Overview of Disaster Management

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2nd EditionAn Over vi ewof Di sast erManagementDisaster Management Training ProgrammeAn Over vi ewof Di sast erManagement2nd EditionDi sast er Management Tr ai ni ng Pr ogr amme 19925PARTTable of ContentsForeword......................................................................................................... 7Introduction .................................................................................................... 9PART ONE: HAZARDS AND DISASTERS ................................................. 13Chapter 1:Introduction to disasters ............................................

..............13The disaster problem ...........................................................

......................... 14Causal factors of disasters ............................................................................ 15Chapter 2: Disaster terminology and phases ........................................... 21Disaster terms ............................................................................................... 21Phases of a disaster ....................................................................................... 22Chapter 3:Linking disaster and development...........................................25

Disruption of development by disasters ....................................................... 26How development may cause disasters ........................................................ 28Development opportunities afforded by disasters ........................................ 29Chapter 4: Natural hazards.........................................................................31Characteristics of particular hazards and disasters ....................................... 32Chapter 5: Compound and complex disasters1.........................................47Socio/political forces .........................................................

........................... 47Displaced persons ......................................................................................... 48The role of the UN in complex emergencies ................................................ 49Safety of relief teams in conflict zones ........................................................ 50PART TWO: DISASTER PREPAREDNESS................................................51Chapter 6 The disaster management team, roles and resources............ 53


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The UN Disaster Management Team ........................................................... 53Country Disaster Management Team ........................................................... 54Tasks, roles and resources of the UN ........................................................... 55Roles and resources of UNDP, UNDRO, and other UN agencies ................ 55Coordination: the resident coordinator and the UN-DMT ........................... 60Chapter 7 Disaster preparedness.............................................................. 62Components of disaster preparedness .......................................................... 63Preparedness for slow onset and sudden onset disasters .............................. 66Preparedness within the United Nations ...................................................... 67Checklist of basic information required by a UN-DMT .............................. 68Chapter 8 Vulnerability and risk assessment........................................... 746An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er

Mana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ementPART THREE: DISASTER REPONSE......................................................... 81Chapter 9 Disaster reponse........................................................................ 82Aims of emergency and post-disaster assistance.......................................... 83Chapter 10 Disaster assessment................................................................ 87Objectives of assessment .............................................................................. 87The assessment process ................................................................................ 89

Assessments for different disaster types ...................................................... 89How assessment data is used ........................................................................ 90Chapter 11 UN reponse to disaster............................................................ 92Principal elements and actions in response to a sudden disaster .................. 92Sitreps-exchanging information with UNDRO ............................................ 94Alert message and field sitreps ..................................................................... 95The importance of coordination and information..................................

....... 96Chapter 12 Rehabilitation and reconstruction......................................... 98Priorities and opportunities in rehabilitation and reconstruction1 ............... 99A case study: Zenon hurricane ................................................................... 101PART FOUR: DISASTER MITIGATION...................................................... 111Chapter 13 Mitigation...........................................................


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.................... 112Targeting mitigation where it has most effect ............................................ 113Actions to reduce risk ................................................................................. 114The menu of mitigation actions .................................................................. 115Classification of mitigation measures ........................................................ 116Timing for mitigation ................................................................................. 117Chapter 14 UN assistance to mitigation.................................................. 118Disaster mitigation as a development theme .............................................. 118Appraising disaster mitigation needs, policies, and capacity ..................... 119Sources of information: needs for technical expertise ............................... 122Project identification and formulation........................................................ 122Disaster risk appraisal of all projects in hazardous areas ........................... 123Disaster risk reduction planning checklist .....................................

............. 124Appendix........................................................................

............................ 126GA Resolution 46/182, Strengthening of the Coordination of HumanitarianEmergency Assistance of the United Nations7PARTForeword to the 2nd editionThe informal name for this text has been the Foundation Module. Theinformation it includes is regarded as the foundation for the much of the UNDP/

UNDRO Disaster Management Training Programme (DMTP). This trainingmodule describes the components of disaster management and their contextwithin the overall framework of United Nations agencies actively involved indisaster and emergency issues.This training module has been produced for the UNDP/UNDRO DisasterManagement Training Programme by the University of Wisconsin DisasterManagement Center. The Technical Operational Partners for the DMTPprovided valuable advice on the format and content. The principal sources forthe content include the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Manual and six complementarytraining modules prepared for the DMTP. Intertect Training Services has editedthe material and prepared the educational components.For those of you familiar with the first edition, you will see many changes in the

second edition. It has been significantly reorganized. The chapters which focuson the UN have been moved adjacent to chapters on related topicsinstead ofbeing collected together in the former Part 4.The chapter on Natural Hazards has been condensed. Each hazard type isdescribed in a one-page summary. More extensive coverage is now available inthe companion module, Introduction to Hazards.A new chapter on Compound and Complex Emergencies has been added,highlighting this topic as an issue that has recently emerged into our collectiveconsciousness. Many other chapters have been modified or rewritten with new


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exercises and illustrations added.9PARTIntroduction to this training modulePurpose and scopeAn Overview of Disaster Management is designed to introduce the subject ofdisaster management to an audience of UN organization professionals who formdisaster management teams, as well as to government counterpart agencies,NGOs, and donors. The training is designed to increase the audience'sawareness of the nature and management of disasters. This should lead to betterperformance in disaster preparedness and response. By questioning theinevitability of disasters, we hope you can begin to see mitigation of disastersas a component of development, and disasters as opportunities to furtherdevelopment goals.In this course we take a broad view of disasters. We will not try to separateout problems rooted in environmental degradation as a distinct set ofresponsibilities. It also includes emergencies which encompass the need toprovide assistance to large populations displaced by the forces of civil conflict orother emergencies.Mush of the course's content is based on the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster

Manual and follows its principles, procedures, and terminology.Overall learning objectivesThe overall objectives of this training module aim to! create interest in disaster management! stimulate motivation! link the learning to your work activities! relate the learning to your values and attitudes about disaster managementWe hope this will be achieved through your reading of this text and completingthe suggested exercises. Specifically, you should be able to do the following:! describe the relationship among hazard, vulnerability and disasters! describe the basic concepts, aims, and elements of disaster and emergencymanagement! describe the range of available preparedness/mitigation measures, consider

their appropriateness, opportunities, limitations and modalities ofimplementation through development activities! clarify the purpose, function and means of response of the UN agenciesinvolved in the emergency scenario and particularly that of the UN DisasterManagement Team.Q. Before you go on, write down two or three key reasons why you arestudying this course on disaster management.A.Compare your reasonswith those of others thatare on the following page.10An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww ww

of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ementI mportance of training for disaster managementWhy are disasters and disaster management training of concern to countrygovernments, to the UN and, in particular, to UNDP and UNDRO? How cangovernments and UNDP justify adding disaster management to their long lists ofcompeting priorities? There are several answers to these questions.! Government are increasingly requesting UN agencies to in-countrycoordinate all UN post-disaster assistance and sometimes all internationalassistance. Therefore, governments and the UN need better communication


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about their mutual needs and capabilities.! Disasters are a growing problem. They will become of increasing concern togovernments and an increasing part of the UN's principal activities. Indisaster-prone countries UNDP's country programmes are inevitablyaffected by disasters. Projects are set back or suffer delays as a countryrecovers from the consequences of a disaster.! Disasters are non-routine events that require non-routine responses.Government and development agencies in general cannot rely on normalprocedures to implement appropriate responses. They need to learn andpractice special skills and attitudes.! Disasters are closely linked with at least four other priorities for whichUNDP has accepted either a direct or supportive role: displaced persons,refugees and returnees, women in development, and environmentalprotection. The issues of all these subjects overlap significantly. A trainingprogramme in one will support the professional development of UNDP staffin all.! UNDRO has an established international mandate in this area. It is tocoordinate activities promoting preparedness and mitigation as well as theresponse to disasters. UNDRO's interests are represented in the field byUNDP. It is incumbent upon both agencies to promote a marked increase ofawareness and competence in disasters, and to involve other concerned UNagencies.! In their role as Resident coordinators, UNDP Res Reps and field office staffneed to train with their sister agencies in the procedures of implementing a

coordinated and appropriate disaster response.! The world community takes considerable interest in disasters. Governmentsand the UN system have high profiles in these events which are observedclosely by the media. UN agencies and governments must prove theircompetence in order to project a positive image of providing appropriatesupport.11PARTTraining methodsThis module is intended for two audiences, the self-study learner and the

participant in a training workshop. The following training methods are plannedfor use in workshops and are simulated in the written module. For the self-studylearner the text is as close to a tutor as can be managed in print.Workshop training methods include" group discussions" simulations/role plays" supplementary handouts" videos" review sessions" self-assessment exercisesYou are invited to use this text as a workbook. In addition to note-taking inthe margins, you will be given the opportunity to stop and examine yourlearning along the way through questions included in the text. Write down your

answers to these questions before proceeding to ensure that you have capturedkey points of the text.This text is divided into four parts. Part One describes what hazards are,why they become disasters, and how they affect development.Part Two identifies the scope of disaster management, what your role may bein it, and focuses on preparedness aspects.Part Three accepts that some disasters will occur and examines how torespond to them.Part Four presents disaster mitigation as a set of activities that reduce the risk


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and impact of disasters.This training module is complemented by two short videos, The UN anddisaster response, and Disaster mitigation: how to lessen the damage throughproper development. You would benefit from making arrangements to viewthese videos and from reviewing the accompanying discussion questions.13PARTHAZARDS AND DI SASTERS HAZARDS AND DI SASTERS HAZARDS AND DI SASTERS HAZARDS AND DI SASTERS HAZARDS AND DI SASTERSAfter reading the material and completing the exercises you should be able to:! define the key terms of disaster management! describe the causes of disaster vulnerability! reproduce the disaster management continuum diagram! identify the most important hazards and how they affect society! distinguish between natural and human made hazards! identify at least two ways that development can lead directly to a disaster! describe at least four ways that disasters disrupt developmentCHAPTER 1I nt r I nt r I nt r I nt r I nt r oduc t i on t o di sast er oduc t i on t o di sast er oduc t i on t o di sast er oduc t i on t o di sast er oduc t ion t o di sast er s ss ss

Q. How do you define hazard and disaster?A. Write your ideas in the following space, then compare your definitions with those provided in the text.1PARTLEARNINGOBJECTIVES!14An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww ww

of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ementBefore going any further we should establish a common understanding of theterms hazard and disaster.Definition of hazardA hazard is a rare or extreme event in the natural or human-made environmentthat adversely affects human life, property or activity to the extent of causingadisaster.Definition of disasterA disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causingwidespread human, material, or environmental losses which exceed the ability ofaffected society to copy using only its own resources. Disasters are often

classified according to their speed of onset (sudden or slow), or according to theircause (natural or man-made).Definition of natural phenomenaThis part of the module will focus on the above two terms but we need toexamine them in relation to another term: natural phenomena. Naturalphenomena are extreme climatological, hydrological, or geological, processes thatdo not pose any threat to persons or property. A massive earthquake in anunpopulated area, for example, is a natural phenomena, not a hazard. So is the


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annual flood along the Nile, an essential element to the well being of itsneighbouring inhabitants.Definition of emergencyAnother term closely related to disaster and used throughout this module isemergency. A disaster might be regarded as a particular type (or sub-set) of anemergency. Disaster suggests an intense time period and level of urgency.Whereas a disaster is bound by a specific period in which lives and essentialproperty are immediately at risk, an emergency can encompass a more generalperiod in which! there is a clear and marked deterioration in the coping abilities of a group orcommunity, or! coping abilities are only sustained by unusual initiatives by the group orcommunity or by external intervention.The disaster problemThis section will describe certain phenomena leading to disasters and emer-gencies: disaster trends, where they occur and who is most affected by them.From the outset it is worth reminding ourselves that disasters andemergencies are all too often regarded as aberrant events, divorced from normallife. In reality, however, the opposite is true. Disasters and emergencies arefundamental reflections of normal life. They are consequences of the wayssocieties structure themselves, economically and socially; the ways that societiesand states interact; and the ways that relationships between the decision makers

are sustained. Hence a flood or an earthquake is not a disaster in and of itself.15PARTThe disaster stems from the fact that certain communities or groups are forced tosettle in areas susceptible to the impact of a raging river or a volcanic eruption. Itis essential to make a distinction between hazards and disasters, and to recognize

that the effect of the former upon the latter is essentially a measure of thesociety's vulnerability.The following diagram illustrates this combination of opposing forces.Vulnerability is seen as the progression of three stages:1. Underlying causes: a deep-rooted set of factors within a society that togetherform and maintain vulnerability.2. Dynamic pressures: a translating process that channels the effects of anegative cause into unsafe conditions; this process may be due to a lack ofbasic services or provision or it may result from a series of macro-forces3. Unsafe conditions: the vulnerable context where people and property areexposed to the risk of disaster; the fragile physical environment is oneelement; other factors include an unstable economy and low income levels.

Causal factors of disastersThe magnitude of each disaster, measured in deaths, damage, or costs for agiven developing country increases with the increased marginalization of thepopulation. This is caused by a high birthrate, problems of land tenure andeconomic opportunity, and the lack or misallocation of resources to meet thebasic human needs of an expanding population. As the population increases, thebest land in both rural and urban areas is taken up, and those seeking land forfarming or housing are forced to accept inadequate land. These offer lessproductivity and a smaller measure of physical or economic safety. The follow-ing section considers each of these issues.


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Figure 1.1The Disaster CrunchModelThis material has been drawnfrom the first chapter of theforthcoming book: At Risk-Vulnerability and Disasters, byPiers Blaikie, Terry Cannon, IanDavis and Ben Wisner (HarperCollins, London and New York)CHAPTER 1Introductiontodisasters1 11 1116An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ementPovertyThe most important single influence on theimpact of a disaster is poverty. All other factorscould be lessened if the affected population werenot also limited by poverty. Virtually all disasterstudies show that the wealthiest of the popula-

tion either survive the disaster unaffected or areable to recover quickly. Across the broad spec-trum of disasters, poverty generally makespeople vulnerable to the impact of hazards.Poverty explains why people in urban areas areforced to live on hills that are prone to land-slides, or why people settle near volcanos orrivers that invariably flood their banks. Povertyexplains why droughts claim poor peasantfarmers as victims an rarely the wealthy, andwhy famines more other than not are the resultof a lack of purchasing power to buy food ratherthan an absence of food. Increasingly, poverty

also explains why many people are forced tomove from their homes to other parts of theircountries or even across borders to survive. Such crisis-induced migration posesconsiderable challenges both in terms of immediate assistance to the displacedand of longer-term development.Population growthThere is an obvious connection between the increase in losses from a disaster andthe increase in population. If there are more people and structures where adisaster strikes, then it is likely there will be more of an impact. The growthofpopulation has been so spectacular that it is inevitable that more people will be

affected by disaster because more will be forced to live and work in unsafe areas.Increasing numbers of people will be competing for a limited amount of resources(such as, employment opportunities, and land) which can lead to conflict. Thisconflict may result in crisis-induced migration. Such growth occurs predom-inantly in developing countries, resulting in various contributors to disasters.Figure. 1.2Population growth1750-2100Source: Thomas Merrick,


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et. al., World Population inTransition, PopulationBulletin, Vol. 42, No.2(1986).Photo credit: UNHCR/M. Vanappelghem17PARTRapid urbanizationRapid population growth and migration are related to the major phenomenon ofrapid urbanization. This process is also accelerated in developing countries. Itischaracterized by the rural poor or civilians in an area of conflict moving tometropolitan areas in search of economic opportunities and security. Thesemassive numbers of urban poor increasingly find fewer options for availabilityof safe and desirable places to build their houses. Here again, competition forscare resources, an inevitable consequence of rapid urbanization, can lead tohuman-made disasters.Many landslides or flooding disasters are closely linked to rapid andunchecked urbanization which forces low-income families to settle on the slopesof steep hillsides or ravines, or along the banks of flood-prone rivers. Many

earthquake victims in urban areas have been impoverished families whose siteshave failed rather than their houses, usually through landslides onto the houseorout from under it. unstable sloperiver riverFigure 1.4As populationcontinues to grow,settlements spread tomarginal and evenunsafe areas.

Figure 1.3Populationprojections for somedisaster-prone citiesCHAPTER 1Introductionto disasters1 11 1118An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ementTransitions in cultural practices

Many of the inevitable changes that occur in all societies lead to an increase inthe societies' vulnerability to disasters. Obviously, all societies are constantlychanging and in a continual state of transition. These transitions are oftenextremely disruptive and uneven, leaving gaps in social coping mechanismsand technology. These transitions include nomadic populations that becomesedentary rural people who move to urban areas, and both rural and urbanpeople who move from one economic level to another. More broadly, theseexamples are typical of a shift from non-industrialized to industrializingsocieties.


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One example of the impact of these transitions is the introduction of newconstruction materials and building designs in a society that is accustomed totraditional materials and designs. This often results in new materials beingused incorrectly. In disaster prone areas, inadequate new constructiontechniques may lead to houses that cannot withstand earthquakes or windstorms (see the following figure).Compounding this problem is the new community where the disastersurvivors find themselves may not have a social support system or network toassist in the relief and recovery from the disaster. The traditional copingmechanisms may not exist in the new setting and the population becomesincreasingly dependent on outside interveners to help in this process.Conflicting as well as transitional cultural practices can also lead to civilconflict, for example, as a result of communal violence triggered by religiousdifferences.Environmental degradationMany disasters are either caused or exacerbated by environmental degradation.Deforestation leads to rapid rain run off, which contributes to flooding. Thedestruction of mangrove swamps decreases a coast line's ability to resist tropicalwinds and storm surges.Figure 1.5New house badlybuilt using modernmaterials.19

PARTThe creation of drought conditionsand the relative severity and length oftime the drought lastsis mainly a natural phenomena. Drought conditionsmay be exacerbated by: poor cropping patterns, overgrazing, the stripping oftopsoil, poor conservation techniques, depletion of both the surface andsubsurface water supply, and ,to an extent, unchecked urbanization.Lack of awareness and informationDisasters can also happen because people vulnerable to them simply didn'tknow how to get out of harm's way or to take protective measures. Thisignorance may not necessarily be a function of poverty, but a lack of awareness

of what measures can be taken to build safe structures on safe locations. Perhapssome people did not know about safe evacuation routes and procedures. Otherpopulations may not know where to turn for assistance in times of acute distress.Nevertheless, this point should not be taken as a justification for ignoring thecoping mechanisms of the majority of people affected by disasters. In mostdisaster-prone societies, there is a wealth of understanding about disasterthreats and responses. This understanding should be incorporated into anyefforts to provide external assistance.War and civil strifeIn this text war and civil strife are regarded as hazards, that is, extreme events

that produce disasters. War and civil strife often result in displaced people, atarget population of this training programme. The causal factors of war andcivil strife include competition for scarce resources, religious or ethnicintolerance, and ideological differences. Many of these are also byproducts ofthe preceding six causal factors of disasters.Figure 1.6Deforestation fordevelopmentCHAPTER 1Introduction


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to disasters1 11 1120An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ementQ. Of the seven causal factors of disasters discussed above,how would you rank them for the region in which you live?A. List the most serious contributor first.1.2.3.4.5.6.7.21PARTCHAPTER 2Di sast er t er Di sast er t er Di sast er t er Di sast er t er Di saster t er mi nol o mi nol o mi nol o mi nol o mi nol og gg ggy and phases y a

nd phases y and phases y and phases y and phasesDisaster termsSome terminology of disaster management has already been introduced in thismodule. A brief glossary follows to highlight some of these working definitions.This glossary lists the disaster management terms as used in the Third Draftof A list of Disaster Management related terms with their definitions to beincluded in an internationally agreed multilingual glossary prepared byUNDRO, and in the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual. However,consensus does not exist among all disaster management practitioners oracademicians regarding these definitions. A standardized and universallyaccepted glossary would obviously be desirable, but is not likely to exist withinthe next few years. Consequently, the following definitions represent one effort

toward developing a consensus. Users of the DMTP training materials areencouraged to adopt these working definitions for the sake of uniformity and tobe tolerant of other groups' definitions.Q. Can you think of an example of how to use each of these terms? Writeyour example in the space below each definition.Disaster management is the body of policy and administrative decisions andoperational activities which pertain to the various stages of a disaster at alllevels.A.Human-made disasters are disasters or emergency situations where theprincipal, direct cause(s) are identifiable human actions, deliberate or otherwise.Apart from technological and ecological disasters, this mainly involves

situations in which civilian populations suffer casualties, losses of property,basicservices and means of livelihood as a result of war or civil strife, for example.Human-made disasters/emergencies can be of the rapid or slow onset types, andin the case of internal conflict, can lead to complex emergencies as well.A.An even broader definition of human-made disaster acknowledges that alldisasters are caused by humans because they have chosen, for whatever reason,to be where natural phenomena occurs that result in adverse impacts on people.


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A.1 11 11CHAPTER 2Disaster terminologyand phasesDisastermanagementHuman-madedisaster!22An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ementRisk is the expected losses (lives lost, persons injured, damage to property anddisruption of economic activity) due to a particular hazard. Risk is the productof hazard and vulnerability.A.Vulnerability is the degree of loss (for example, from 0 to 100 percent) result-ing from a potentially damaging phenomenon.A.The following terms are key to understanding slow onset disasters and theirimpact on populations.Population displacements are usually associated with crisis-induced mass

migration in which large numbers of people are forced to leave their homes toseek alternative means of survival. Such mass movements normally result fromthe effects of conflict, severe food shortages or collapse of economic supportsystems.A.Complex emergencies are a form of human-made emergency in which the causeof the emergency as well as the assistance to the afflicted are bound by intenselevels of political considerations. This sort of emergency is normally associatedwith the problems of displaced people during times of civil conflict or withpeople in need caught in areas of conflict.A.Phases of a disaster

Disasters can be viewed as a series of phases on a timecontinuum. Identifying and understanding these phaseshelps to describe disaster related needs and to conceptu-alize appropriate disaster management activities.Rapid onset disastersThe definitions below correspond to the time sequencefollowing the occurrence of a rapid onset disaster.See Figure 2.1.Figure 2.1.Rapid onset disastermanagementcontinuumRisk

VulnerabilityPopulationdisplacementsComplex emergencies23PARTThe relief phase is the period immediately following the occurrence of a


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sudden disaster (or the late discovery of a neglected/deteriorated slow-onsetsituation) when exceptional measures have to be taken to search and find thesurvivors as well as meet their basic needs for shelter, water, food and medicalcare.A.Rehabilitation is the operations and decisions taken after a disaster with a viewto restoring a stricken community to its former living conditions, while encour-aging and facilitating the necessary adjustments to the changes caused by thedisaster.A.Reconstruction is the actions taken to reestablish a community after a period ofrehabilitation subsequent to a disaster. Actions would include construction ofpermanent housing, full restoration of all services, and complete resumption ofthe pre-disaster state.A.Mitigation is the collective term used to encompass all actions taken prior tothe occurrence of a disaster (pre-disaster measures) including preparedness andlong-term risk reduction measures. (Mitigation has been used by some institu-tions or authors in a narrower sense, excluding preparedness.)A.Preparedness consists of activities designed to minimize loss of life anddamage, organize the temporary removal of people and property from a threat-ened location, and facilitate timely and effective rescue, relief and rehabilita

-tion.A.Slow onset disastersThe sequence of a disaster continuum for slow onsetdisasters is similar in framework but has importantdistinctions. The following terms and definitions reflectthose additions or modifications. See Figure 2.2.1 11 11CHAPTER 2Disaster terminologyand phasesRelief phase

RehabilitationReconstructionMitigationPreparednessFigure 2.2.Slow onset disaster management continuum24An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ementEarly warning is the process of monitoring situations in communities or areasknown to be vulnerable to slow onset hazards. For example, famine early warningmay be reflected in such indicators as drought, livestock sales, or changes in

economic conditions. The purpose of early warning are to enable remedialmeasures to be initiated and to provide more timely and effective relief includingthrough disaster preparedness actions.A.The emergency phase is the period during which extraordinary measures have tobe taken. Special emergency procedures and authorities may be applied to supporthuman needs, sustain livelihoods, and protect property to avoid the onset ofdisaster. This phase can encompass pre-disaster, disaster alert, disaster reliefand


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recovery periods. An emergency phase may be quite extensive, as in a slow onsetdisaster such as a famine. It can also be relatively short-lived, as after anearthquake.A.Rehabilitation is the action taken after a slow onset disaster where attention mustbe given to the issues of resettlement or returnee programmes, particularly forpeople who have been displaced for reasons arising out of conflict or economiccollapse.A.Q. Test your recall of the two disaster continuum diagrams. Label eachcircles below with the phases of a rapid onset and slow onset disaster.A.Early warningEmergency phaseRehabilitationSlow onset disaster Rapid onset disaster25PARTCHAPTER 3Li nk i ng di sast er Li nk i ng di sast er Li nk i ng di sast er Li nk i ng

di sast er Li nk i ng di sast er s and de s and de s and de s and de s and dev vv vvel opment el opment el opment el opment el opment1IntroductionThis training module provides a new conceptualization of the relationshipbetween disasters and development. This new conceptualization has beengrowing in the development community over the last few years and is a majorphilosophical underpinning of the United Nations Disaster ManagementTraining Programme. Rarely a week goes by when a major disaster is notreported in the mediaa disaster that results in death and destructionadisaster that frequently wipes out years of development programming and setsthe slow course of improvement in third world countries further behind, wastingprecious resources.

For a long time the cause and effect relationship between disasters and socialand economic development was ignored. Ministries of Planning and Finance andother development planners did not concern themselves with disasters. At best,development planners hoped that disasters would not occur and, if they did,were most effectively handled by relief from donor countries and relieforganizations. Development programs were not assessed in the context ofdisasters, neither from the effect of the disaster on the development programs norfrom the point of whether the development programs increased either thelikelihood of a disaster or increased the potential damaging effects of a disaster.Disasters were seen in the context of emergency responsenot as a part oflong term development programming. When a disaster did occur, the response

was directed to emergency needs and cleaning up. Communities under disasterdistress were seen as unlikely places to institute development. The post-disasterenvironment was seen as too turbulent to promote institutional changes aimed atpromoting long term development.`Sources for this chapter are Disasters and Development, a UNDP/UNDRO training moduleprepared by R.S. Stephenson and Disasters and Development: a study in institution-buildingprepared for UNDP by INTERTECT, January 1991.


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Figure 3.1This figure chartsaspects of a community'sdevelopment andvulnerability to disaster.It shows the variousorientations withwhich you may analyzethe field of develop-ment and disastervulnerability.The field is divided intopositive and negativeaspects of the disaster/development relationshipby the vertical axis. Theright half reflects thepositive or optimisticside of the relationshipand the left side of thediagram deals with thenegative aspects of therelationship. The state-ment in each quadrant

sums up the basic con-cept derived from theoverlap of the tworealms.!1 11 11CHAPTER 3Linking disasterand development26An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ement

1The growing body of knowledge on the relationships between disastersand development indicates four basic themes. The themes presented in thepreceeding figure may be expanded as follows:1. Disasters set back development programming destroying years ofdevelopment initiatives.- Infrastructure improvement e.g. transport and utility systems aredestroyed by a flood.2. Rebuilding after a disaster provides significant opportunities to initiatedevelopment programs.- A self-help housing program to rebuild housing destroyed by anearthquake teaches new skills, strengthens community pride andleadership and retains development dollars that otherwise would

be exported to large construction companies.3. Development programs can increase an area's susceptibility todisasters.- A major increase in livestock development leads to overgrazing,which contributes to desertification and increases vulnerability tofamine.4. Development programs can be designed to decrease the susceptibilityto disasters and their negative consequences.- Housing projects constructed under building codes designed towithstand high winds result in less destruction during the next


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tropical storm.Decision-makers who ignore these relationships between disasters anddevelopment do a disservice to the people who place their trust in them.Increasingly, around the world, forward thinking Ministries of Planning andFinance with the support of United Nations and Non-GovernmentalOrganization (NGO) officials are assessing development projects in thecontext of disaster mitigation and are designing disaster recovery programswith long term development needs in mind.Disruption of development by disastersDisasters can seriously disrupt development initiatives in several ways, includ-ing:" Loss of resources" Interruption of programs" Impact on investment climate" Impact on the non-formal sector" Political destabilization27PARTLoss of resourcesDevelopment resources are lost when a disaster wipes out the products ofinvestmentit shortens the life of development investments. The disasters affect

development through:" Impact on capital stock and inventory" Loss of production and provision of services due to disruption and increasedcost of goods and services" The secondary effects of the disaster include inflation, balance of paymentproblems, increase in fiscal expenditure, decreases in monetary reserves" Other indirect losses, for example: the impact on a country's debt positioncould be that as the debt service burden increases, the country has lessresources available to invest in productive enterprises" The outcome of these losses of resources include: loss of economic growth,delays to development programs, cancellation of programmes, anddisincentives to new investment" There may also be a shift in skilled human resources toward high visibility

recovery activitya diversion from long-term to short-term needs.Interruption of programsDisasters interrupt ongoing programs and divert resources from originallyplanned uses.Impact on investment climateDisasters, especially when they have occurred repeatedly within a short periodof time, have a negative impact on the incentive for further investment. Investorsneed a climate of stability and certainty to be encouraged to risk their money.The disaster further clouds the investment picture when it has caused loss ofemployment, thereby depressing market demand, and resulting in a stagnationwhich limits overall growth.Impact on non-formal sector

Disasters have special negative impacts on the non-formal sector whereapproximate costs of disasters are often underestimated. Disasters depress thenon-formal economy through the direct costs of lost equipment and housing(which often also serves as business sites). The indirect costs of disasters includelost employment, and lost income. Sometimes the importation of relief itemscreates disincentives to producers.Political destabilizationThe stress to a country caused by a disaster often results in the destabilization of


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the government. This may occur for several reasons. For example, thegovernment may have mismanaged the disaster relief and recovery, leading todiscontent on the part of affected communities. Or the survivors may have hadunmet expectation which, for whatever reason, translate into some form ofprotest. The government could also become the scapegoat for problems beyondits control, again leading to its possible downfall. In fact, it is very commonfor agovernment to collapse or be overthrown within two or three years of a majordisaster.1 11 11CHAPTER 3Linking disasterand development28An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ement1Q. Recall the most recent disaster with which you are familiar. Basedon that experience, respond to the following.A.1. Identify a facility critical to the local economy that was knocked out ofservice.2. Name one development project that was interrupted.

3. Identify one case of an investment that was withdrawn or reducedbecause of the disaster.4. Identify one case of non-formal sector employment that was lost becausedisaster relief displaced the need for it.5. Describe and example of how the government may have beendestabilized by the disaster.How development may cause disastersThe side effects of well-meaning development efforts sometimes have disastrousconsequences. Development projects implemented without taking into accountexisting environmental hazards may increase vulnerability to natural disasters.For example, projects designed to increase employment opportunities, and thusincome, usually attract additional population growth. Low-income people maythen have to seek housing in areas previously avoided, on hillsides or in

floodplains. The costs of relief assistance after a landslide or flood can easilyoutweigh the benefits to the economy of more jobs. Similarly, developmentprojects may lead to negative political consequences that increase thevulnerability to civil conflict.Some types of development projects commence without fully assessing theirimpact on the environment. This can occur even in programmes resulting from adisaster, such as reconstruction projects that increase demand for wood to fortifyhouses. The resulting deforestation can then bring increased vulnerability tomudslides and possibly long-term environmental changes.Development projects may even consciously force a choice between reducingdisaster vulnerability and economic vulnerability. A project's design may require

a trade-off between the two and force a decision between the lesser of two evils.29PARTQ. Can you describe how development can contribute to vulnerabilitybased on the following examples of negative consequences?A.


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Watershed erosionDeforestationLoss of biological diversityLack of soil and land managementAir and water pollutionInadequate urban sanitation and waste disposalMarine and coastal zone developmentDevelopment opportunities afforded by disastersDespite an increasing disaster awareness in the international community, and therecognition of the importance of developing coherent plans for relief activities, itoften takes the actual or imminent occurrence of a large-scale destructive eventtostimulate individual governments to think about a developmental approach.Thus, a disaster can serve as a catalyst for introducing mitigation activities.Few development workers realize the opportunities that disasters canprovide in the development field. Disasters often create a political and economicatmosphere wherein extensive changes can be made more rapidly than undernormal circumstances. For example, in the aftermath of a disaster, there may bemajor opportunities to execute land reform programmes, to improve the overallhousing stock, to create new jobs and job skills, and to expand and modernizethe economic base of the community-opportunities that would not otherwisebe possible. The collective will to take action is an advantage that should not

bewasted.Disasters can also highlight high-risk areas where action must be takenbefore another disaster strikes. The realization of vulnerability can motivatepolicy-makers and the public to participate in mitigation activities. Disastersmayalso serve to highlight the fact that the country is seriously under-developed.They can thus bring in funding and the attention of donor communities to applyto long-term development needs. (Henderson, 1990)See table on the nextpage for examples ofanswers to thisquestion.

1 11 11CHAPTER 3Linking disasterand development30An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ement1DI SASTER ANDECONOMI CSTable 3.1Examples of

developmentleading todisasters orincreasedvulnerabilityFrom Disasters andDevelopment: A Studyin Institution Building,Intertect, January, 1991.31


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PARTCHAPTER 4Na Na Na Na Nat ur t ur t ur t ur t ur al hazar al hazar al hazar al hazar al hazar ds ds ds ds dsIn earlier chapters, the discussion about disasters and emergencies resultingfrom natural and human-made hazards has been developed in general terms.However, each hazard has its own characteristics. To understand the significanceand implications of a particular type of disaster we must have a basicunderstanding about the nature, causes and effects of each hazard type.The list of hazard types is very long. Many occur infrequently or impact avery small population. Other hazards, such as severe snowstorms, often occur inareas that are prepared to deal with them and seldom become disasters.However, from the perspective of a disaster victim it is not particularly usefultodistinguish between minor and major disasters. Some disasters are now oflimited interest to the international community. These include avalanches, fog,frost, hail, lightning, snowstorms, and tornadoes. The international interest isless for these hazards because their impacts affect relatively few people and thecountries in which they normally occur have sufficient resources and systems inplace to respond without external assistance.

There are several hazard types for which there is widespread concern. Theycan be categorized as follows:Sudden onset hazards(geological and climatic hazards) earthquakes,tsunamis, floods, tropical storms, volcanic eruptions, landslidesSlow onset hazards(environmental hazards) drought, famine,environmental degradation, desertification, deforestation, pestinfestationIndustrial/technologicalsystem failures/accidents, spillages,explosions, firesWars and civil strifearmed agression, insurgency, terrorism, andother actions leading to displaced persons and refugeesEpidemics-water and/or foodborne diseases, person-to-persondiseases (contact and respiratory spread), vector-borne diseases and

complications from woundsThese hazard types are highlighted in this training material. Theinternational community has an interest in them because they frequently affectlarge populations and the need for outside assistance is evident. Many disastersare themselves international events and have an impact on entire regions.A brief description of each hazard type is presented below. It will beyour responsibility to determine which hazards are of concern to your countryand then to read the material about them.!1 11 11CHAPTER 4Natural hazards32

An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ement2Q. Which hazards are of concern to your country?A. List the most important hazards in order of their severity of impact.1.2.3.4.


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Now learn more about each of these hazards in the material that follows.Geological HazardsEarthquakesTsunamisVolcanic eruptionsLandslidesClimatic HazardsTropical cyclonesFloodsDroughtEnvironmental HazardsEnvironmental pollutionDeforestationDesertificationPest InfestationEpidemicsI ndustrial AccidentsCharacteristics of particular hazards and disasters1This section provides an indication of the general characteristics of each of thehazard types listed and the kinds of counter-disaster measures which may berequired. You should note that disasters have collateral or indirect effects that

may endure even after a particular type of disaster has been directly addressed.The problem of displaced people after a sudden onset disaster, such as a cyclone,may continue well after immediate relief, recovery and even rehabilitationprogrammes have been implemented. Such collateral impact can turn aseemingly rapid onset disaster into a continuing emergency situation.1The following material on hazards and population displacements is drawn from theUNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual.33PA

RTA further issue that must be borne in mind concerns the consequence of asudden onset disaster when relief assistance is stymied because civil conflictmakes access impossible. In other words, the perverse permutations are many.Nevertheless, the basic characteristics of certain types of disasters andemergencies and appropriate response measures can be structured as follows:! Causal phenomena ! Typical effects! General characteristics ! Possible risk reduction measures! Predictability ! Specific preparedness measures! Factors contributing to vulnerability ! Typical post-disaster needsDifferent types of disasters have characteristic effects while retaining uniqueaspects. Risk reduction and preparedness measures, and emergency and post-

disaster response can all be facilitated by some rules of thumbas outlined inthis sectionbut must also be tailored to the specificity of local conditions.Remember:(a) where different types of disaster occur in combinatione.g. floodsaccompanying tropical stormsthe combined effects must beconsidered; and where one disaster leads to another (for example a famineleading to civil strife) the compound effects must be anticipated(b) the severity of the actual impact on the society depends on human andorganization factors as well as natural and topographical ones.Legend


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# Volcanic eruptions # Land areas affected by tropical cyclones# Shorelines exposed to tsunami waves # Desertification likely or active# Seismic belts1 11 11CHAPTER 4Natural hazardsFigure 4.1World map of selectedhazards34An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ement2 Ear Ear Ear Ear Ear t hquak t hquak t hquak t hquak t hquakes es eses esCausal Slippage of crustal rock along a fault or area of strain and rebound to newphenomena alignment.General Shaking of earth caused by waves on and below the earth's surface causing:characteristics Surface faultingand effects AftershocksTsunamisTremors, vibrations

LiquefactionLandslidesPredictability Probability of occurrence can be determined but not exact timing.Forecasting isbased on monitoring of seismic activity, historical incidence, and observations.Factors contributing Location of settlements in seismic areas.to vulnerability Structures which are not resistant to ground motion.Dense collections of buildings with high occupancy.Lack of access to information about earthquake risks.Typical Physical damageDamage or loss of structures or infrastructure. Fires, damadverse failures, landslides, flooding may occur.effects CasualtiesOften high, particularly near epicenter or in highly populatedareas

or where buildings not resistant.Public healthFracture injuries most widespread problem. Secondary threatsdue to flooding, contaminated water supply, or breakdown in sanitaryconditions.Water supplySevere problems likely due to damage of water systems,pollution of open wells and changes in water table.Possible risk Hazard mappingreduction Public awareness programs and trainingmeasures Assessing and reducing structural vulnerabilityLand use control or zoning, building codesInsuranceSpecific Earthquake warning and preparedness programspreparedness measures

Typical Search and rescuepost-disaster Emergency medical assistanceneeds Damage needs and assessment surveyRelief assistanceRepair and reconstructionEconomic recoveryImpact Earthquake scales (Modified Mercalli, MSK), earthquake damage andassessment usability forms.tools35


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PART1 11 11CHAPTER 4Natural hazards T TT TTsunami s sunami s sunami s sunami s sunami sCausal Fault movement on sea floor, accompanied by an earthquakephenomena A landslide occurring underwater or above the sea, then plunging intothe water.Volcanic activity either underwater or near the shore.General Tsunami waves are barely perceptible in deep water and may measure 160 kmcharacteristics between wave crestsMay consist of ten or more wave crestsMove up to 800 km per hour in deep water of ocean, diminishing in speed as thewave approaches shoreMay strike shore in crashing waves or may inundate the landFlooding effect depends on shape of shoreline and tidesPredictability Tsunami Warning System in Pacific monitors seismic activity and declareswatches and warnings. Waves generated by local earthquakes may strike nearbyshores within minutes and warnings to public may not be possible.

Factors contributing Location of settlements in low lying coastal regionsto vulnerability Lack of tsunami resistant buildingsLack of timely warning systems and evacuation plansUnawareness of public to destructive forces of tsunamisTypical Physical damageThe force of water can raze everything in its path but theadverse majority of damage to structure and infrastructure results form flooding.effects Withdrawal of the wave form shore scours out sediment and can collapse portsand buildings and batter boats.Casualties and public healthDeaths occur principally by drowning and injuriesfrom battering by debris.Water supplyContamination by salt water and debris or sewage may make

clean drinking water unavailable.Crops and food suppliesHarvests, food stocks, livestock farm implements andfishing boats may be lost. Land may be rendered infertile due to salt waterincursion.Possible risk Protection of buildings along coast, houses on stiltsreduction Building barriers such as breakwatersmeasuresSpecific Hazard mapping, planning evacuation routespreparedness measures Establish warning systemsCommunity educationTypical post-disaster Warning and evacuation; search and rescue; medical assistance; conduct disasterneeds assessment, provide food, water and shelter

Impact Aerial surveys of coastal areas, damage surveys, evaluation of warning systemsassessment and evacuation plans.tools36An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ement V VV VVol c anoes ol c anoes ol c anoes ol c anoes ol c anoesCausal Magma pushed upward through volcanic vent by pressure and effervescence o


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fphenomena dissolved gases.General Types of volcanoes are cindercones, shield volcanoes,composite volcanoesandcharacteristics lava domes.Magma flowing out onto surface is lava and all solid particles ejected are tephra.Damage results from type of material ejected such as ash, pyroclastic flows(blasts of gas containing ash and fragments), mud, debris, and lava flows.Predictability Study of the geological history of volcanoes mainly located in aclearly definedvolcanic belt, along with seismic activity and other observations, may indicateanimpending volcano. No reliable indicator has been discovered and precursorysigns do not always occur.Factors contributing Settlements on the flanks of volcanoesto vulnerability Settlements in the historical paths of mud or lava lowsStructures with roof designs not resistant to ash accumulationPresence of combustible materialsLack of evacuation plan or warning systemsTypical Casualties and healthDeath from pyroclastic flows, mud flows and possiblyadverse lava flows and toxic gases. Injuries from falling rock, burns; respiratoryeffects difficulties from gas and ash.

Settlements, infrastructure and agricultureComplete destruction of everything inthe path of pyroclastic, mud or lava flows; collapse of structures under weightofwet ash, flooding, blockage of roads or communication systemsCrops and food suppliesDestruction of crops in path of flows, ash may breaktree branches, livestock may inhale toxic gas or ash; grazing lands may becontaminated.Possible risk Land use planning for settlements around volcanoesreduction measures Protective structural measuresSpecific National volcanic emergency planspreparedness measures Volcano monitoring and warning systemTraining for government officials and community participation in search andrescue, fire fighting

Typical post-disaster Warning and evacuation; medical assistance, search and rescue; provide food,needs water and shelter; relocate victims; provide financial assistanceImpact Aerial and ground surveys to assess damage; evaluation of evacuation planandassessment emergency responsetools37PART Landsl i des Landsl i des Landsl i des Landsl i des Landsl i des

Causal Downslope transport of soil and rock resulting fromphenomena naturally occurring vibrations, changes in directwater content, removal of lateral support, loadingwith weight, and weathering, or humanmanipulation of water courses and slopecomposition.General Landslides vary in types of movement (falls, slides,charasteristics topples, lateral spread, flows), and may besecondary effects of heavy storms, earthquakes, andvolcanic eruptions. Landslides are more widespread


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than any other geological event.Predictability Frequency of occurrence, extent and consequencesof landslides may be estimated and areas of highrisk determined by use of information on areageology, geomorphology, hydrology andclimatology and vegetation.Factors contributing Settlements built on steep slopes, softer soils,to vulnerability cliff topsSettlements built at the base of steep slopes, onmouths of streams from mountain valleysRoads, communication lines in mountain areasBuildings with weak foundationsBuried pipelines, brittle pipesLack of understanding of landslide hazardTypical Physical damageAnything on top of or in path ofadverse landslide will suffer damage. Rubble may blockeffects roads, lines of communication or waterways.Indirect effects may include loss of productivity ofagricultural or forest lands, flooding, reducedproperty values.CasualtiesFatalities have occurred due to slopefailure. Catastrophic debris slides or mudflows havekilled many thousands.Possible risk Hazard mapping

reduction Legislation and land use regulationmeasures InsuranceSpecific Community educationpreparedness measures Monitoring, warning and evacuation systemsTypical post- Search and rescue (use of earth removal equipment);disaster needs medical assistance; emergency shelter for homelessImpact Damage assessment formsassessment tools1 11 11CHAPTER 4Natural hazards38An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww ww

of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ement2 T TT TTr rr rr opi c al c opi c al c opi c al c opi c al c opic al c y yy yyc cc cc l ones l ones l ones l ones l onesCausal Mixture of heat and ,moisture forms a low pressure center over oceans intropicalphenomena latitudes where water temperatures are over 26 degrees C.Wind currents spin and organize around deepening low pressure overaccelerating toward the center and moving along track pushed by trade winds.Depression becomes a tropical cyclone when winds reach gale force or 117 kmper hourGeneral When the cyclone strikes land, high winds, exceptional rainfall and stor

m surgescharacteristics cause damage with secondary flooding and landslides.Predictability Tropical cyclones can be tracked from their development but accurate landfallforecasts are usually possible only a few hours before as unpredictable changesin course can occur.Factors contributing Settlements located in low lying coastal areas (direct impact)to vulnerability Settlements in adjacent areas (heavy rains, floods)Poor communications or warning systems


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Lightweight structures, older construction, poor quality masonryInfrastructural elements, fishing boats and maritime industriesTypical Physical damageStructures lost and damaged by wing force, flooding, stormadverse surge and landslides.effects Casualties and public healthMay be caused by flying debris, or flooding.Contamination of water supplies may lead to viral outbreaks and malaria.Water suppliesGround water may be contaminated by flood waters.Crops and food suppliesHigh winds and rains can ruin standing crops, treeplantations and food stocks.Communications and logisticsSevere disruption is possible as wind bringsdown telephone lines, antennas and satellite disks. Transport may be curtailed.Possible risk Risk assessment and hazard mappingreduction measures Land use control and flood plain managementReduction of structural vulnerabilityImprovement of vegetation coverSpecific preparedness Public warning systemsmeasures Evacuation plansTraining and community participationTypical post-disaster Evacuation and emergency shelter; search and rescue; medical assistance; waterneeds purification; reestablish logistical and communication networks; disasterassessment; provision of seeds for planting.Impact Damage assessment forms, aerial surveysassessment tools

39PART1 11 11CHAPTER 4Natural hazards F F F F Fl oods l oods l oods l oods l oodsCausal Naturally occurring flash, river and coastal flooding from intense rainfall orinnundation associated with seasonal weather patternsHuman manipulation of watersheds, drainage basins and floodplains

General Flash floodsAccelerated runoff, dam failure, breakup of ice jamcharacteristics River floodsSlow buildup, usually seasonal in river systemsCoastal floodsAssociated with tropical cyclones, tsunami waves, storm surgesFactors affecting degree of danger: depth of water, duration, velocity, rate ofrise, frequency of occurrence, seasonalityPredictability Flood forecasting depends on seasonal patterns, capacity of drainage basin,flood plain mapping, surveys by air and land. Warning possible well inadvance for seasonal floods, but only minutes before in case of storm surge,flash flood, or tsunami.Factors contributing Location of settlements on floodplainsto vulnerability Lack of awareness of flooding hazardReduction of absorptive capacity of land (erosion, concrete)

Non-resistant buildings and foundationsHigh risk infrastructural elementsUnprotected food stocks and standing crops, livestockFishing boats and maritime industriesTypical Physical damageStructures damaged by washing a way, becoming inundated,adverse collapsing, impact of floating debris. Landslides from saturated soils.Damageeffects greater in valleys than open areas.Casualties and public healthDeaths from drowning but few serious injuries.Possible outbreaks of malaria, diarrhea and viral infections.


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Water suppliesContamination of wells and groundwater possible. Clean watermay be unavailable.Crops and food suppliesHarvests and food stocks may be lost to innundation.Animals, farm tools and seeds might be lost. Floodplain mapping, Land usecontrolPossible risk Flood control (channels, dikes, dams, flood-proofing, erosion control)reduction measuresSpecific preparedness Flood detection and warning systemsmeasures Community participation and educationDevelopment of master plan for floodplain managementTypical post- Search and rescue; medical assistance; disaster assessment; shortterm food anddisaster needs water supplies; water purification; epidemiological surveillance;temporaryshelterImpact Damage survey forms; aerial surveysassessment toolsphenomena40An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ement Dr Dr Dr Dr Dr ought s ought s ought s ought s ought s

Causal Immediate cause-Rainfall deficitphenomena Possible underlying causes-El Nio (incursion of warm surface waters into thenormally colder waters of South American Pacific); human induced changes inground surface and soil; higher sea surface temperatures; increase ofatmospheric carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases.General The reduction of water or moisture availability is temporary and significant incharacteristics relation to the norm.Meteorological drought is the reduction in rainfall and hydrological drought isthereduction in water resources.Agricultural drought is the impact of drought on human activity influenced by

various factors: the presence of irrigation systems, moisture retention capacityof the soil, the timing of the rainfall and adaptive behavior of the farmers.Predictability Periods of unusual dryness are normal in all weather systems. Rainfall andhydrology data must be carefully analyzed with influencing factors inpredicting drought, however, advance warning is usually possible.Factors contributing Location in an arid area where dry conditions are increasedby droughtto vulnerability Farming on marginal lands, subsistence farmingLack of agricultural inputs to improve yieldsLack of seed reservesAreas dependent on other weather systems for water resourcesAreas of low soil moisture retention

Lack of recognition and allocation of resources to drought hazardTypical Reduced income for farmers; reduction of spending from agricultural sector;adverse increase in price of staple foods, increased inflation rates, deterioration ofeffects nutritional status, famine, illness, death, reduction of drinking watersources,migration, breakup of communities, loss of livestock.Possible risk Drought and famine early warning systemsreduction measures


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Development of inter-institutional response planTypical post-disaster Measures to maintain food security: price stabilization,food subsidies,needs employment creation programs, general food distribution, supplementaryfeeding programs, special programs for livestock and pastoralists,complementary water and health programs; rehabilitationImpact Nutritional surveys, socioeconomic surveys, monitoring of rainfall andassessment tools hydrological data, satellite imagery.Specificpreparedness measures41PART1 11 11CHAPTER 4Natural hazards En En En En Envi r vi r vi r vi r vi r onment al pol l ut i on onment al pol l ut i on onment al pol l ut i on onment al pol l ut i on onment al pol l ut i onCausal Air pollutionpollutants such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,phenomena particulates, carbon monoxide, and lead from industry and transport.Marine pollution Sewage, industrial effluents, marine litter, petroleum spills

and dumped radioactive substances.Fresh water pollution Discharge of human waste and domestic wastewatersinto lakes and rivers, industrial effluents, use of irrigation and pesticides, runoff of nitrogen from fertilizers. Increased runoff from deforestation causingsedimentation.Possible global warming Accumulation of Carbon dioxide from combustion offossil fuels, deforestation, and methane from livestock.Ozone depletion Chloroflorocarbons (CFCs) released into the atmospheredeplete ozone shield against ultraviolet light.Predictability Pollution is related to per capita consumption so, as countries developpollution will also tend to increase. Deforestation is increasing in some countr

ies.Factors contributing High levels of industrialization and per capita consumptionto vulnerability Lack of regulation of pollutantsInsufficient resources to counter the impact of pollutionTypical Air pollution Damages agricultural crops, forests, aquatic systems, structuraladverse materials and human health.effects Water pollution Spread of pathogens, injury to marine animals, spread ofchemicals to the environment effecting the health of humans, animals andsealife.Global warming Sea level rise, climate change, temperature riseOzone depletion Increase in skin cancer, cataracts, reduction in immunesystem functions, damage to marine life.

Possible risk Set ambient air quality standardsSet emission limits for every pollutantEstablish protection policies for water suppliesReduce the use of pesticides by integrated managementReduce the rate of deforestation and increase planting of treesPromote energy efficiencyRegulate use of aerosols and disposal of refrigeration unitsProhibit manufacture and use of CFCsSpecific Establish a national environmental safety and protection planpreparedness measures Create education programs for environmental awareness


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Training of government personnel as part of development programsImpact Aerial, remote sensing and ground surveysassessment tools Air, water and soils testingComparison of climatic dataSocioeconomic surveysreduction measures42An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ement Def Def Def Def Def or or or or or est a est a est a est a est at ion t i on t i on t i on t i onCausal The spread of farming and grazingphenomena Firewood collectionTimber harvestingGeneral Contributes to other hazards bycharacteristics - removing root systems which stabilize soil, acting as a filterand buffer,allowing percolation of water into soil and retaining moisture in soil.- removal of leaf biomass and forest products- burning and decay of dead wood.Predictability An increase in global focus on the hazard is expanding data baseleading to anincreased awareness of the problem and to identifying where the problem exists.

Overall, the global trend is decreasing as conservation measures are enacted butdestruction of forests is rising at alarming rates in some countries.Factors contributing Underdevelopmentto vulnerability Dependence on wood for fuel and incomeUnregulated logging and land clearanceRapid population growthRapid expansion of settled or industrialized areasTypical Deforestation results in loss of free products from the forest such as fruits andadverse medicines, and decline in traditional cultures. It stresses economies which importeffects forest products and are dependent on wood products. It contributes to other

hazards, such as:Flooding Deforestation of watersheds can increase severity of flooding, reducestreamflows, dry up springs in dry seasons and increase sediment enteringwaterways.Drought Removal of roots and leaf canopy can alter moisture levels drying soiland decreasing precipitation.Famine Decrease in agricultural production due to erosion of topsoil andcollapse of hillsides may lead to food shortages.Desertification Deforestation and removal of vegetation lead to soil compactionand reduction of land productivity.Environmental pollution Increases contamination of soil and water and reducescarbon dioxide absorption capacity. Burning of forests and decay of trees releases

carbon dioxide to the air, possibly contributing to global warming.Possible risk Protection of forests through management, legislation, conservanciesreduction measures ReforestationSpecific Education of the communitiespreparedness measures Promoting alternatives to fuelwoodSoil conservation measuresImpact Forest mapping by use of aerial or remote sensing or ground surveys. Monitoringassessment tools of reforestation programs.


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43PART1 11 11CHAPTER 4Natural hazards Deser Deser Deser Deser Deser t i f t i f t i f t i f t i f i c a ic a i c a i c a i c at i on t i on t i on t i on t i onBasic conducive climatic conditions such as low or uncertain rainfall andhigher temperatures as found in dryland areas.Poor land use management practices particularly overcultivation, overgrazing,deforestation and poor irrigation practices.Soil degradation by water erosion, wind erosion, soil compaction andwaterlogging (salinization and alkalinization)Degradation of vegetation initially by reduction in density of biomass and thenbychange of vegetation types to less productive forms.Global surveillance of drylands can be achieved through remote sensing andaerial surveys. As land use increases without measures to conserve soil andvegetation, desertification will likely increase. One estimate claims 202,000square km are desertified each year.Low rainfall and high temperatures

Heavy land useDeforested areasPoor irrigation managementLack of conservation measuresPoverty and lack of appropriate agricultural technologiesDesertification contributes to other hazards by reducing the productivity of theland. These include drought and famine. Reduced productivity hassocioeconomic impacts and may reduce standards of living.Establish community programs to meet needs and improve practices andinstitutions.Increase monitoring of desertificationDevelop policies for sustainable agricultural systemsDevelop agricultural institutions and train personnel

Promote projects to improve agricultural and livestock productionPromote soil and water conservationSocioeconomic surveys are needed to ascertain needs of people and foragricultural development. Aerial and remote sensing surveys will helpdetermine the rate and scope of desertification.CausalphenomenaGeneralcharacteristicsPredictabilityFactors contributingto vulnerabilityTypical

adverseeffectsPossible riskreduction measuresSpecificpreparedness measuresImpactassessment tools44An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww ww


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of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ement P P P P Pest i nf est i nf est i nf est i nf est i nf esta est a est a est a est at i ons t i ons t i ons t i ons t i onsIncrease in pest numbers due to one or a combination of ecological factorsincluding temperature, monoculture of crops, introduction of plants to newlocations, introduction of pest species, overcoming genetic resistance in host,overcoming pesticide effects, conducive weather patterns, migration.Plants can be damaged in various ways such as consumption of parts, tunnellingin stems, attack of root systems, injection of toxins.Pest forecasting determines whether application of a pesticide will be costeffective, by examining the stages of development of the crop and the pest and bydetermining the economic threshold.Large numbers and varieties of pestsLack of controls on imported plant products.Constraints on resources to predict and treat pest infestationInsufficient crop yields in normal timesAreas inaccessible to surveillance for pestsUnderdevelopment of agricultural technologiesCrop losses could lead to food shortages, even famine, and stress economicsystems.Integrated pest management employing appropriate methods of physical control,cultural control, crop plant resistance, biological control, legislation, chemic

alcontrol, and possibly eradication.Establishing a national plan for pest controlTraining for government personnel and extension to farmersNational or international control effortsProvide needed food suppliesAssessment of incidence and severity of infestationAerial and ground surveys of damage to cropsGeneralcharacteristicsPredictabilityCausalphenomena

Factors contributingto vulnerabilityTypicaladverseeffectsPossible riskreduction measuresSpecificpreparedness measuresImpactassessment toolsTypical post-disasterneeds

45PART1 11 11CHAPTER 4Natural hazards Epi demi c s Epi demi c s Epi demi c s Epi demi c s Epi demi c sDefinition: Exposure to a toxin resulting in pronounced rise in number of


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cases of parasitic or infectious origin.Unsanitary Conditions, crowding, povertyEcological changes that favor breeding of vectorNon-immune persons migrate to endemic disease areaDecline in nutritional statusContamination of water or food supplyRisk of introduction or spread of the diseasePossible large number of casesSevere disease leading to disability or deathRisk of social or economic disruptionLack of adequate professional personnel, needed suppliesDanger of international transmissionEpidemics may increase due to rise in travel or migration and long-termdormant symptoms of sexually transmitted diseases. Reports of epidemics mayincrease due to better medical coverage. Prediction is assisted by epidemiologi-cal studies but may be constrained in newly formed settlements or emergencycamps.PovertyLack of immunity (or vaccination) to diseasesPoor nutrition, poor sanitation, poor water quality, crowdingPoorly organized health care deliveryDrug resistant diseasesIllness and deathSocial and political disruption, economic loss

Increased trauma in emergency settlementsStructuring and emergency health servicePreparing a contingency plan with inventory of required resourcesEstablishing an early warning system through routine surveillanceTraining of national staff in emergency operationsIntervention measures Verify and confirm diagnosis, identify cases, findsource of epidemic, treat cases and control spread, write report.Community health educationEmergency medical assistance; international aid, if outbreak uncontainedEpidemiological surveys; evaluation of health care systems and emergencyresponseCausalphenomena

GeneralcharacteristicsPredictabilityFactors contributingto vulnerabilityTypicaladverseeffectsPossible riskreduction measuresSpecificpreparedness measuresTypical post-disaster

needsImpactassessment tools46An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ement Chemi c al and i ndust r i al ac c i dent s Chemi c al and i ndustr i al ac c i dent s Chemi c al and i ndust r i al ac c i dent s Chemi c al and i ndust r i al ac c i dent s Chemi c al and i ndust r i al


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ac c i dent sDisaster/explosion in a plant or storage facilities handling toxic substancesAccidents during the transportation of chemicalsContamination of food or the environment by misuse of chemicalsImproper waste management of toxic chemicalsTechnological system failuresFailures of plant safety design or componentsNatural hazards such as fire, earthquake or landslidesArson or sabotageIncidences of chemical and industrial accidents are expected to increase asindustrialization increases in developing countries.Those persons, structures, livestock, crops, and environment closest to the sceneof an accident are most vulnerable, however, large scale releases of airbornepollutants may spread for hundreds of kilometres.Lack of safety features or lack of evacuation plan.Unawareness by vulnerable persons of the potential danger.Physical damage Damage or destruction may occur to structures andinfrastructure. Transportation accidents damage vehicles and other objects onimpact. Industrial fires may reach high temperatures and affect large areas.Casualties Many people may be killed or injured and require medicaltreatment.Environmental Contamination of air, water supply, land, and animal life mayoccur. Areas may become uninhabitable for humans and animals. Ecological

systems may be disrupted even on a global scale.Development of a plan, such as the APELL (Awareness and Preparedness forEmergencies at the Local Level) process, to assist decision makers and technicalpersonnel to improve community awareness of hazardous installations and aidthem in preparing disaster response plans.Hazard mappingHazardous materials identificationInspection of chemical plants and storage facilitiesMonitoring toxic waste disposal proceduresImprove fire fighting capacityMonitoring pollution levelsPrepare and practice evacuation plansTest warning sirens

Evacuation from area; search and rescue; alternative sources of water; cleanup;monitor environmental effects.APELL process forms for emergency response plan evaluation, CHEMTREC(Chemical Transportation Emergency Centre) information systems.CausalphenomenaPredictabilityFactors contributingto vulnerabilityTypicaladverseeffectsPossible risk

reduction measuresSpecificpreparedness measuresTypical post-disasterneedsImpactassessment tools47PA


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RTCHAPTER 5Compound and c ompl e Compound and c ompl e Compound and c ompl e Compound and c ompl e Compound and c ompl ex di sast er x di sast er x di saster x di sast er x di sast er s ss ss1Socio/political forcesIncreasingly throughout many parts of the world one type of hazard can triggera disaster which in turn triggers another hazard and subsequent disaster. Forexample, a drought may lead to a famine which in turn leads to a civil conflictthat results in the mass displacement of people. A flood may force people to seekrefuge across an international border where conflicts ensue between refugeesand local communities.Such compound hazards and disasters need not happen sequentially; they canalso occur simultaneously. Thus, people caught between contending forces in acivil war find that in the midst of a major drought they have no means either togrow food or to receive outside assistance.In a growing number of countries, complex disasters are also becoming moreevident. Essentially a complex disaster is a form of a human-made emergency inwhich the cause of the emergency as well as the assistance to the afflicted arebound by intense levels of political considerations. The single most prevalentpolitical condition of a complex emergency is civil conflict, resulting in a col

lapseof political authority in all or part of a country. In such cases, at least oneof threesituations arise:1. The government's ability to assist the disaster-afflicted becomes severelyconstrained.2. The government becomes extremely suspicious of or uninterested inafflicted people who have fled from non-government to government heldareas.3. The government or opposition groups actually create or compound adisaster through actions that generate refugees and the mass displacementof people.In fact, many affected people live in areas outside of government control.

They are often the persons who are most in need and they are often the mostdifficult to reach with aid.The disaster becomes complex because either the collapse or diffusion ofpolitical control makes assistance highly problematic. Solutions ultimatelydepend upon agreements with all parties involved in the conflict to permitassistance to be provided to recognize civilian non-combatants. These solutionsmay be agreements that are seen essentially as compromising fundamentalaspects of sovereignty for what have been labelled as new mechanisms ofhumanitarian assistance (for example, corridors of tranquility).1The material from this chapter is drawn from the DMTP special topic module Displaced Persons inCivil Conflict by Frederich Cuny; General Assembly Resolution 46/182; The Execut

ive Summary ofthe 1992 Consolidated Appeal for the Horn of Africa; and the Themes of Emergencies stated in theFirst SEPHA Situation Report.1 11 11CHAPTER 5Compound andcomplex disasters!48


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An Ov An Ov An Ov An Ov An Over er er er er vi e vi e vi e vi e vi ew ww wwof Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast er of Di sast erMana Mana Mana Mana Mana g gg ggement ement ement ement ementAn acute example of a situation illustrating the characteristics of bothcompound and complex emergencies is the Horn of Africa. For the past severalyears the situation in the Horn of Africa has been characterized by internalconflicts in Ethiopia, Sudan, an Somalia. These conflicts have been exacerbatedby recurrent droughts and have resulted in famines on a massive scale and theflight of large numbers of people across national borders. After years of droughtin some parts of the region, by 1991 food shortages were widespread. It becameapparent that the crisis in the region was less the result of inadequate rainfallthan that of a human-made emergency.During the last half of 1991, the situation in many parts of the Hornremained highly volatile and fragile, largely due to conflict and a break down oflaw and order. This resulted in further population displacement and in intensemisery for millions of people.Displaced personsOne of the most serious consequences of compound and complex emergencies isthe creation of populations of displaced persons. The example of the Horn ofAfrica refers to many of the

Overview of Disaster Management

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