Just the Tip of the Iceberg! Just the Tip of the Iceberg! Second Language Acquisition Theories.Second Language Acquisition Theories.

Compiled by Deborah CokerCompiled by Deborah Coker

Revised for this in-serviceRevised for this in-service

Our MotivationOur MotivationAs the nation’s population has become inundated with As the nation’s population has become inundated with immigrants from many different nations speaking many immigrants from many different nations speaking many different languages and dialects, educators have sought different languages and dialects, educators have sought instructional practices that will expedite English Language instructional practices that will expedite English Language acquisition in a practical, efficient, and meaningful manner.acquisition in a practical, efficient, and meaningful manner.

A plethora of theories have evolved and they can be A plethora of theories have evolved and they can be broken down into four major categories:broken down into four major categories:

1.1. BehavioristBehaviorist2.2. CognitivistCognitivist3.3. HumanisticHumanistic4.4. Constructivist (Postmodern Techniques of Knowledge)Constructivist (Postmodern Techniques of Knowledge)

(Diaz-Rico, 2008)

Schools of Thought:Schools of Thought:

• Behaviorist (p. 37) “Use behavioral Behaviorist (p. 37) “Use behavioral training for accurate pronunciation training for accurate pronunciation and rote memory of information and rote memory of information such as object and motor such as object and motor vocabulary.”vocabulary.”

• Cognitivist (p.41) “Align learning Cognitivist (p.41) “Align learning with the brain and its natural ways with the brain and its natural ways of knowledge acquisition.”of knowledge acquisition.”

• Postmodern Techniques of Postmodern Techniques of Knowledge:Knowledge:Constructivist (p.65) “Leave Constructivist (p.65) “Leave behind one-size-fits-all methods behind one-size-fits-all methods and negotiate activities and and negotiate activities and objectives based on the needs of objectives based on the needs of the learner, using knowledge of the learner, using knowledge of learning styles and multiple learning styles and multiple intelligences, and encouraging intelligences, and encouraging meta-cognition and self-reflection meta-cognition and self-reflection in order to increase students’ self in order to increase students’ self knowledge and capacity for making knowledge and capacity for making conscious meaning.”conscious meaning.”

• Humanistic (p.51) “Reduce tension Humanistic (p.51) “Reduce tension and support a positive emotional and support a positive emotional state in the learner.state in the learner.

(Diaz-Rico, 2008)

Behaviorist ApproachBehaviorist Approach

Major strategies used in the behaviorist approach:Major strategies used in the behaviorist approach:• B.F.Skinner’s Experimental Behaviorism: B.F.Skinner’s Experimental Behaviorism: “Actions followed by an “Actions followed by an

immediate positive effect (reward) tend to be repeated, and actions followed by an immediate immediate positive effect (reward) tend to be repeated, and actions followed by an immediate negative effect (punishment) tend to be discontinued.” (p.38)negative effect (punishment) tend to be discontinued.” (p.38)

• The Audio-lingual Method:The Audio-lingual Method: “Students developed correct language habits by “Students developed correct language habits by repetitious training, often using technology such as tape recordings in language laboratories.” repetitious training, often using technology such as tape recordings in language laboratories.” (p.38)(p.38)

• Asher’s Total Physical Response: Asher’s Total Physical Response: ““Based on the association between Based on the association between language and body movement.”(p.39)There is a shaping of response and external language and body movement.”(p.39)There is a shaping of response and external rewards are faded. Great for those at the non-verbal stage of language acquisition.rewards are faded. Great for those at the non-verbal stage of language acquisition.

• Direct Teaching and Mastery Learning:" ThisDirect Teaching and Mastery Learning:" This type of learning type of learning emphasizes explicit instructional objectives for students and promotes the learning of facts, emphasizes explicit instructional objectives for students and promotes the learning of facts, sequenced steps, or rules.” (p. 39)sequenced steps, or rules.” (p. 39)

(Diaz-Rico, p.38-39)

Cognitive ApproachCognitive Approach *Provided the theoretical basis for the Natural Approach.*Provided the theoretical basis for the Natural Approach.

Major strategies used in the Cognitive approach Major strategies used in the Cognitive approach include:include:

• Chomsky’s Generative Grammar: Chomsky’s Generative Grammar: “Language is learned through “Language is learned through reinforcement and an active language processor, the language acquisition device (LAD) which generates reinforcement and an active language processor, the language acquisition device (LAD) which generates rules through the unconscious acquisition of grammar.”(p.41)rules through the unconscious acquisition of grammar.”(p.41)

• Krashen’s Monitor Model:Krashen’s Monitor Model: “Krashen considered acquisition (an unconscious “Krashen considered acquisition (an unconscious process that occurs when language is used for real communication) more important that learning (which process that occurs when language is used for real communication) more important that learning (which involves “knowing about” language and its rules) in achieving fluency, and deemphasized direct instruction involves “knowing about” language and its rules) in achieving fluency, and deemphasized direct instruction of syntax rules.” (p.41)of syntax rules.” (p.41)

• Information-Processing Theories:Information-Processing Theories: “The sensory register “The sensory register (input/recognition), short-term memory (information encoding), and long-term memory (storage) work (input/recognition), short-term memory (information encoding), and long-term memory (storage) work together during learning.” (p.43)”Perception is the process by which the sensory register receives and together during learning.” (p.43)”Perception is the process by which the sensory register receives and briefly holds environmental stimuli, either as images or sound patterns, and selects input for further briefly holds environmental stimuli, either as images or sound patterns, and selects input for further processing.” (p. 43)processing.” (p. 43)

• Alternative Theories of Mental Functioning: Alternative Theories of Mental Functioning: “As information “As information is received, the brain creates a pattern across the net, adjusted over time by repeated exposure.” (p.45)is received, the brain creates a pattern across the net, adjusted over time by repeated exposure.” (p.45)

(Diaz-Rico, p.41-48)

Other Universal Grammar TheoriesOther Universal Grammar Theories

1.1. The Competition Model by Felix (1985): Children’s learning process The Competition Model by Felix (1985): Children’s learning process follows a Language-Specific Cognitive System while adults use a Problem follows a Language-Specific Cognitive System while adults use a Problem Solving System. The challenge arises when the two systems compete in an Solving System. The challenge arises when the two systems compete in an adult who is trying to master a new language.adult who is trying to master a new language.

2.2. Dulay and Burt’s Creative Construction Theory (1974): Children learn Dulay and Burt’s Creative Construction Theory (1974): Children learn as they apply ‘universal innate mechanisms’. These mechanisms allow them as they apply ‘universal innate mechanisms’. These mechanisms allow them to reconstruct rules for the new language as they hear it used. After to reconstruct rules for the new language as they hear it used. After listening for an extended period of time, students are then able to apply listening for an extended period of time, students are then able to apply what they have been studying. what they have been studying.

(Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory, May, 2003

Krashen’s Monitor ModelKrashen’s Monitor Model1.1. The Acquisition-Learning HypothesisThe Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis (1981): (1981): This idea is similar to Chomsky’s LAD. He This idea is similar to Chomsky’s LAD. He

thought acquisition outweighed learning when it comes to achieving fluency and he de-emphasize direct thought acquisition outweighed learning when it comes to achieving fluency and he de-emphasize direct instruction of syntax rules.instruction of syntax rules.

2.2. The Natural Order Hypothesis:The Natural Order Hypothesis: “Language rules are acquired in a predictable order, and certain grammatical “Language rules are acquired in a predictable order, and certain grammatical rules of the language tend to be acquired before the others.”(p.42)rules of the language tend to be acquired before the others.”(p.42)

3.3. The Monitor HypothesisThe Monitor Hypothesis: : “The mind employs an editor, the monitor, which scans utterances for accuracy in order to “The mind employs an editor, the monitor, which scans utterances for accuracy in order to make corrections” (p.42) This can only happen if enough wait time is allowed by the instructormake corrections” (p.42) This can only happen if enough wait time is allowed by the instructor

4.4. The Input Hypothesis:The Input Hypothesis: “Learners acquire language by “intaking” and understanding language that is a “little beyond” “Learners acquire language by “intaking” and understanding language that is a “little beyond” their current level of competence. (Krashen, 1981) (p. 2)their current level of competence. (Krashen, 1981) (p. 2)

5.5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis:The Affective Filter Hypothesis: “An individual’s emotions can directly interfere or assist in the learning of a “An individual’s emotions can directly interfere or assist in the learning of a new language…Speaking out in a new language can result in anxiety, embarrassment, or anger. These negative emotions can new language…Speaking out in a new language can result in anxiety, embarrassment, or anger. These negative emotions can create a kind of filter that blocks the learner’s ability to process new or difficult words.”( p.3)create a kind of filter that blocks the learner’s ability to process new or difficult words.”( p.3)

(Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory, May, 2003)(Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory, May, 2003)

Continuum of LearningContinuum of Learning*Krashen continued*Krashen continued

A dominant philosophy shared by many theorists, A dominant philosophy shared by many theorists, specifically those in the Naturalist Approach, is that specifically those in the Naturalist Approach, is that language is acquired through predictable and sequential language is acquired through predictable and sequential stages of language development.stages of language development.

• Stage I: The Silent/Receptive or Preproduction StageStage I: The Silent/Receptive or Preproduction Stage

• Stage II: The Early Production StageStage II: The Early Production Stage

• Stage III: The Speech Emergence StageStage III: The Speech Emergence Stage

• Stage IV: The intermediate Language Proficiency StageStage IV: The intermediate Language Proficiency Stage

• Stage V: The Advanced Language Proficiency Stage V: The Advanced Language Proficiency

(Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory, May, 2003)& (Diaz-Rico, p.43)

Information Processing Theory in Information Processing Theory in Action:Action:

• State the purposeState the purpose• Short-Term Memory (STM) receives patterns of Short-Term Memory (STM) receives patterns of

images and soundsimages and sounds• Enhance STM by playing short-term memory Enhance STM by playing short-term memory

gamesgames• Long-Term Memory (LTM) is boosted by using Long-Term Memory (LTM) is boosted by using

a schema (structure for organizing information a schema (structure for organizing information or concepts) combined with scripts (which or concepts) combined with scripts (which stores a common behavioral sequence).stores a common behavioral sequence).

(Diaz-Rico, p.44)

Ways to Enhance Students’ Ways to Enhance Students’ Perception:Perception:

ExplanationExplanation Practices for TeachersPractices for TeachersVariation in properties of written or Variation in properties of written or spoken words: intensity, pitch, size, spoken words: intensity, pitch, size, color, or noveltycolor, or novelty

Use various colored markers on the Use various colored markers on the board; teach words that have an board; teach words that have an unusual sound; use volume change-up unusual sound; use volume change-up (soft, soft, loud, soft)(soft, soft, loud, soft)

Manipulating posture, gestures, and Manipulating posture, gestures, and movementsmovements

Use accompanying gestures to teach Use accompanying gestures to teach action words.action words.

Use of emotion: vivid mental images, Use of emotion: vivid mental images, metaphorsmetaphors

Use reading material that quickens the Use reading material that quickens the pulse.pulse.

Use of incongruityUse of incongruity ““The only person at the scene missing The only person at the scene missing was the policeman.”was the policeman.”

(Diaz-Rico, p.44)

Ways to Enhance Storage and Retrieval of Ways to Enhance Storage and Retrieval of Information from Long Term Memory:Information from Long Term Memory:

PrioritizingPrioritizing Separating essential from non-essential details and focusing Separating essential from non-essential details and focusing on meaningon meaning

ElaborationElaboration Adding meaning to new information by connecting new Adding meaning to new information by connecting new with existing knowledge to increase retrieval cueswith existing knowledge to increase retrieval cues

OrganizationOrganization Placing new information in a structure that serves as a Placing new information in a structure that serves as a guide for retrievalguide for retrieval

ContextContext Learning physical or emotional cues connected with Learning physical or emotional cues connected with information to enhance retrieval cuesinformation to enhance retrieval cues

Repetition, Repetition, ReviewReview

Repeated acts of storage and retrievalRepeated acts of storage and retrieval

Logic, cues, and Logic, cues, and connected connected knowledgeknowledge

Adding structure to information to assist recallAdding structure to information to assist recall

ReconstructionReconstruction Using structure to enhance recall rather than rote memoryUsing structure to enhance recall rather than rote memory

(Diaz-Rico, p. 45)

Alternative Theories of Alternative Theories of Mental Functioning:Mental Functioning:

Brain Compatible Learning is a descriptor that encompasses several Brain Compatible Learning is a descriptor that encompasses several additional theories. “It helps to reconceptualize teaching by taking into additional theories. “It helps to reconceptualize teaching by taking into consideration how the brain learns.” consideration how the brain learns.” (D’Arcangelo, 1998; Jensen, 1998; Wolfe & Sorgen, (D’Arcangelo, 1998; Jensen, 1998; Wolfe & Sorgen, 1990)1990)

• Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner (1983): Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner (1983): There are eight different There are eight different intelligences (linguistic, musical, spatial, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intelligences (linguistic, musical, spatial, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and natural) when used help to lower affective filters.intrapersonal, and natural) when used help to lower affective filters.

• Emotional Intelligence by Salovey and Mayer (1990) and popularized Emotional Intelligence by Salovey and Mayer (1990) and popularized Goleman (1998): Goleman (1998): Made up of five competencies: self awareness, self regulation, motivation, Made up of five competencies: self awareness, self regulation, motivation, social skills, and empathy.social skills, and empathy.

• Suggestopedia by Lozanov (1982): Suggestopedia by Lozanov (1982): “Pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar are “Pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar are assimilated and learned intuitively.” (p. 47) After relaxed and supportive instruction make assimilated and learned intuitively.” (p. 47) After relaxed and supportive instruction make connections through what Lozanov calls “elaborations”. These are things like reading connections through what Lozanov calls “elaborations”. These are things like reading dialogues, singing songs, playing games, and having conversations.dialogues, singing songs, playing games, and having conversations.

(Diaz-Rico, p. 47)

Behaviorist vs. CognitivistBehaviorist vs. Cognitivist

Component of LearningComponent of Learning BehavioristBehaviorist CognitivistCognitivist

Belief about the mind:Belief about the mind: •The mind is a blank slate.The mind is a blank slate.

•All minds are basically alikeAll minds are basically alike..•The mind is an active organizerThe mind is an active organizer•Brains vary, with multiple Brains vary, with multiple intelligences and learning stylesintelligences and learning styles

Goal Setting:Goal Setting: •Teacher plans and sets goals.Teacher plans and sets goals. •Students participate in planning Students participate in planning and goal setting.and goal setting.

Motivation:Motivation: •Reward is motivator.Reward is motivator. •Learning is a motivator.Learning is a motivator.

Teaching Styles:Teaching Styles: •Teacher teaches his/her way; Teacher teaches his/her way; one “best” way.one “best” way.

•Teacher teaches with variety; no Teacher teaches with variety; no one “best” way.one “best” way.

Content of Curriculum:Content of Curriculum: •Students are taught “what”. Students are taught “what”. •Students are taught “what” and Students are taught “what” and “how”.“how”.

Assessment: who does it?Assessment: who does it? •Teacher assesses.Teacher assesses. •Students are actively involved in Students are actively involved in peer and self-assessment.peer and self-assessment.

Assessment: what is Assessment: what is evaluated?evaluated?

•Product is important.Product is important. •Product and process are Product and process are important.important.

Role of Culture:Role of Culture: •Culture is irrelevant.Culture is irrelevant. •Culture is the basis for social Culture is the basis for social interaction patterns: learning interaction patterns: learning results from social interaction.results from social interaction.(Diaz-Rico, p.49)(Diaz-Rico, p.49)

Humanistic ApproachHumanistic Approach

Emotions Emotions to foster:to foster:

Emotions Emotions to defuse:to defuse:

Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem AnxietyAnxiety

Risk-TakingRisk-Taking InhibitionInhibition

EmpathyEmpathy Poor Poor learning learning attitudeattitude

MotivationMotivation

Here we see theories of language Here we see theories of language acquisition evolve once again, this acquisition evolve once again, this time, to combine cognitive and time, to combine cognitive and affective learning philosophies.affective learning philosophies.

““Positive emotional factors such as Positive emotional factors such as self-esteem, motivation, and self-esteem, motivation, and proactive attitudes help language proactive attitudes help language acquisition take place.” (p. 51)acquisition take place.” (p. 51)

(Diaz-Rico, p. 51-57)

Implementation of the Humanistic Implementation of the Humanistic ApproachApproach

Ways to Reduce Student Anxiety: Ways to Reduce Student Anxiety: (Adapted from Woolfolk, 2007)(Adapted from Woolfolk, 2007)

• Monitor activities to reduce undue pressure.Monitor activities to reduce undue pressure.• Give students in competitive tasks a reasonable chance to succeed.Give students in competitive tasks a reasonable chance to succeed.• Avoid making anxious students perform in front of large groups.Avoid making anxious students perform in front of large groups.• Give examples or models of how the task is done when starting a new type Give examples or models of how the task is done when starting a new type

of task.of task.• Teach skills explicitly and provide study guides.Teach skills explicitly and provide study guides.• Vary assignments over different modes of language learning.Vary assignments over different modes of language learning.• Energize students by giving them a chance to be physically active.Energize students by giving them a chance to be physically active.

(Diaz-Rico, p. 55)

Postmodern Techniques of Postmodern Techniques of KnowledgeKnowledge

This is the latest incarnation of Language This is the latest incarnation of Language Acquisition Theory!Acquisition Theory!

There are four different components that make up the postmodern There are four different components that make up the postmodern techniques of knowledge acquisition (constructivism, intercultural positioning, techniques of knowledge acquisition (constructivism, intercultural positioning, metarational thinking, and creation of meaning) . metarational thinking, and creation of meaning) .

This model is interactive. In addition to adding cooperative and engaging This model is interactive. In addition to adding cooperative and engaging activities, instructors create “mindful and “cultureful” learning”. (p.65) activities, instructors create “mindful and “cultureful” learning”. (p.65)

The primary language and culture of our students will become imbedded in The primary language and culture of our students will become imbedded in our instruction to engage learners and facilitate their acquisition of new our instruction to engage learners and facilitate their acquisition of new knowledge. Using this as our foundation, our students will construct new knowledge. Using this as our foundation, our students will construct new meanings, connections, and applications for their learning! meanings, connections, and applications for their learning!

(Diaz-Rico, p.65)

The Path of Inter-Cultural The Path of Inter-Cultural Educators!Educators!

Strategies influenced by socio-cultural context

Strategies influenced by institution

Learner Strategies

Time to ProcessTime to Process

Now, please turn to your neighbor and share… Now, please turn to your neighbor and share…

• any ah-ha’s that may have occurred to youany ah-ha’s that may have occurred to you

• which approach do you find you have leaned toward which approach do you find you have leaned toward most?most?

• what processing strategies are you most likely to what processing strategies are you most likely to implement?implement?

• How can you create real world situations to create the How can you create real world situations to create the need for your students to actively communicate?need for your students to actively communicate?

ReflectionReflectionLooking back over the different theories it becomes abundantly clear that our Looking back over the different theories it becomes abundantly clear that our current practices are a composite, a mosaic reminiscent of the many cultures current practices are a composite, a mosaic reminiscent of the many cultures we see in our classrooms..we see in our classrooms..

We have definitely left the behaviorist techniques in the past in favor of those We have definitely left the behaviorist techniques in the past in favor of those that include cognition. that include cognition.

These methodologies were many and varied, creating a wealth of strategies to These methodologies were many and varied, creating a wealth of strategies to teach not just ESL students, but all students.teach not just ESL students, but all students.

Jenson’s arguments in favor of emotional intelligence are validated by the Jenson’s arguments in favor of emotional intelligence are validated by the humanist approach. May we all be lucky enough to be nurtured by those who humanist approach. May we all be lucky enough to be nurtured by those who build us up and believe in us.build us up and believe in us.

And finally, we step into the 21And finally, we step into the 21 stst century with our Postmodern Techniques of century with our Postmodern Techniques of Knowledge. By empowering our second language learners with language and Knowledge. By empowering our second language learners with language and pride and ownership of their primary culture we are truly becoming a global pride and ownership of their primary culture we are truly becoming a global community.community.

References:References:• Butler-Pascoe, M. & Wiburg, K.(2003). Butler-Pascoe, M. & Wiburg, K.(2003). Technology and teaching english language Technology and teaching english language

learners, learners, Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.• Diaz-Rico, L.(2008). Diaz-Rico, L.(2008). Strategies for teaching english learnersStrategies for teaching english learners, (Second Ed.) Boston: , (Second Ed.) Boston:

Pearson Education, Inc.Pearson Education, Inc.

• Gitsaki, C. (n.d.).Gitsaki, C. (n.d.).Second language acquisition theories: Overview and evaluation. Second language acquisition theories: Overview and evaluation. Retrieved May 17Retrieved May 17 thth, 2008, from Web site: , 2008, from Web site: http://spider.georgetowncollege.edu/Education/documents/Districthttp://spider.georgetowncollege.edu/Education/documents/District

%20Guidelines/ESL%20Theories.pdf%20Guidelines/ESL%20Theories.pdf • Greenberg, L.J.(2004). Greenberg, L.J.(2004). Language acquisition.Language acquisition. Retrieved May 17 Retrieved May 17 thth , 2008, from Web , 2008, from Web

site: http://earthenrenewal.org/secondlang.htm site: http://earthenrenewal.org/secondlang.htm

• Overview of second language acquisition theory Overview of second language acquisition theory (2003). Retrieved May 17(2003). Retrieved May 17 thth,2008, ,2008, from Web site: http://www.nwrel.org/request/2003may/overview.html from Web site: http://www.nwrel.org/request/2003may/overview.html

• Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. (2004). Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. (2004). Standards and other Standards and other initiatives, initiatives, Retrieved October 11, 2004, from Web Site:Retrieved October 11, 2004, from Web Site:

http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/secess.asp?CID=86&DID=1556 http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/secess.asp?CID=86&DID=1556