Language Learning Theories terms

1. Native language (Mother Tongue)2. Second Language3. First language4. Foreign language 5. Grammatical Morphemesa. Ing, Plural and copulab. Auxillary and articlec. Irregular pastd. Reg past, 3rd singular, possessive6. Negationa. Acquisition of negative sentence by second language learnersb. Schumanni. Stage 1: Noii. Stage 2: No and Not may alternate with dontiii. Stage 3: place negative elements after auxillary verbs (dont form is still not fully analysed)iv. Correct form of do (Sometimes learners mark tense, person & number)7. Questionsa. Pienemann, Johnston & Brindley i. Stage 1: single words, formulae or sentence fragmentsii. Stage 2: Declarative word orderiii. Stage 3: Fronting, WH-fronting, no inversion; do-fronting, and other frontingiv. Stage 4: Inversion in wh- + copular and yes/no questionsv. Stage 5: inversion in wh-questionsvi. Stage 6: complex questions- question tag; negative questions, embedded question 8. Relative clauses a. Subjectb. Direct objectc. Indirect objectd. Object of prepositione. Possessive f. Object of comparison

THEORETICAL APPROACHES1. Behaviourism2. S-R-R (Stimulus response reinforcement)3. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) a. Similarities between L1 and TL, learner will learn with easeb. Differences between L1 and TL, learner will have difficulty c. Comparing languages to determine potential error to decide what needs/does not to be learned in SLL.4. CA- Language Transfera. Positive transferi. Two languages share similar features/common aspectb. Negative transferi. Transfer considered as interference because it does not help in learning 5. Interlanguage (often linked to Error Analysis)a. It is a linguistic system used by L2 learners and it is influenced by L1 (mother tongue)b. When learners learn the target language, the learners build their own system of language which is different from their L1.c. The result is new (unique system)(blended), it is neither L1 nor L2, it is something in between.6. Error Analysisa. A procedure/method to document the errors made by language learners and attempts to explain them.b. Mistakes A performance error ; can be correctedc. Errors Systematic deviation made by learners who have not mastered the rules. More difficult to correct. d. Procedure of EAi. Collect dataii. Identify erroriii. Classify erroriv. Quantify errorv. Analyse sourcevi. Remediation e. Identifying and describing Errorsi. Linguistic Category Taxonomy 1. Morphologya. Possessive caseb. Basic verbc. Past participled. Present participlee. Infinitivef. Adverbg. Adjectiveh. Verbi. Nounj. Modal auxillary2. Syntaxa. Noun phrasei. Determinersii. Numberiii. Pronounsiv. Prepositionsb. Verb phrasei. Progressive tenseii. Simple present tenseiii. Present perfect tenseiv. Simple past tense3. Lexicala. Spellingb. Wrong Choice of wordsc. Collocationd. Mechanics

ii. Surface Strategy taxonomy1. Omission2. Addition3. Misformation4. Misordering iii. Comparative taxonomy1. Developmental errors2. Interlingual errors3. Ambiguous errors4. Other errorsiv. Communicative effect taxonomy 1. Global and Local errorsf. Sources of errori. Interlingual transfer (interference)1. Mother tongue influence2. Error result from differences between L2 and MTii. Intralingual transfer1. Error come from the TL itselfiii. Context of learning1. The setting where language is learnt2. Misleading teaching, faulty presentation, pattern rotely memorized, not properly contextualized. iv. Various communication strategies learners used1. Used by learners to get a message across to hearer2. Avoidance3. Personality styles4. Language switch5. Prefabricated patterns (chunk of errors)6. Appeal to authorityg. Error treatmenti. Types of feedback1. Recast (I lose my road/ oic you lost your way. Then?)2. Clarification (Im sorry?)3. Repetition (When I have 12 years. When I was 12 years.) 4. Metalinguistic feedback : provide comment info or ques (I am here since jan/well okay but rmb we talked about the present perfect tense?)5. Elicitation : prompt them to self correct (What means this word? / what does / ah, what does this word mean?)6. Explicit correction: indicate that the form is incorrect. (When I have 12 years old.. / no, not have. You mean when I was 12 years old)ii. Responses to feedback1. Uptake: student utterances that immediately follows the teachers feedback2. Repair: corrects an ill-formed utterances3. Repetition: Student repeats the correct the formh. Innatismi. Child and adult language acquisition differs ii. Fundamental difference hypothesis1. Purposea. Children learn for survivalb. Adult career exam culture2. Strategiesa. Children imitate, pre-wired, interactionb. Adult Cognitive, socioaffective3. Ultimate attainment by both groupsa. Children Complete knowledge attainedb. Adult Not complete (fossilization)4. Equipotentialitya. Children learn any ()b. Aduilt Ability to learn differs (Interlanguage)5. Motivation & Attitude a. Children Motivated and positiveb. Adult Different level of motivation i. Universal grammari. The ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain. It is also known as mental grammar. Children will easily pick up a language and the grammar functions when they are exposed to the grammar of a language. j. SLA is complicated than L1 because:i. L2 more cognitively maturedii. Know other languageiii. Different motivation to learn

PrinciplesParameters

UniversalVary across languages

Universal properties that makes languages similarEg: Word order, question, formation, agreement Determines syntactic variability among languagesEg: Phrase structure rules in English

InnateFormal learning

No access hypothesis Not involved in SLA; deteriorates with age

Full access hypothesisAccessed directly in SLA. L1 and L2 acquisition have similar processes

Indirect access hypothesisNot directly involved; indirectly accessed via L1. Partly blocked by general learning strategies.

Partial access hypothesisSome aspect of UG still available, others not.

PerformanceCompetence

Using of a languageKnowledge of a language

Abstact/Hidden language knowledge inside our head is what determines our performance.

Actual production of speech/written form/ listening and reading ability Knowledge that underlies our ability to use the language

Phonetics, phonology, syntax, semantics, morphology

May be flawed due to memory limitations, distraction, attention, interest, error

Subject to variation due to inattention, anxiety, fatigueStable.

Krashens Monitor Model (5 hypothesis)- learners learned system acts as a monitor to what they are producing.

Acquisition-learning hypothesisAccording to Krashen, there are two ways of developing language ability. Acquisition involves the subconscious acceptance of knowledge where information is stored in the brain through the use of communication; this is the process used for developing native languages. Learning, on the other hand, is the conscious acceptance of knowledge about a language (i.e. the grammar or form). Krashen states that this is often the product of formal language instruction.

Monitor hypothesis(Result of learnt grammar)This hypothesis further explains how acquisition and learning are used; the acquisition system, initiates an utterance and the learning system monitors the utterance to inspect and correct errors. Krashen states that monitoring can make some contribution to the accuracy of an utterance but its use should be limited. He suggests that the monitor can sometimes act as a barrier as it forces the learner to slow down and focus more on accuracy as opposed to fluency.

Natural Order HypothesisAccording to Krashen, learners acquire parts of language in a predictable order. For any given language, certain grammatical structures are acquired early while others are acquired later in the process. This hypothesis suggests that this natural order of acquisition occurs independently of deliberate teaching and therefore teachers cannot change the order of a grammatical teaching sequence.

Input HypothesisI+1, not focused on structure(form) but on comprehension (meaning) This hypothesis suggests that language acquisition occurs when learners receive messages that they can understand, a concept also known as comprehensible input. However, Krashen also suggests that this comprehensible input should be one step beyond the learners current language ability, represented asi+ 1, in order to allow learners to continue to progress with their language development.his hypothesis suggests that language acquisition occurs when learners receive messages that they can understand, a concept also known as comprehensible input. However, Krashen also suggests that this comprehensible input should be one step beyond the learners current language ability, represented asi+ 1, in order to allow learners to continue to progress with their language development.

Affective filter hypothesisEmotional and attitude (affective) can prevent input from reaching lang acq part of brain.

According to Krashen one obstacle that manifests itself during language acquisition is the affective filter; that is a 'screen' that is influenced by emotional variables that can prevent learning. This hypothetical filter does not impact acquisition directly but rather prevents input from reaching the language acquisition part of the brain. According to Krashen the affective filter can be prompted by many different variables including anxiety, self-confidence, motivation and stress.

Summary: Comprehensible input, use visual, activities and materials,

Theoretical approaches 2

INTERACTIONIST POSITION

LONGS INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS

Original 1. conversational interaction (interlocutor & learner)2. Modified interaction (Negotiation of meaning; comprehensible)3. Comprehensible input (SLA)

Interaction hypo modified hypo Conversational adjustment comprehension of input Lang acquisition

Revised version1. Interaction with negative feedback important to notice gap2. Negotiating meaning is opportunity for lang development3. Includes comprehensible output hypothesis (production)Interactional hypo Negative feedback Noticing Modified input Production of output

Key difference between original and revised version:1. The revised version put emphasis on negative feedback2. The revised version output is necessary for language learning.

Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory how adults and peers influence individual learning, how cultural beliefs and attitudes impact learning. Curriculum (Interaction between learners and learning task) Instruction ( adult help, perform task, scaffolding) Assessment ( Zone of proximal development, how much they can do, potential development)Classroom implications Scaffolding Expert assist learning to reach a higher level of learning and scaffolding occur where learner is left to complete the task on their own. Recruiting Reducing degree of freedom Marking critical features Keeping direction in terms of the goals Controlling frustration/risk Modeling solutions Examples of scaffolding Modeling Bridging/activating background knowledge Schema building Use of manipulative and real-life objects cooperative learning Small group instructions where student work in a social setting to solve problems +ve Interdependence task succession depend on members face-to-face interaction feedback and help each other/influence individual accountability no freeloader Interpersonal skills : social skills Group self-evaluation (evaluate their effort) Teacher monitoring Dynamic assessment Rest, intervention, retest

COGNITIVISM

McLaughlin attention-processing model Cognitive theory mental process - learning L2 Automatization (When unite all the skills, it becomes automatic to you) Focal controlled process Focal automatic process Peripheral controlled process Peripheral automatic process

Attention to formal properties of languagesControlled (Limited & temporary)Automatic (permanent)

Focal (completely aware; focusing attention centrally)Formal rule learning(Capacity limited, temporary short term intake/memory)(Something new - Pay attention and focus)Performance in a test situation(Long term memory)

(Movements becomes automatic but have to focus)

Peripheral(Quite aware, focus peripherally)Performance on Implicit/ analogic learning(Texting and hearing/temporary)

(Focus on applications only, you know already, but how do you apply it?)Performance in communication situations

(Perform without thinking)

Implicit and explicit modelImplicitExplicit

Info that is automatically used in language taskAbility to articulate those facts

Unanalyzed knowledgeAnalyzed knowledge

We know most of the things but arent aware of the structure of the knowledge

Overtly aware about the structures of the rules and knowledgeCan verbalize complex rules

Schmidt Noticing Hypothesis Features of language cannot be learnt unless they have been noticed. Awareness What learners notice in input is what becomes intake.

Input and intakeInputIntake

Language that are available in environmentLanguage that is internalized

The language that you see and hearProcess of Assimilating (understanding) linguistic materials

Signs, posters, announcement, conversations

To become an intakeLanguage must not be Not too easy Not too difficult Language that is frequent Language that is infrequent Meanings first Process content word first Rely on meaning, not grammarNoticing becomes understanding ATTENTION Limited Selective Controllable/voluntary Access to our consciousness (awareness)

Ausubels Subsumption Theory Our mind has a way to subsume information when new info is linked with prior knowledge.

Advance Organizers - Ausubel advocates the use of advance organizers as a mechanism to help to link new learning material with existing related ideas.

Expository teachingComparative teaching

Suitable when presenting new materialUseful when knowledge presented is new to learner

Present several encompassing generalisations where detailed contents will be added laterCompare new material with prior learnt knowledge by emphasizing similarities between both materials, and show info to be learned.

Direct instruction

It involves presenting clear and concise information in a purposeful way that allows students to easily make connections from one concept to the next. The structure of an expository lesson helps students to stay focused on the topic at hand.

The main goal of comparative organizers is to activate existing schemas and is used as reminders to bring into the working memory of what you may not realize is relevant. A comparative Organizer is also used both to integrate as well as discriminate. It integrates new ideas with basically similar concepts in cognitive structure, as well as increase discriminability between new and existing ideas which are essentially different but confusably similar

Expository Organizers In contrast, expository organizers provide new knowledge that students will need to understand the upcoming information. Expository organizers are often used when the new learning material is unfamiliar to the learner. They often relate what the learner already knows with the new and unfamiliar materialthis in turn is aimed to make the unfamiliar material more plausible to the learner.

Meaningful learning vs Rote learningMeaningful learning = Old + New information Individual must relate new knowledge to relevant concepts they already know. New knowledge must interact with learners knowledge structure. How new info is integrated into the old knowledge structure

Rote Learning Memorization Incorporate new information into the pre-existing knowledge structure but without interaction. Used to recall sequences of objects such as phone numbers. It is of no use to the learner in understanding the relationship between the objects

FOUR PROCESS OF MEANINGFUL LEARNING

Derivative subsumptionNew materials or relationships can be derived from existing structureEG: Knowing a tree (the structures) and introduced to Persimmon tree. (Derived persimmon tree from there)

Correlative subsumptionNew material is extension or elaboration of existing knowledge. It enriches the concept.(I encounter a tree with red leaves, rather than green, extend concept of tree to include red leaves)

Superordinate subsumptionAble to give a lot of examples of the concepts but do not know the concept until it is taught. (I didnt know that maples oaks, apple trees are all under deciduous trees, I already know the examples of this concept except for the concept itself)

Combinatorial subsumptionNew idea is derived from another idea at the same level.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS (1a)

Robert Gagne Instructional Theory

3 elements of the theory1. Taxonomy of learning outcomes learning domain2. Conditions necessary to achieve learning outcome hierarchy of learning3. 9 events of instruction to guide teachers through process of designing for learning

Inductive and deductive reasoning

InductiveDeductive

The teacher gives the students data and lets students draw conclusion from the data. Students notice how the concept is used, figure out and verbalise the rules.The teacher introduces and explains the concept and the rules relating to it and let the students practice new concepts.

Provides learner with ready grammar rule and examples illustrating the new structure

ADVANTAGES More likely to remember (self discovery)- actively involved, more attentive and more motivatedADVANTAGES Get straight to the point and therefore time-savingRespect intelligence and maturity Deal with lang points as they come up rather than anticipating and preparing in advance.

DISADVANTAGES Mislead to wrong discovery of rulesTime and energy spent working out a rule may lead student to think that rules are obj of language learning rather than means.DISADVANTAGES Dull and demotivatingBelief that learning a lang is simply a case of knowing the rulesIncrease in teacher talking time instead of student talking time. TTT and STT

Language Attitude and Language Aptitude

Aptitude- the ability to learn quicklyLanguage aptitude the potential a person has for learning languages. This potential is often evaluated using formal aptitude tests, which predict the degree of success the candidate will have with a new language.

AttitudeAptitude

A way of looking at thingsIndividual differences

Manner, disposition (personality), feeling, position with regard to a person tendency or orientation of the mind.Prediction of how well, compared to other individuals, an individual can learn a foreign language in a given amount of time under given conditions.

All of us have controlNone of us have control of it.

Theory of multiple intelligencesGARDNER

1. Nature smart2. People smart3. Number smart4. Picture smart5. Self smart6. Body smart7. Music smart8. Word smart

Naturalist IntelligenceSensitivity to the features of the natural world. Farmers, botanists, conservationist, biologist, environmentalist.

Intrapersonal IntelligenceLook into one self self analysis and reflection. Philosophers, counselors

Interpersonal IntelligenceWork effectively with others. Teachers, facilitators, therapist, politicians, religious leaders, sales person.

Bodily-Kinesthetic IntelligenceAbility to use mental ability to coordinate ones bodily movementsUse body skillfully to solve problems, create products and present ideas and emotions.Athletic pursuits, dancing, acting, artistically, or in building and construction.

Logical-Mathematical IntelligenceDetect patterns, reason deductively, think logically.Scientific and mathematical thinking

Music IntelligenceCapability to recognize and compose music pitches, tones and rhythms

Spatial IntelligenceAbility to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve problems.Also formed in blind childrenMENTAL IMAGES & Imagination

Linguistic IntelligenceMastery of language Effectively manipulate language to express oneself Allows one to use language as a means to remember information

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTOR (1B)

Learning styles Individuals natural, habitual and preferred way of absorbing, processing and retaining new information and skills. Cognitive styles preferred/habitual patterns Patterns of attitudes & interest Tendency to seek situations compatible with ones own learning Tendency to use certain learning strategies to avoid others.

7 learning style models Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Kolbs Learning Style Model Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic Deductive and Inductive learning The Dunn and Dunn Model Whole Brain Thinking Model

LEARNING STYLES IN SLA- Field independence and dependence - Left and Right brain dominance - Ambiguity tolerance- Reflectivity and Impulsivity - Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic styles

Field Independence Field Dependence

Break field down into component partsProcess information globally

Concentrate on detailsDoes not concentrate on details

More socially orientedNot able to see big picture due to attention to its parts.

See perceptual field as a whole-

Motivated by impersonal, analytic activities thats not group-type approach.Prefer to work with others to achieve a common goal

Intrinsic appeal for the task without consulting others.Greatly influenced by the teacher, often interact with him/her

Like competition and individual recognitionMore sensitive to others feelings, opinions and ideas.

LEFT AND RIGHT BRAIN DOMINANCELeft brainRight brain

Deductive Inductive

LogicalIntuitive

Linear processing (Following stages, in a straight line)Elusive (Uncertain info) difficult to remember / recall

Field independenceField dependence

Intellectual planned and structureFluid spontaneous and intuitive

Prefers talking and writingPrefers drawing and manipulating objects

Less body langMore body lang

Objective judgement MCQSubjective judgement Open ended

Ambiguity tolerance/intolerance.

ToleranceIntolerance

Accept ideology and facts that contradict their own viewsWish to see every ideology and facts fit into their own cognitive organizations

Can internalize contradictory ideasReject items that are contradiction / contrast with their existing cognitive organizations

Not disturbed by uncertaintyDisturbed by uncertainty

Reflectivity and Impulsivity

ReflectivityImpulsivity

Systematic, slower, and more calculated decision maker Weigh considerations before decidingIntuitive (instinctive) style, willing to guess, hunch-based decision

Make fewer errors in readingFaster readers make fewer errors in psycholinguistic guessing game (guess what you are reading and whether you understand it based on prior knowledge).

SlowerInaccurate

VisualAuditoryKinesthetic

Prefer readingPrefer listeningPrefer body movement

Use pictures charts and mapsRead aloud DiscussionProvide tangible objects to work with.

Learning Strategies

The deliberate actions and behavior that learner use to retain information and to make language learning more successful and enjoyable.

Types:Metacognitive, cognitive and socioaffective strategies

Characteristics:Can be taughtIt is flexibleProblem OrientedInfluenced by wide variety of factorsMay be visible or unseen

Factors that affect1. motivation2. gender3. cultural background4. type of task5. learning style6. attitudes and belief

STYLESTRATEGY

Consistent and Permanent preferences within an individualSpecific method of approaching or solving a problem

General characteristic of intellectual functioning that differentiates you from othersVary amongst individual from moment to moment, from one situation to another and from one culture to another.

Vary across individualVary within individual

Styles are general approachesStrategies are specific behaviours and how we use them.

PERSONALITY FACTORS5 levels of affectivity 1. receiving 2. responding3. valuing 4. organizing5. internalizing values

1. self-esteema. Ability to see ones worthiness and individuals attitude towards him or herself or towards his or her capabilities. 2. self-efficacya. The belief in ones capabilities to execute an action required to accomplish a task3. Inhibitiona. Embarrassment and worry that prevents learner from saying or doing what they want.4. risk takinga. a fear of ramification of mistakes that could prevent one from taking risk with the language.5. Anxietya. Feeling anxiety, worry and anxious under certain circumstances.6. Empathya. An emotional apprehension of the affective experience of others.7. Extroversiona. Outgoing and sociable and need excitement in everything they do.b. Sensation seekers and lively and active8. willingness to communicatea. Readiness to enter into discourse (dialogue) at a particular time with a specific person or persons using L2.