Event Newsletter

Safeguarding our ancient heritage

A talk by Prof. Anita Rane- Kothare

Newsletter written by Maansi Parpiani

Contact at maansiparpiani@orfonline.org

bserver Research Foundation Mumbai and the Museum Society of Bombay organised a talk on

the ‘Caves of Mumbai’ by Prof. Anita Rane-Kothare who is the Head of Department- Ancient

Indian Culture, St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai. Her talk is ORF Mumbai’s latest venture into

discussions over Art, Culture and Heritage in the city. Prof. Rane-Kothare’s visual-rich presentation

delved into the historicity of the city and highlighted the significance of the region’s cave heritage.

Prof. Anita Rane-Kothare addressing the gathering

Historicity of the city of Mumbai: Prof. Rane-Kothare opened her talk by tracing the historicity of the city to as far back as pre-historic

times. It is a well known fact that the city of Mumbai was not always a contiguous piece of land as it

exists today, she noted. It was formed from a cluster of seven islands through reclamations undertaken

by the British. However, this is not to say that the history of the region begins only with the reclamation.

Prof. Rane-Kothare pointed out that traces of Mumbai’s history have been found in the region’s pre-

historic tools of the Mesolithic man, dating back to about 25,000 years. These were excavated at present

day Akruli near Kandivili, at what was formerly the island of Shasti.

‘In the period of ancient history,’ she continued, ‘the region’s significance is known to have been spread

out across 66 islands including the important ports of Thane, Sopara, Shasti and Salsette among others.’

These islands formed an important node in the Buddhist travel routes that were widely used between

6th and 10th century BC. Prof. Rane-Kothare noted that ‘there are some very important Buddhist sites in

this region, those of the Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana Sects. These include Kondivite-Kanheri,

Magathane, Jivadani and Sopara. The latter was a very important Buddhist port, from where travellers

could sail out to destinations beyond the subcontinent like to Khuramala (Persian Gulf), Agnimala

(Aden), Dadhimala (Red Sea) and Nilakusumamala (Nubia).’ Prof. Kothare said that Ashoka’s edict that

was found at Sopara has a Brahmi inscription. The historicity of Sopara can be traced back to the 6th

century BC and there are mentions of the Sopara jataka in the Mahabharata, she added.

O

Ashoka’s edict at Sopara Stupa at Sopara

According to Prof. Rane-Kothare, invasions, the decline of cults and the subsequent decline of Buddhism

as a whole, witnessed the incoming of Brahmanical influences. As a result, the Brahmanical Pashupata

sect also has its important sites on the Mumbai islands, namely Gharapuri (Elephanta), Parel, Jogeshwari

and Mandapeshwar.

It is important to note that because of the nature of the

disjointed islands, they were primarily used as halts in the

trade route, and witnessed limited permanent settlement,

Prof. Rane-Kothare pointed out.

Though several dynasties maintained their rule over the

region across the centuries, there was no consolidated rule of

any single king, the kind that existed in the other regions of

the subcontinent, she said. ‘The islands are first known to

have come under the rule of the Mauryas, through

feudatories. The region then came under the Satvahanas who

were responsible for constructing several of the caves in

Western India’, she added. Prof. Rane-Kothare informed the

audience that it was the Mauryas of Konkan who then took

over the region; and that some believe that they made

Elephanta their capital. ‘The Kalachuris are believed to have

taken over the power in the region, but again most believe

that this was through the rule of feudatories’, she added. The

Traikutakas ruled in the region from the 3rd- 5th century AD

and copper plates of their rule have been found at Kanheri.

The subsequent dynasties that ruled in the region included

the Rashtrakutas, the Chalukyas followed by the Shilaharas,

Prof. Rane-Kothare said. The Portuguese took over from the Shilaharas, and subsequently the islands of

Bombay came under the control of the British, she asserted.

Mauryas

Satvahanas

Mauryas of Konkan

Kalachuris

Traikutakas

Rashtrakutas

Chalukyas

Portuguese

British

Bombay's Rulers through the Ages

Cave heritage of the islands of Mumbai Prof. Rane-Kothare highlighted that all across India, there are about 1,200 rock-cut caves, of which 900

caves are located in Maharashtra along. Of these, 150 caves, which have been built in both the

Brahmanical and Buddhist styles, are located in and around Mumbai.

The Buddhist caves constructed all over the islands provide the biggest evidences for the existence of an

important trade and travel route through the islands, Prof. Rane-Kothare said. Buddha is known to have

suggested the idea of excavating caves along a travel route for rest and protection of the travellers.

However, he was not the first one to do so. She pointed out that the earliest caves known in Indian

subcontinent- the Lomas Rishi and Sudama caves, situated in the Barabar cave complex, in present day

Bihar were excavated following the same logic. These rock-cut chambers date back to the 3rd century BC,

to the period of Mauryan rule by Ashoka and his son Dasaratha.

Early Cave Centres in Western India

Prof. Rane-Kothare asserted that the geomorphology of the region was an important factor in the

construction of caves. Mumbai, primarily has amygdaloidal basalt and the region beyond Borivali has

trecolite and violate basalt. According to her, the quality of the rock played an important role in the

carving of the cave. ‘For example, there are beautiful sculptures in the annex of cave No.1 of Elephanta,

but it is crooked. This is not however because of any mutilation, but in fact owning to a dyke that flows

in the middle. The artisans were aware of these faults and accommodated their art around them’, she

added.

Prof. Rane-Kothare further highlighted that though Elephanta is considered to be an important

Brahmanical location today, the sites of Morobundar and Rajbundar in the Elephanta complex were

originally Buddhist sites, and that stupas have been found here. It formed an important halt in the

Buddhist travel route and, lead coins and a sculpture of the Buddhist fertility god Prasava Devata have

been excavated here. It was only after the decline of Buddhism that Gharapuri was taken over by the

Pashupata sect, she pointed out.

Apart from the caves, several other Buddhist relics and spots of significance have been discovered on

the islands of Bombay, Prof. Rane-Kothare asserted. An Avalokiteshvara has been discovered at

Trombay. Also, Prof. Rane-Kothare said, ‘Vihar lake lies at a strategic location of the travel route and was

considered to have been an important source of water for the voyagers.’ She further said that the

Buddhist influence was not limited to the islands alone. All along the Sahyadri range, there are Buddhist

caves on hillocks- Mahad, Ambivili and Lonar caves. Khandala has the famous Karla, Aaja, Bedsa and

Kondane caves.

Prof. Rane-Kothare explained the components of Buddhist cave art and architecture in brief. She

pointed out that Buddhist cave architecture is mainly divided into Chaityas and Viharas. Viharas can be

of two types- Bhojana Matapa and Uposatha Matapa. The former is a hall used for eating meals and the

latter for meditation. Water cisterns (also known as podhis) can also be of two types- panya podhi and

snaan podhi. The former refers to a drinking water source while the latter is a source used for bathing.

She also made reference to Asanapedhikas which are benches that were generally made in front of

scenic locations, for the monks to sit and enjoy the view in front of them.

With respect to Buddhist art, she pointed that there are two important types- the Dhammakaya form

and the Roopakaya form. The former is the one that does not believe in depicting Buddha in a human

form while the latter depends heavily on depicting Buddha in the manushi or human form.

Elephanta Caves (Gharapuri)

Prof. Rane-Kothare said that the term Gharapuri has been derived from Aghorapuri which indicates that

the Aghora cult was practiced on the island. It was only after the Portuguese took over that the island

got the name of Elephanta, owing to the big sculpture of an elephant at the entrance. She informed the

audience that the Trimurti Shiva sculpture in the caves is not representative of Brahma, Vishnu and

Mahesh, as is often understood. It denotes Shiva’s three forms:

Aghora, Tatpursha and Vamdeva, as the creator, protector and

destroyer respectively.

Further, she said that the sculpture of the Prasava Devata found at

Elephanta is similar to one found at the Rameshwar cave at Ellora,

near Aurangabad. The plan of the cave as a whole is similar to the

plan of the Dhumerlena cave at Ellora. According to Prof. Rane-

Kothare, these evidences of similarity in style point towards the fact

that there were artisans’ guilds that constructed these caves and

that these guilds travelled across India. There are no epigraphical

evidences specific to these sculptures, but the mention of shrenis

(guilds) have been made at Kanheri, she added.

Mahakali Caves

The Mahakali caves are a group of 17 caves, dating back to the 4th century AD. Prof. Rane-Kothare yet

again asserted the evidences for the existence of artisan guilds and the travelling of their art and style.

The Chaitya Griha at Mahakali is similar to the one at Sudama cave, that was made during the 9th year of

Ashoka’s reign.

According to the Professor, there is only one inscription at Mahakali and it reads:

‘Gotamassa gottena Brahmanassa,sapitussa,sabhatukassa imaya Viharo pathikya vaatavassaya

deyyadhammam’

The meaning of this inscription is that, ‘a Brahmin from the Gautam gotra along with his father and

bothers have excavated this cave to provide travellers protection from wind and rain, as a religious

merit’, Prof. Rane-Kothare said. The inscription provides clarity with respect to the purpose of the caves-

as rest houses for travellers. Also, she pointed out, it indicates that there was at least some flexibility

with respect to the construction of caves, and even Brahmins considered it as a religious merit to

construct caves for Buddhist travellers.

The Mahakali cave does not have a lot of sculptures because of the kind of rock. The lack of images of

human Buddha indicates that the cave was built by the cult of Hinayana Buddhism that does not believe

in image worship. A few images of Buddha (Manushi Buddhas) were carved out in the Chaitya hall,

following the fall of the Hinayana cult, Prof. Rane-Kothare added. A similar sculpture of Lakulisha- the

founder of the Pashupata sect in Shaivism can be found at Elephanta, indicating how Brahmanical art

Trimurti at Elephanta

that arose after the decline of Buddhism borrowed from the latter. A tank and water cisterns have also

been excavated at Mahakali.

Manushi Buddha sculpture at Mahakali

Kanheri Caves

Also known as Krishnagiri caves, the Kanheri caves have been in existence since 1st century BC.

According to Prof. Rane-Kothare, the caves were widely visited by Italian, Portuguese and British

travellers. Italian traveller John Di Casto has stated in his chronicles that ‘Kanheri was the biggest rock-

cut educational university in western India’. Kanheri has evidences of three phases of cave art- that of

the Satvahana, the Traikutas and the Rashtrakutas. It consists of 120 caves that are located on three

different hills.

Prof. Rane-Kothare pointed out that cave No.3 has dampatis or donor couples. According to her, they

depict the gender equality that was prevalent during the Satvahana period, which is known to have

followed matriarchal rule. Earrings of the sculptures are similar to those found at Ter near Solapur,

which was an important commercial centre.

The Satvahana phase followed both Dhammakaya and Doopakaya art forms and there are many images

of Buddha in these caves. There are murals in cave No. 34 that explain the symmetrical measurements

that were used to make paintings. In cave No. 41, there is an eleven-headed Avalokiteshvara, which is

the only one of its kind in the whole country. It is worshipped in China as quanin. According to Prof.

Rane-Kothare, this sculpture would have been made in the Traikutaka period. She felt that it could be a

form of the violent Vedic God Rudra. It has been mentioned in the Nagarjunakonda, and also in the

chronicles of the 5th century AD, Huna king- Toramana. However, nothing can be decisively said about

the genesis of the image, she added. Prof. Rane-Kothare also elaborated on the image next to the

Avalokiteshvara, of a Buddha seated with a bowl in his hand. This, according to her is the medicinal

Buddha, also known as ‘Baishachguru’. This Buddha is very popular in Tibet and the image in Kanheri is

the only image of the medicinal Buddha in India.

Prof. Rane-Kothare pointed out that cave No.11 has a big durbar hall that could have been a Bhojana

Matapa for the monks to have their meals. Alternatively it could have been used for meditating or for

lectures, as in the monasteries of north-east India. The cave No.99 also has an asanapedhika or a sagar

darshan, which is a kind of a bench where monks could sit and enjoy the view, she added.

Clockwise from top left- Durbar hall in cave No. 11, Dampatis outside cave No. 3, Sagar darshan at cave No. 99 and the 11-headed Avalokiteshvara at cave No. 41

Remnants of wood have also been found in these caves and according to Prof. Rane-Kothare this was

because many carpenters who had turned into masons worked on these caves. Rainwater harvesting

systems and water cisterns for purifying water have been found near cave No. 11. A tank has been

excavated at the top. She also informed the audience of an inscription of a sethi punakka from Sopara

who had made a brick dam to stop and store the water. The dam exists till date.

There are about 50 stupas in the cave complex that have several inscriptions. Many are in Kharoshti and

there is also an inscription in Japanese. This inscription in cave No. 11 mentions that the land at

Mangalasthanaka should be brought into use and the income generated from it must go towards

making robes for the monks. According to Prof. Rane-Kothare, this land is right opposite cave No.11 and

it is where the Magathane caves were constructed.

Magathane Caves The Magathane caves are situated on the Dattapada road, off Mumbai’s western express highway.

Mag means road and thane means a halt. According to Prof. Rane-Kothare, Kanheri was a large cave

complex, with people from different Buddhist sects living there together. She discerned that it might

have been difficult for a traveller to come and live in the complex, apart from the fact that Kanheri was

located deeper in the jungle. The Magathane caves were thus excavated for the convenience of the

travellers by the Vajrayanists, she added. The Gazetteer mentions the stupas that existed here, which

have vanished now. The Kamya stupa on the top of the cave has been taken over by a lady who has

established a Gayatri mandir for the Samadhi of her parents. This was built in 1991, its permission

granted by the Charity Commissioner.

Magathane Caves: Then and Now

Prof. Rane-Kothare pointed out that there are seven Manushi Buddhas and a tank in the cave. The

carving on the lintel, also known as makaratorana has nagas and the style suggests it could have

belonged to the Rashtrakuta phase of 7th or 8th century AD. The cave complex also has Shilahara wells.

The road from Magathane leads right to the Charkop creek, which was a harbour in those days.

Currently it is almost completely dried up. The river Poisar which is nearby has also become like a

sewage carrying canal.

Shilahara Wells (Left), Poisar river (Right)

Brahmanical caves

Prof. Rane-Kothare said that with the decline of Buddhism, Brahmanical influence began to surface in

the city. This is evident from the several Brahmanical sites in the region. The Mandapeshwar caves have

a beautiful temple with an image of Natraja. It was destroyed by the Portuguese, but the ruins remain.

Conservation work is in the progress at the cave, she added.

Prof. Rane-Kothare also spoke of the Jogeshwari cave. Like the Mandapeshwar caves, it also has a

Natraja idol at the eastern entrance with dampatis. The rationale for entering through the east lies in

the metaphor of entering the garbh gruha (the womb of a mother). To enter the cave, one has to

descend 120 steps. The exit from the cave is through the west. A new cave at Majas, close to the

Jogeshwari cave was discovered by Prof. Rane-Kothare. Shortly after the discovery, the cave was

overnight sealed off by the builder who owned the land.

An idol of Shiva has also been excavated at Parel. It is on a hillock and the idol signifies the eight forms of

Shiva, each signifying a natural element. According to Prof. Rane-Kothare, one may regard the location

where the Shiva has been discovered, as a kind of factory that created idols.

Clockwise from top left - Natraja at Mandapeshwar, Shiva at Parel and dampatis at Jogeshwari

‘Q and A’ session

The audience was very enthusiastic about the subject

and posed several questions to Prof. Rane-Kothare. A

question was posed with respect to the potential of

military bases being housed within cave complexes.

Prof. Rane-Kothare answered that some caves built by

the Satvahanas were fortress-cum caves like the

Lohagad and Visapur. However, this was not a general

feature of all cave complexes of the period.

Talking about the present state of the caves, Prof.

Rane-Kothare regarded the erosion of the caves to be

the result of both natural and manmade causes.

Natural causes, attributed to erosion, natural

calamities, subsoil water, bacteria, insects and all kinds of wild growth, impact the life and character of

the caves. But apart from this, the vandalism (sometimes religiously motivated), environmental

pollution, construction and quarrying activities severely hamper the cave heritage, she added.

To a question regarding the oversight of the government with respect to preserving the cave heritage,

the professor answered that there was an urgent need to put in place a strict legislation over building

activity. She said that the region is very rich in heritage and that any building or construction activity

must be preceded by an archeological dig to ensure that no unfound heritage is lost. She stated the

example of the Pune Municipal Corporation that has such a rule in place, as a result of which ruins of the

Satvahana period have been discovered at various spots all over the city.

‘Apart from excavation, what other techniques could be used to discover hidden treasures?’ was the

next question. Prof. Rane-Kothare answered aerial photography is proving to be of much use to many

archeologists. It is used in place of satellite imaging that though is better in quality but much more

expensive.

‘Is anything known about the artists that made the sculptures in these caves? an audience member

asked. Prof. Rane-Kothare replied that artists usually worked in guilds and there are references to guild

names. However in most cases, the names of the artists remained anonymous.

The talk ended on the consensus that citizens of Mumbai do not know enough about the cultural and

historic heritage of the city and its wider region. The lack of awareness was expressed as the main

hurdle due to which the significance of the heritage was often lost and sometimes permanently

damaged. The need for citizens to engage with this past and ensure that these relics are not ignored by

the governance machinery was emphasised. The talk and the discussion created a spirit of inquiry

among the audience who felt a much stronger stakeholdership and association with their city’s past.

Prof. Rane-Kothare taking questions from the audience

About ORF-Mumbai

Observer Research Foundation (ORF) is a leading non-partisan Indian Think-Tank that seeks to influence

public policy formulation. It was established in New Delhi in 1990 by R.K. Mishra, a widely respected

public figure, who envisaged it as a broad-based intellectual platform pulsating with ideas needed for

India’s nation-building.

In its journey of twenty years, ORF has brought together leading Indian policy makers, academics, public

figures, social activists and business leaders to discuss various issues of national importance. ORF

scholars have made significant contributions toward improving government policies. ORF has produced

a large body of critically acclaimed publications.

Until recently, ORF’s activities were based mainly in New Delhi. Beginning 2010, ORF Mumbai has been

established to pursue the Foundation’s vision in India’s business and financial capital. It has started

research and advocacy in six broad areas: Education, Public Health, Inclusive Development, Urban

Renewal, Youth Development, and Promotion of India’s Priceless Artistic and Cultural Heritage. Some

of the recent reports published by ORF Mumbai include:

“Reforms in Medical Education- to Promote Accessible and Affordable Healthcare for All”

“Making the Sewer a River Again... Why Mumbai Must Reclaim its Mithi”;

“Moving People: Why Mumbai Needs a Bus Rapid Transport System (BRTS)”;

“NCHER: A Much Needed Reform that Fails the Test”, a commentary on the National

Commission for Higher Education and Research Bill; and

“Affordable Housing for Mumbai’s Poor: Possible!”

Forthcoming ORF Reports include:

“Time is Running Out: Does Mumbai have Enough Water?”

“Mumbai’s Secret: Maharashtra Nature Park”

“Masked Identities: Safeguarding India’s Intangible Cultural Heritage”

ORF Mumbai’s mission statement is: Ideas and Action for a Better India. It will champion the cause of

balanced socio-economic development and a better quality of life for all Indians. It will also work

towards strengthening India’s democratic institutions to become more responsible, responsive and

sensitive to common people’s needs and concerns, especially those of most vulnerable sections of

society. Besides conducting diligent research in its above six core areas, ORF Mumbai also pursues wide-

ranging initiatives like the Maharashtra @ 50 Study Centre, the Forum for India-China Citizens’ Dialogue,

the Centre for the Study of India’s Ancient Knowledge Traditions, and the Gurus of Science Series.