-$70,000 (Neegard, 1978; Biddleand Zarkin, 1988)

Boiteux (2001), an influential report on transport in France, recommends to use a range from 2.2% of VSL and up to 15% of VSL for large injuries

Health and Safety Executive (UK) recommends a value of: £1,500,000 for a fatality, £40,500 for major injuries, £5,800 for other reportable injuries and £350 for minor injuries

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The QALY approach

The Qualited-adjusted life-years (QALY) approach is used in medecine and public health policy (see, e.g., Adler, 2006)

US Institute of Medecine Panel Committee (2006): « Recommendation 1: Regulatory CEAs that integrate morbidityand mortality impacts in a single effectiveness measure shoulduse the QALY to represent net health effects »

The QALY is inconsistent with the WTP approach, unless strongassumptions are made about social welfare and individuals’utilities underlying the WTP-approach

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Quality Adjusted Life Years

“Health profile” = a time path through various “health states”

Utility of a health profile = number of QALYs

Utility of change in health profile = difference between utilities of the two profiles

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Health Profile

Time

q = utility of

health state

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QALYs

Ti = time spent in health state i

qi = measure of “health-related quality of life” (HRQL)0 ≤ q ≤ 1

q < 0 for health states worse than death

∑=

=n

iiiTqQALYs

1

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Assumptions underlying QALYs

1. Mutual utility independencePreferences for gambles on one attribute (health state or longevity) are independent of the other attribute

2. Constant proportional tradeoff of longevity for healthWilling to exchange the same fraction of remaining longevity to improve health

3. Risk neutrality over lifespanIndifferent among lotteries with the same life expectancy

4. Additive independence of health states over timePreferences for lotteries on health in one period do not depend on quality of health in other periods

Sequence of health states does not matter

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Elicitation of q

Time tradeoff

Standard gamble

Visual analog scale

Health state classification and indexHealth Utility Index

Euroqol EQ-5D

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Time tradeoff (TTO)

Elicit duration qT such that (1, qT) ~ (q, T)

1

q

qT T

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Decision tree:

Elicit q such that (q, T) ~ lottery between perfect health and death

Persson et al. (SJES, 2001):“Assume you are suffering from a disabling (slight) casualty. In the hospital you are offered a treatment that will make you healthy; however, there is also a risk that you will die. If the probability of success is 50% and the probability of failure is 50%, would you then have the treatment?”

Standard gamble

Impaired health for T years

Perfect health for T years

Immediate death

q

1-q

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Visual analog scale

Feeling thermometer

Telephone VASSelf-perceived health today, on a scale from 0 to 100.

As bad as death Perfect health

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EQ-5D States (1)

Mobility1. No problems in walking about

2. Some problems in walking about

3. Confined to bed

Self-care1. No problems in self-care

2. Some problems washing or dressing self

3. Unable to wash or dress self

Usual activities (e.g., work, study, housework, family or leisure activities)1. No problems with performing usual activities

2. Some problems with performing usual activities

3. Unable to perform usual activities

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EQ-5D States (2)

Pain/discomfort1. No pain or discomfort

2. Moderate pain or discomfort

3. Extreme pain or discomfort

Anxiety/depression1. Not anxious or depressed

2. Moderately anxious or depressed

3. Extremely anxious or depressed

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EQ-5D Elicitation

Values for health states elicited in several large surveys in European populations

UK survey (Dolan et al., 1996)

In-person interviews (n = 3395)

Each respondent evaluated 15 health states13 selected states plus 11111 and deathRank order 15 statesTTO: 10 years in each of 13 health states v. x years in 11111

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EQ-5D Results

State N Mean (s.d.) Median (IQR)21111 1306 0.87 (0.24) 0.95 (0.83 - 1.0)12121 828 0.74 (0.32) 0.85 (0.60 - 1.0)12222 830 0.54 (0.47) 0.65 (0.38 - 0.93)13311 810 0.33 (0.56) 0.50 (0.00 - 0.75)22323 812 0.04 (0.59) 0.03 (-0.48 - 0.53)33333 3289 -0.54 (0.41) -0.65 (-0.93 - -0.28)

75% give values < 1 for all but mildest states

Respondents giving q = 1 for other states are predominantly old, poorly educated

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Effects of individual characteristics

Age Shallow inverted U, with decreases after middle age

Larger effect for more severe conditions

Women rate states lower than men Mild states -0.03

Severe states -0.07

Marital status, education, own health have statistically significant but negligible effects

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Health Utility Index Mark III

8 attributes, 5 or 6 levels (972,000 states)Vision

Hearing

Speech

Ambulation

Dexterity

Emotion

Cognition

Pain

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DALYs

Source: Robberstad (2005)

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QALYs / DALYs

More structured (restrictive) approach to measuring health benefits

Inconsistent with WTP

Justified as social choice?

Useful for comparing health benefits, but cannot be compared directly with costs

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WTP per QALY / DALY

Crucial for the monetization of health effects

Seems that there is little convergence about a single value for a QALY – range from $20,00 to $500,000 – NICE in the UK recommended £30,000 per QALY

Hirth et al. (2000, MD) estimate a WTP of $250,000 per QALY, Hammitt and Haninger (2006) $500,000 per QALY and the recent Pinto-Prades (2009, JHE) a range between18,000 and 112,000 euros

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Cost per QALY in France

Programme Coût/QALY (en €)

Prévention du tabagisme par le généraliste 400

Stimulation cardiaque pour bloc auriculo-ventriculaire 1,700

Prothèse de hanche 1,800

Pontage coronarien pour angine de poitrine sévère 2,500

Greffe de rein 7,300

Dépistage mammographique cancer du sein (femme>50) 8,500

Transplantation cardiaque 12,200

Pontage coronarien pour angine de poitrine modérée 30,500

Dialyse en centre 33,300

Test de dépistage génomique viral des lots de sang 60,000

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Remark: Cost of illness

Compute medical costs (physician and mergency departmentsvisits, hospitalizations, medical care) + lost productivity

Ex post approach

Similar problem as human capital approach: does not account for individual prefrences (« pain and suffering »), and usuallyunderestimates WTP

Related to property damages avoided (PDA) for nonhuman physicaldamages (or cost of crashes)

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Source: Shabman and Stephenson (1996)

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Averting behavior approach

Also called defensive expenditures approach

Amount spent to mitigate, or even eliminate, a negative externality

Depends on the substitution between the externality good and the avertive good

Not a good measure of WTP in general (Courant and Porter, JEEM, 1987)

Problem with joint products, as (e.g.) in the double-glazing case reduces both noise and save energy

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Environmental benefits

Use valueFactor input (industry, agriculture)

Ecosystem services (waste treatment, fisheries)

Recreation, visitation, aesthetic enjoyment

Vicarious use (viewing pictures)

Option valuePossible future use by self or descendants

Non-use/passive-use value

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Factor input

Can be estimated using the intermediate good method(IGM)

IGM: compute the value added of the changed input (e.g., more water due to better irrigation) to the downstreamactivity (e.g., production of farmers)

Namely, compute change in annual incomes of the producers due to the change in input

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Ecosystem valuation

See references in Kopp et al. (1997) and Pearce et al. (2006)

Value of biodiversity as a source of new commercial, agricultural and pharmaceutical products

Results range from $44 for untested species in situ (Aylawrd, 1993) to as much as $23.7 million (Principe, 1989)

Some economists doubt that BCA can be applied to biodiversityvaluation. Freeman (1993) « The economic framework, with its focus on the welfare of humans, is inadequate to the task of valuing suchthings as biodiversity ».

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Recreation, aesthetic enjoyment

Most studies use the contingent valuation method

Can also be estimated using the travel cost method

See Bedate et al. (JCH) in the annex

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Travel cost method (TCM)

The TCM suggested by Hotelling (1949)

Early empirical application on recreation by Clawson (RFF, 1959)

Model of the demand for the services of a recreational site

Need to travel to the site to enjoy the site

The conceptual framework is the one of household production

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Travel cost method

Assume that there is no fee to visit a recreational area such as a beach or park ⇒ social value of the recreational area zero? No!

The TCM use information about visits, cost of travel, and other relevant variables (price of substitutes, income, etc.)

The cost of travel consists of two elements: the monetary cost in return fares or petrol expenses, depreciation of vehicles and so on, and the cost of time spent traveling – need a shadow price of time, opportunity cost of time ≤ wage rate

Problems with the TCMMulti-purpose tripsQuantity consumed variesCongestion

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Value of some recreational activities

Backpacking $48

Bird watching $27

Camping $34

Cross-country skiing $29

Fishing $43

Boating $93

Hunting $43

Swimming $39

Source: Boardman et al. (2006); all figures are per activity day in 2002 $

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Value of some species

Bald eagle $16

Whooping crane $2

Grizzly bear $24

Bottlenose dolphin $9

Blue whale $12

Source: Pearce (1993); all figures are per person year in 2002 $

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Value of habitats

Terrestrial $27-$102

Coastal $9-$52

Wetland $8-$97

Source: Nunes and van der Bergh (1993); per household year 2002 $

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Benefit transfer method

Estimates economic values by transferring existing benefit estimates fromstudies already completed for another location or issue

Benefit transfer is used because it is too expensive and/or there is too littletime available to conduct an original valuation study

Steps:

1. Identify existing completed studies, and checks for their quality

2. Adjust values to reflect those for the site under consideration (possiblyusing advanced econometrics techniques, Colombo et al., AJAE, 2006)

3. Possibly collect new data

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Carson et al. (2004)

“Valuing Oil Spill Prevention: A Case Study of California’s Central Cost”

Contingent Valuation (CV) in California in 1995

In person interviews

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Carson et al. (2004)Research area

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Carson et al. (2004)Survey mode and tool

In-person interviews

Referendum format – single bounded WTPVote for or against a government program financed by a one-time income surcharge

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Carson et al. (2004)Survey outline

9. 2nd vote reconsideration4. Vote question

Warm-up6. 1st vote reconsideration1. Attitudinal questions

10. Interviewer debriefing questions

5. Vote-motivation question

8. Demographic and other background questions

3. Description of the scenario: environmental damages, payment vehicle, effect of program, cost of the program

Follow-up questionsPreference elicitation

7. Vote-assumption question2. Background information

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Carson et al. (2004)Warm-up (1)

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Carson et al. (2004)Warm-up (2)

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Carson et al. (2004)Description

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Carson et al. (2004)Referendum question - Vote

Bid = {5, 25, 65, 120, 220} (USD)

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Carson et al. (2004)Follow-up - Vote

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Carson et al. (2004)Follow-up – Background

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Carson et al. (2004)Follow-up – Interviewer evaluation

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Carson et al. (2004)Results – distribution of WTP

5.70%64.47%29.82%2205.52%49.17%45.30%1203.73%45.23%51.04%652.31%39.35%53.33%252.74%27.40%69.86%5UnsureAgainstForBid

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Stated preferences surveys

Flexible – possibility to tailor the survey/experiment to elicit specific values

Their major weakness is the hypothetical setup – no obligation to actually behave as stated

Quality of estimates depends on credibility of surveyEconomic good and the consequences of providing it

Payment vehicle

Approach controversial among many economists:Hypothetical choice — little incentive to choose carefully, report truthfully

Framing — response can be sensitive to how the question is asked

Express “warm glow” or political opinions

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SP and well-defined preferences?

Respondents assumed to have well-defined preferences which are reflected in their answers

Empirical evidence from survey and experiments challenges this assumption

Preference reversals

Anchoring

Starting point bias

Visual aid/Learning

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NOAA recommendations (extract)

Survey administration: In-person interviews should be carried out as opposed to telephone interviews or postal questionnaire

Referendum format:Voting

Bid

WTP as opposed to WTA

Accurate description of program and policy

Follow-up question on survey comprehension

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Validity testing

Since decisions non-binding important to test validity of answers

Construct validityConvergent validity – comparison with results from other methods

Expectation based validity – theoretical, intuition or empirically driven

Wealth/IncomeScale sensitivity

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Survey modes

DisadvantagesAdvantagesMode

Low response rate, self-selection bias, “non-listed” not sampled, no clarifications

Inexpensive, no interviewer bias, easier to answer “sensitive questions”, visual aids

Web surveys

Low response rate, self-selection bias, little control over answers (who and how), no clarifications, time consuming

Inexpensive, no interviewer bias, easier to answer “sensitive”questions, visual aids (though limited)

Mail surveys

No use of visual aids, respondents may not answer “sensitive” questions, “non-listed”not sampled

Cheaper than (In-pers.), complex scenarios possible, permits clarifications, quick to administer

Telephone interviews

Expensive, interviewer bias, sample normally not representative

Flexible, complex scenarios possible, permits clarifications, visual aids, high response rate

In-person interviews

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Survey design

Warm-upGetting respondents involved in the questionnaire

Training

Preference elicitationScenario description

Evaluation question

Follow-up questionsSurvey follow-up

Background characteristics

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CVM – Elicitation approaches

“What would be your maximum WTP?”

Would you be prepared to pay $15?

For instance, “double bounded”Would you be prepared to pay $15?

If yes (no) would you be prepared to pay $25 ($5)?

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Closed-ended CV

Dichotomous choice (closed-ended, SB and DB)

Cognitively less demanding

Familiar, like posted prices or ballot referendum

Randomly vary initial bid across respondents

“Interval-bounded data” — estimates may be sensitive to distributional assumptions

Yea-saying (response acquiescence in psychology) ⇒ hypothetical biasBlumenschein, et al. (EJ, 2008), Blomquist, et al. (ERE, 2008)

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CVM – Binary choices

Single bound →

Double bound →

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Payment vehicle:

Fees

Taxes

Charges

Considered non-neutral since respondents may have strong feelings regarding the different payment vehicles

Individual or household payment?

Timing of payment?

A one time payment or a series of payments?

CVM and payment vehicle

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Scope (or scale) sensitivity and SP

Scope sensitivity: More of a desired good leads to more consumerutility ⇒ WTP increasing with the quantity of the good

Kahneman and Knetch (JEEM, 1992), for instance, found scope insensitivity. Questioned whether WTP values from CVM studies reflect individual preferences. Instead “purchase of moral satisfaction”.

Heberlein et al. (JEEM, 2005) showed that WTP non necessary increasing with the quantity for environmental amenities. Failure to show scope sensitivity may not necessary indicate invalid preference estimates. WTP may, e.g., be higher to save 300 wolves compared with saving 800 wolves

Internal vs. external scope sensitivity test

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Choice modelingChoice modeling

SP preference approach:Many aspects of design and implementation in common with CVM

Design of valuation scenario differ

Goods described in terms of their attributes (cf. hedonic pricing)

CM includesChoice experimentsContingent ranking

Contingent rating

Paired comparison

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Choice experiment (CE)Choice experiment (CE)

CE provides us with information about:Which attributes that significantly determine choices

The implied ranking of the attributes

The value of changing more than one attribute at once

The total economic value of the good

Cf. CVM which only examines one attribute

More realistic but also more demanding?

Remark: Not much CEs (especially compared to CVM)

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CE – Choice set

300 ha protected200 ha protectedLowland hay meadow

£15£25Cost per h.h. per year in add. taxes

No protection1200 ha protectedHeather moorland

700 ha protected500 ha protectedNative woodland

Choice BChoice A

I prefer: Choice A……. Choice B……. Neither…….

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CE – Design

Attributes and their levels describe the good

Choose number of attributes and levels of these attributesAssume for instance 3 levels of each of the 4 attributes in previous example ⇒ 34=81 possible choice setsToo demanding for respondents to answer 81 choice sets, choose subset, e.g. 9 sets

Orthogonality – zero correlation between attributes

A cost variable needs to be included in order to estimate monetary values

“Status quo” alternative needs to be included in order to get welfare consistent estimates – respondents should not be forced to choose an option

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Q1: Social value of reduced air pollution

Assume a city council is planning to build a park.

The park has a recreational value of C for those living in the area. That is, their total WTP for the park is C.

The park has a positive effect on the property values in same area. Let P denote the total change in the values of properties.

The cost of the project is T which the city council has decided to raise to finance the park. The council has decided based on their information about C and P that the level of the tax should be

P<T<P+C

The citizens think that they are taxed enough and therefore in areferendum decide to vote against the implementation. Was this adecision in their best interest?

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Q2: Differentiated environmental norms?

Two similar firms located in some industrial area maypollute residents leaving nearby this area

Firm A is owned by a big corporation, and firm B by a small corporation

Should the regulator impose a more stringentenvironmental norm to firm A on the grounds that it canmore easily « afford » it?

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Q3: Travel cost method (TCM)

An analyst conducting a TCM consider which of the following expenses that should be included in the analysis:

Accommodation in a hostel

Two restaurant visits and a breakfast

Souvenirs

Change of tiers that was necessary to be able to do the trip

Vaccination

Help the analyst!

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Annex: Detailed examples of study

Wage differential study

Contingent valuation

Choice experiment

Travel cost method

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Siebert and Wei (JRU, 1994)

“Compensating Wage Differentials for Workplace Accidents: Evidence for Union and Nonunion Workers in the UK”

Data:1983 General Household Survey (union membership)

Accident data from 1986-88 reported to the Health and Safety Executive. Average of number of accidents over the 3-year period.

Fatal risk variable assumed to be quite accurateNon-fatal risk variable less “satisfactory” (accidents lump together and moral hazard)

Risk endogenous

Effect on compensation from union membership

Sample restricted to men who works over 20 hours a week

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Siebert and Wei (JRU, 1994)

Risk endogenous: Workers will sort themselves into different jobs according to their tastes and abilities ⇒ welfare measure biased

Hypothesis about endogeneity: Individuals with high (unobserved) ability will have high earnings and choose low risk. A negative correlation between ability and risk results ina downward biased risk coefficient

To treat problem with endogeneity, “two stage least squares”

where x is a vector of variables determining job risk and pay, and z is a vector of variable determining job risk but not pay (i.e. the instruments)

εαααη

+++=+′+′+=

xpwzbxbbp

210

210

ˆln :stage Second :stageFirst

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Siebert and Wei (JRU, 1994)

Unions better knowledge about workplace safety

Union coverage and workplace safety a public good

Two tests:

Union / nonunion

Covered and union / Uncovered and nonunion

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Wage equations: j = union or nonunion

4 times three regressions:Union membership:

UnionNonunionUnion and coveredNonunion and uncovered

Sensitivity tests:Risk exogenousMain regressionsSpecification test

Siebert and Wei (JRU, 1994)

jjjjjjj tkxpw ελααα ++′+′+= )(ln 210

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Find appropriate instruments (z)

Instruments used: household income (excluding “head”), housing situation (owns, rents privately or by the state), wife’s year of schooling, qualifications and socioeconomic group, father’s job characteristics, firm size, region and industry dummies

Use predicted p in hedonic wage regression

Siebert and Wei (JRU, 1994)

η+′+′+= zbxbbp 210 :stageFirst

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Siebert and Wei (JRU, 1994)

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Siebert and Wei (JRU, 1994)

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Siebert and Wei (JRU, 1994)

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Siebert and Wei (JRU, 1994)

Risk exogenous: Compensation higher among nonunionized

Risk endogenous: Compensation higher among unionized

Non-fatal risk: Positive and insignificant in most regressions, in line with results from other studies

Specification tests show that results are robust

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Siebert and Wei (JRU, 1994)

Converting regression estimates to VSL:

million 6.310005294733.0million 4.410005294908.0

100052

=×××==×××=

×××=

×=∂∂

n

u

f

ff

VSLVSL

wVSL

wpw

α

α

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Siebert and Wei (JRU, 1994)

Significant compensating risk differentials for fatal risk for both unionized and nonunionized workers

Not allowing for endogeneity bias downward the compensating wagedifferential (in line with hypothesis)

Larger effect from endogeneity assumption among unionized – more unmeasured ability in this group

Policy implications:Paternalistic approach: Legislation necessary

No policies to protect workers are necessary since workers are the best judges of their own interests

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Jones-Lee et al. (1995, EJ)

Imagine that you have been asked to make a long coach trip in a foreign country. You have been given £200 for your travelling expenses, and given the name of a coach service which will take you for exactly £200. The risk of being killed on the journey with this coach firm is 8 in 100,000.

You can choose to travel with a safer coach service if you want to, but the fare will be higher, and you will have to pay the extra cost yourself.

(a) How much extra, if anything, would you be prepared to pay to use a coach service with a risk of being killed of 4 in 100,000 — that is half the risk of the one at £200?

(b) How much extra, if anything, would you be prepared to pay to use a coach service with a risk of being killed of 1 in 100,000 — one eighth the risk of the one at £200?

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(In)Sensitivity to risk reduction (results)

(a) (b) Risk reduction 4/100,000 7/100,000 Mean WTP £137 £155 VSL £3.4 million £2.2 million Median WTP £50 £50 VSL £1.2 million £0.7 million 42% of respondents would pay same amount for each good (8% would pay more for the smaller good) Source: Jones-Lee, Hammerton and Philips (1985, EJ)

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Corso et al. (JRU, 2001)

CVM conducted in the USA in 1998-99Mixed-mode phone-mail-phone survey

Visual aids were mailed to respondents

Optimal side-impact airbag would reduce fatality risk in car accidentExternal test – each respondent answered one WTP question

Objective: To examine the effect of methods of risk communication on the sensitivity of estimated WTP to risk reduction

Logarithmic and "linear" risk ladders25,000 dotsControl group

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Corso et al. (JRU, 2001)Logarithmic risk ladder

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Corso et al. (JRU, 2001)Array of dots

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Corso et al. (JRU, 2001)

yesyesnonoProportional?

yesyesyesnoSensitive?

$3.3

$3.2

$3.9

$3.0

$5.4

$3.8

$4.7

$2.5

VSL (millions)

1.971.541.421.06Ratio

$164

$323

$195

$299

$270

$383

$235

$250

WTP (small, large)

DotsLogLinearNo Aid

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117

Andersson and Svensson (ERE, 2008)

Experiment conducted on Swedish students in 2005Cognitive ability test

CVM surveyOpen-endedBus fatality risk

External and internal tests

Objective: To test the hypothesis that respondents with a higher cognitive ability are less driven by heuristics and therefore state a WTP more in line with the theoretical predictions.

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118

Andersson and Svensson (ERE, 2008)

State of the artVisual aid

Verbal probability analog

Preference certainty

Open-ended format was chosen to avoid anchoring effects

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119

Andersson and Svensson (ERE, 2008)

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120

Andersson and Svensson (ERE, 2008)

Level of WTP not related to cognitive ability

Cannot reject proportionality in external test

Internal tests - Respondents with higher cognitive ability more likely to show scale sensitivity

smaller deviation from proportionality

Conclusions:Less scale bias among respondents with higher cognitive ability

Policy implications?

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121

Hanley et al. (ERE, 1998)

“Using Choice Experiments to Value the Environment”

In person interviews

Objective: Estimate benefits of changes in landscape elements

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122

Hanley et al. (ERE, 1998)Attributes and payment vehicle

Attributes:Feeling – small versus large scale

Shape – straight versus organic edges

Species mix – evergreen only versus “mix”

Payment vehicleAccess fees and self-financing most popular in focus groups

Increase in income tax chosen to capture non-use values

Each respondent were presented with four choice tasks

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123

Hanley et al. (ERE, 1998)Main results

taxββ kWTP −=

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Hanley et al. (ERE, 1998)Results – Rural and urban

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Hanley et al. (ERE, 1998)Results – Users and non-users

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“Economic valuation of cultural heritage: application to four case studies in Spain”

Travel cost method

1. Iberian Organ Festival (Tierra de Campos): A cultural artistic event

2. Town of Urueña (Valladolid): A historic village constructed in the 13th and 14th centuries

3. Museum of Burgos (Burgos): Museum of archeological remains and fine arts.

4. Cathedral of Palencia (Palencia?): Historic monument

Cultural heritage a public good and in this case consumed w/o entrance fee

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Data collected through surveys on site in 1998

Zonal method employed – visitors classified according to zones of origin

Bordering zone

Central zone

Peripheral zone

Non-peninsular zone

The greater distance, the greater cost of travel ⇒ fewer visits (everything else equal)

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Zonal classification in the case of Burgos

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Demand is assumed to decrease with the cost

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Cost of travel

By land

2 for round-tripCost per km = 24 Spanish pesetas = EUR 0.15

By plane or boat = fee charged + ground transportation

Other expenses (meal, accommodation, etc.) ignored since no information

( ) ( )daysin tripoflength occupants vehicle#242kmin Dist.CoT

×××

=

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Since no admission fees at the studied cites, benefits given by consumer surplus

Two useful results: (1) Benefit measures, (2) Ordinal ranking

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Estimates only reflect user values, not, e.g., option values

“Value of time”?

“What this indicates is, that the cost of the activity being valued ought to comprise not just the cost of the trip itself, but also the opportunity cost of the time utilized and alternative uses of time. Consequently, it must be borne in mind that not considering the value of time implies that the consumer surplus will be underestimated.” (pp. 103-104)

Not included ⇒ benefit values underestimated

Zones not optimally chosen?

Ordinal ranking of more interest than absolute values