ORE MINES, PROCESSING AND W ASTE MANAGEMENT IN …publikacio.uni-miskolc.hu/data/ME-PUB-20785/One...

TECHNICAL REPORT

ORE MINES, PROCESSING AND WASTE MANAGEMENT IN EUROPE

March 2001

Budapest

OMENTIN PROJECT J FÖLDESSY V MADAI (CHAPTER 1) L ADAM (DATABASE) GEONARDO KFT HUNGARY

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Table of contents Foreword................................................................................................................................3 Summary................................................................................................................................4 1. History of ore mining in Europe.........................................................................................5 1.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................5 1.2 Ancient ages.....................................................................................................................5 1.3. Mining in the ancient Greek states and the Roman Empire ..............................................6 1.4. Medieval period...............................................................................................................9 1.5. Modern times................................................................................................................11 2. Current technologies in mining, ore processing and tailing disposal..................................13 2.1 Our database...................................................................................................................13 2.3 Geographical distribution of ore mining activities...........................................................15 2.4 Typical ore mining and processing technologies.............................................................17 2.5. Environmental impact of different mining and environmental technologies...................20 2.6. Waste and taili ng disposal practices related to mining and processing technologies.......23 2.7. Innovations in ore mining and processing technologies and their environmental effects.25 2.8. Best practices and new trends in tailing and waste disposal and management ................27 3. Sustainable ore mining in Europe.....................................................................................29 3.1 Trends in ore explorations and mine developments.........................................................30 3.2 Depletion of the mineral resources..................................................................................31 3.3 Economic sustainabil ity of mining..................................................................................32 3.4. Environmental sustainabil ity of mining..........................................................................33 3.5 Social sustainabil ity of mining........................................................................................34 4. Concluding remarks………………………………………………………………………..36 Acknowledgements..............................................................................................................37 References............................................................................................................................37 Websites accessed for information during Jan-Feb 2002.......................................................39

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Foreword

Our report is made to fill the gap between the general knowledge and the special mining and mineral resource information of the technically educated segment of the public.

It is therefore not specific in details and scientific backgrounds of technologies, like reaction kinetics, mineral economics, geology and mineral genesis.

With overview of the history of European mining, it gives a time framework for the present European ore mines. It outlines mining and environmental technologies, which are presently used by the industry, and summarises development trends.

The ideas and opinions about the future sustainability of ore mining are summarised to guide the reader through the strategic thinking and adaptation of a very traditional industry to the modern challenges of social and environmental management.

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Summary This study has been prepared to give information to a wide range of technically oriented people, who are not necessarily familiar with mining and its environmental impact. Only short descriptions of technologies are provided, without deeper insight of the related chemical, physical processes. The European ore mining has records since the Ancient ages. With several restructuration, modernization, and obviously reduction, it is still an important part of the continent's industrial structure. Districts, like the Iberian Rio Tinto zone, or the Transylvanian "Golden Quadrangle" are active mining centres since 3,000-5,000 years. The present European mining industry shows a polarised geographical distribution. There are countries, where ore mining still has considerable weight (Spain, Portugal, Ireland, Sweden, Finland, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia), there are others, where only a few mines remained, or all the ore mines closed down (like in Slovenia). About 350 ore mines were either active through, or opened, closed down between 1987 and 2002. The study includes a comprehensive database of these European ore mines. The attached CD ROM contains these data in graphical and spreadsheet versions. The main groups of mining and processing technologies are summarised with examples where these technologies are used. The environmental risks related to these technologies are discussed separately. A section is dedicated to the brief review of waste disposal techniques. The inventions in mining, processing and waste management technologies are summarised in a separate chapter. An overview of the recent achievements of mining-related environmental technologies is at the end of this section. The following part of the study deals with the sustainabili ty of ore mining in Europe. The question has several aspects; many of them are briefly addressed in this section. The latest exploration and mine investment trends are summarised, showing that about 6 % of the world's spending on mining investment comes to Europe. Statistical data are presented, indicating, that despite of intensive production, the known ore reserves are not depleted, instead, grew over the last 100 years in the case of heavily sought metals, like copper. Also, the price of metals is stagnant, reflecting the increased offer over the demand. The environmental and social sustainabili ty of the ore mining are also addressed in this part of the study. It is shown, that mining has to face harder requirements regarding the environment in Europe. It is also clear, however, that higher requirements stimulate technological improvements, and the economic gain from these improvements are in many cases larger than the increase of cost of compliance to the requirements. It is more difficult to summarise the social aspects of sustainabili ty of mining, and only examples are cited here which reflect the conflict between the need of maintaining the industry, and the understandable public concern related to the hazardous technologies used by the mining and processing technologies.

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1. History of ore mining in Europe

1.1 Introduction The comprehensive description of the history of mining in Europe would require considerable time, and occupy volumes. In our report we tried to give a brief historic frame instead, which would make it understandable, how the present mining districts of Europe have been developed. Mining is an industry, which is located not by economic consideration, but due to geological characteristics of the rocks below the ground. However, the mines, owing to their significant economic weight, have determined many of the political movements, even wars, and the knowledge of their distribution, production may contribute to the understanding of the present Europe. In our evaluation we put the emphasis to areas, which are continuously active since the early ages, indicating, that these anomalous geological formations have always provided raw materials of many different kinds for a long series of nations and societies. I am certain in saying that these centres will continue to operate for many more decades, or centuries.

1.2 Ancient ages The European mining was the driving force of cultural development since the ancient ages. Mining has started with the extraction of suitable stones, earth pigments, and clay for pottery. The dawn of ore mining is dated back to the Copper Age, with the use of the copper, a metal, which responds best to primitive formation techniques. Several of the copper districts of Europe are known since pre-Roman times. The best known examples are in Cyprus (Tamasus, Amalhis, Soli, Carium), Greece (Thasois, Aenyra, Cioenyra) and Sardinia. The oldest known major mining area is at the Rio Tinto region, Spain, where records about mining are dated back to 3 000 B.C (Davies et al 2001). Other important mining zones were in Etruria, Apennine Peninsula (Minto 1954), and in the Alps (Mitterberg, Schwaz, Austria) between 1600 – 800 B.C. Ancient base metal mines are known also in Eastern Europe, Poiana Rusca, Banat, Lapus in the present Romania (2000 B.C).

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Cerro Colorado copper ore pit, Rio Tinto region, Spain

The next step in the technology, smelting, has brought the tin mining in focus, as the suitable alloy for copper to produce the more resistant bronze. The Bronze Age (from 2000 B.C) tin mining has made Cornwall on the British Isles an important mining region. The last of the 189 Cornwall tin mines have been closed down in 1990s and become a museum mine.

Headframe of the Geevor tin mine, the last one operating in the Cornwall region until 1990.

1.3. Mining in the ancient Greek states and the Roman Empire The development of the market trade and the invention of money have largely increased the demand for different metals, copper, silver and gold. From the metals coins were minted, as widely accepted tools of expressing economic value on the markets. Three authors gave more details about mining in the Greek homeland, Theophrastus, Strabo and Philon. One of the oldest Greek mines was Laurium silver mine, with records back to

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1500 B.C. working until 102 B.C. Well developed underground drift, shaft system has been made, with surprisingly modern solutions to ventilate the underground openings and transport the ore. The mining has been ended due to the revolt of slaves, who have been used to operate the mine. Gold, silver and lead were obtained from Siphnos and Laurion. Copper and iron mined in Euboea (a mining district, which is still active at present). Skouries at Chalkidiki was already a working mine and smelter during the reign of Alexander the Great. It has been in operation ever since, now it is one of the promising gold mine development projects of the recent Greece.

Following the dominance of copper and bronze and the increase of demand for silver and gold, the iron has become the most useful industrial metal during the period of the Roman Empire. This period (about 100 BC to 500 AC) is marked as the Iron Age. Iron has brought a revolution in the metallurgy, with mass production of forged iron products, like arrowheads, swords, but also plows, shovels, and other household and agricultural tools. Iron mines worked in the island of Elba and gold mines near Vercellae. The Roman Empire was a kind of predecessor of the present European Community. It unified trade and industries from Iberia to Transylvania. The Empire was able to supply all its needs of metals as well as export them outside the Empire, for example gold to India, silver and copper to German tribes. It may create a dejavu feeling, that a Senatus Consultum (Pliny, III. 20.138 prohibited mining in Italy proper XXXIII. 21. 78).

Bronze tablet with the text of the mining law of the Roman Empire. Retrieved from the

Aljustrel mine, Portugal. Source: www.eurozinc.com

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The gold and copper mines in the Iberian Peninsula provided sound economic basis of the Empire, until 250 A.D., the temporary exhaustion of the mines.

Archaeological finding of a mining pump-wheel from the Roman period, during railway building, Rio Tinto area, Spain.

In the new provinces like Noricum, Pannonia, and Dacia mining exploitation was adapted to suit local conditions. In some cases the exploitation was left to private persons or to "conductores" (for example in Noricum ) whose undertakings were checked and taxed.

From the period of Emperor Vespasian the mines of precious metals belonged to the imperial treasury. Spain remained the most important mining center from late republican days until the end of the Empire. The Dacian mines proved very important to the Danube army, just like the Gallic mines were to the Rhine army during the period of the late Empire.

Mining operations were continuous in Central Europe. The Rhine and the Danube were good transport routes. Copper, silver-bearing lead, gold iron and zinc ores were mined mostly in open cast workings. The ores were usually smelted on the spot and raw or refined metals were transported to the towns.

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European mines operating in the period of the Roman Empire

1.4. Medieval period

With the evolvement of the Western feudal kingdoms, the traditional European mining districts have become peripheral. The Moors have invaded Iberia; Dacia has become the battlefield of different migrating tribes (which later become cores of new European nations). The center of the stable Empire gave rise development of mining. New mining districts in the

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present Germany, Bohemia, France, and Scandinavia have become the economic basis of the early feudal states. Saxon miners became world experts of the mining trade, and operators of mines in several regions, from the present Spain to Norway, from Poland to Hungary. New mines opened in Banska Stiavnica (745) in the Inner Carpathians, in Goslar, Harz Mountains (970), Garpenberg, Sweden (900), Freiberg, Saxony, (1170), Jachymov (then Joachimstahl) Bohemia, (1516), Kongsberg, Norway (1624).

In 1528 Georgius Agricola, a doctor working in Joachimstahl/Erzgebirge, has published a detailed written record about the status of medieval mining in Europe. His handbook "De Re Metallica" is yet the most important source of information from that age.

The Erzgebirge (now at the border of the Czech Republic and Germany) and the Czech Massive rose as the main mining zone of the Western Empire. Some of the Bohemian mines have become legendary rich from the income of their silver mining. Such an example is Kutna Hora in the 1400s, where the ore was extracted by surprisingly sophisticated underground methods, and the mines reached 400 m depth. The town has competed with Prague to be the financial center of the kingdom under Vaclav II.

Cathedral of Santa Barbara, protector of miners, Kutna Hora, Czechoslovakia The 15th century has brought serious changes in the European mining. One of the major turning points was the discovery of Americas, and their mineral richness. The imported metals from the colonies, arrived cheaper than the local products, and the traditional European gold, silver and copper mines have gradually closed down. The other important historical event was the increasing pressure of the Ottoman Empire from the East. Several mines in Eastern

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Europe (like Majdanpek, active in the 13th and 14th century) have been "disappeared" from the records after the Turkish occupation. The frontier between western and eastern world has been shifted gradually westward, and stabili zed at the border of the feudal German states, Bohemia, Poland. This trend has given strategic importance to several smaller copper, gold and silver mining regions in the present Poland (Silesian ore mines), Slovakia (Banska Stiavnica, Banska Bystrica, Kremnica, Roznava) In these areas several mines were reconstructed, modernized from private and state funds. In Alsace-Lorraine the first ore discoveries are dated to 1502 (Sainte-Marie-Aux-Mines) (http://www.minerapol.com/).

Renaissance portal of the house of a rich miner family (1538), Banska Stiavnica

(the town earned UNESCO World Heritage title)

1.5. Modern times The end of the Thirty Years war and the end of the Turkish occupation may be the landmark for the beginning of the Modern Age in Europe. Several of the old abandoned mining districts were reconstructed and modernized (like Banska Stiavnica in Slovakia). Mining again has become the leader in technical innovations since the 18th century (use of explosives, underground and surface water management systems, steam engines in shaft hoisting and pumping.) The iron ore mines and the related iron smelting and steel manufacturing plants have become the backbone of the industrial development of Europe through the years of the early capitalism. In the 19th century the largest of these mining districts was in Alsace and Lorraine – (in France, Benelux states, Germany). The huge complex of iron ore mines, smelters, steel

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mills, and coalmines was a driving force of the development of Western European countries. The mines produced annually about 50 milli on tonnes of iron ore.

The revolution in the transport and traveling, the more and more global nature of wars, and the consequent increase of demand toward metals have opened new frontiers for exploration and mining in Europe. One of the new mining zones starting in the early 1900s was the northern parts of Scandinavia (Kiruna, Gelli vaare, 1902). Major new discoveries followed, like the Skelleftea gold, base-metal district in 1924. Finland has also emerged as major mining center of Northern Europe. At the other end of the continent new mining districts have become known and active in the new Balkan states, which became independent from the Turkish Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (Bor, Majdanpek). The significant political changes after the 1st World War have also triggered new explorations and mine developments in the other Central European countries (Recsk copper mine, Hungary, reconstruction started in 1926). Similar changes have taken place before and after the 2nd World War. The increased military application of aluminum in aircraft manufacturing has led to the development of the strong European bauxite mining and aluminum processing industry (France, Hungary, Greece, Yugoslavia), prior to the 2nd World War. The uranium, which has become strategic metal after the war, has been explored and developed intensively since the early 1950s. France has become one of the major world producers of uranium (with about 20 % share of the world production) from its mines at Herault, Vendée, Haute Vienne, but other countries (Czechoslovakia, GDR, Bulgaria) have carried out intensive exploration and mine development campaign for this mineral commodity. An important factor of the development of mining industry was the sharp political segregation of Eastern and Western Blocks in Europe. Since the trade of strategic materials, like metals, between these two blocks was very limited, some of the strategic metals were explored and developed in the Eastern countries "at all cost", to provide raw material supply for the country. This has brought the large-scale development of iron ore and base metal mining industries in several regions, from Czechoslovakia to Bulgaria, under significant state subsidies. The "rebound" of these forced development is experienced since the 1990s. In Western Europe the need for more intensive international cooperation and harmonization of iron ore and coal mining, iron smelting and steel industry has brought the European Coal and Steel Community into existence, in 1952. The organization was founded by six Western European countries (France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxemburg, The Netherlands). This organization was later the birthplace of the Common Market, a predecessor of the European Community.

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2. Current technologies in mining, ore processing and tailing disposal

2.1 Our database

We have realized that precisely summarizing the European historic mine data would be out of the scope of this study. About 2000 old abandoned mine sites are found on the continent, and their data are spread over a wide range of literature sources. To assess the status of the European ore mining industry we chose a 15 years period, 1987-2002. We included every ore mines, which were open or opened after 1987. The following European countries were not searched and evaluated: Iceland, Cyprus, Malta, Turkey, Moldavia, Armenia, Georgia, Ukraine, Russia, Latvia, Litvania, Estonia, Switzerland. Our timeframe and financials did not allow extensive traveling to collect and verify information; we had to restrict ourselves to available sources in the literature and on the Internet. To build up the core of the database we used two series of publications: Mining Annual Reviews (for 1987-1999) and USGS Mineral Yearbooks (1994-2000), (http://www.usgs.gov/pubs/country). Other good sites of mining information are the following ones: European bauxite deposits: http://sfb525.rwth-aachen.de/ Ore deposits of Finland: http://www.gsf.fi/, http://www.outokumpu.fi/, Largest ore deposits of Europe (LODE): http://www.gl.rhbnc.ac.uk/geode/basemap.html Ore occurrences with own homepages are referenced at the relevant information, or in the database records. When summarizing the European ore mining industry, we had to face the wide inhomogenity of published and Internet data, and the relative lack of information from certain countries. For our data retrieval purposes a relatively simple questionnaire was prepared, depicting only the most crucial information for our purpose (see next page). We attempted to find local contributors to check and verify the records of the database. We neglected the different economic aspects of mining, neither we dealt with grade or quality of mined ores, as not relevant to our study. The interested reader should search these data in the referred literature sources. Where we have met specific environmental questions in relation to one or the other mine sites – like the frequently cited dam failure cases at Aznallcollar/Spain, Baia Mare/Romania, Aitik/Sweden, Cassandra/Greece, the information was highlighted and mentioned in the respective sections of the study. From the collected data, some general conclusions and observations were made and presented in this chapter regarding the dominant mining and processing methods, technological routes, end their possible environmental impact. Recent inventions in mining and processing and environmental technologies as well as recommendations for best practices of mine waste management are summarized.

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The database is found in the annex of this report. The database is also written on CD –ROM, along with relevant maps showing the geographical positions of the occurrences.

DATA SHEET OF ORE MINES 1 1 COUNTRY2

2 MINE NAME3

3 NEAREST TOWN4

4 EASTING5

5 NORTHING5

6 COMMODITY7

7 MINING STARTED6

8 MINE CLOSED6

9 MINING METHOD8

10 PROCESSING METHOD9

11 YEAR, PRODUCTION DATA10

12 ORE PRODUCTION, 000 TONNES11

13 METAL PRODUCTION12

14 REMARKS13

15 SOURCE

Notes 1 Include those ore mines that were operative in or after 1987 2 Indicate the present name of the country 3 Give the name of the mine that has been used in public information 4 Please give the name of the nearest town appearing on 1:1.000.000 scale topo maps 5 Give geographical coordinates of the mine in degrees and minutes, E – easting (from Greenwich), N –

northing (from the Equator) 6 Indicate the year of start and closure. Mark the mine as closed if closure is temporary (suspension of

production). 7 Please specify the main utili zed component of ore, i.e. Cu for copper-ore, Fe for iron ore, etc. 8 Mining method: OP open pit, UG underground, WT waste re-treatment. 9 Processing method: NO none, CR crushing-grinding only, FL flotation, GR gravity, magnetic, LE

leaching 10 Year, for which the production figure refers to. Use the latest information. 11 Annual ore output from the mine in thousand tonnes. 12 If ore production is not available, give metal production, indicating the units too (for example Pb 25 kt) 13 Please indicate here known mine accidents, environmental hazards, known special waste treatment

methods etc. 14 Source of information, Internet website address etc

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2.3 Geographical distribution of ore mining activities As it is shown in the following map, the EU countries with strong mining interest (Finland, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, Greece) surround a central part of the EU, where the countries either closed their ore mines (UK, France, Germany, Austria, Belgium) or never had such an industry (Denmark, Netherland). The distribution of the pre-Accession states is somewhat similar: some of them have strong mining interest (Romania, Bulgaria), as opposed to the rest of the countries (for example Slovenia, Czech Republic).

Geographical distribution of the largest ore mines in Europe. Source:

www.gl.rhbnc.ac.uk/geode/basemap/ As is shown by the statistical figures below, Europe now plays relatively minor role in

the world's mining developments. The following table reflects Europe's impact in the World's mining in case of some major metals:

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Table 1

Metal World production (000 t metal)

Europe production (000 t)

Europe's share %

Leading countries

Cu 10102 776 3 Portugal, Yugoslavia

Pb 3093 361 12 Sweden, Poland

Zn 7038 879 12 Ireland, Poland

Fe 1061 (milli on tonne ore)

21 (milli on tonne ore)

2 Sweden

Ni 1112 31 18 Norway, Greece

Cr 13866 657 5 Finland, Albania

Ag 16969 1443 9 Poland, Sweden

Source: Mining Annual Review 1999 World-class mines are operated in the following European countries (Table 2): Table 2

Metal Country Mine Cu Sweden Aitik Cu Portugal Neves Corvo Cu Yugoslavia Bor Cu Bulgaria Medet Fe Sweden Kiruna Cu, Ag Poland Lubin region

Source: Mining Annual Review 1989-1999 There are leading mining countries (Sweden, Finland) among the EU partners. There are major mining producers among the pre-Accession states (Romania, Bulgaria), and there are major mining countries outside of these two groups, within the geographical borders of Europe (Ukraine, Yugoslavia, Albania, Russia).

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2.4 Typical ore mining and processing technologies

Mining technologies seldom are linked to different processing technologies. The mines commercialize semi-products or end products. Processing technologies are designed especially for the particular ore types of one occurrence. Technologies in both ore mining and processing are very conventional, i.e. the basic principles do not change over decades or even centuries. There are general routes applicable for the different main ore types: a. Mining - lump ore This type of operation is now exceptional, and applied only in small-scale mining. It is characteristic mainly to those ores, which themselves are high-grade enough for further use – like iron ore, manganese ore etc. In our database Úrkút/Hungary manganese mine is the only example (40.000 tonnes per year production of manganese ore), which sells raw manganese ore to the nearby iron smelter.

b. Mining – crushing/grinding – pelletisation – pellet semi product

Iron ores should be homogenized both for grade and grain-size before feeding to the iron- smelter. Crushing and grinding comminute the ore to 0,1-0,2 mm size particles. These particles are mixed with bentonitic clay and heat-treated in rotary kilns, producing equal sized 5-10 mm diameter "ceramic" balls, pellets of iron ore. The pelletization plants may serve a cluster of nearby mines/ occurrences. Such processing technology is applied in the Lapland iron ore mines in Sweden (Kiruna, Malmberget).

Autogenous mill s of the grinding section of an ore processing plant – Aljustrel Pb-Zn mine, Portugal

Source: www.eurozinc.com

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c. Mining – crushing/grinding – processing – concentrate semi product Most sulphide and oxides ores are beneficiated using different versions of ore processing technologies. There are three main types of conventional ore processing technologies:

- Gravity separation - Magnetic separation - Froth flotation

Gravity separation works on the principle of separating ore and non-ore particles based on the difference of their specific density. Normal rocks have 2-3 g/cm3 specific densities, while ore particles suitable for gravity separation exceed 3 g/cm3 (and may reach – in the case of gold and platinum 17-19 g/cm3). Gravity separation is carried out floating the particles in water. Heavier particles sink rapidly to the bottom of the vessel, while light particles (mainly non-ore) remain suspended. Different devices are used to accelerate the separation of the samples (shaking table, spiral, bowl centrifugal concentrator etc). The method is used in the technological flowsheet wherever its use provides at least partial recovery of the ore particles, since it is the cheapest and least harmful method of all the processing routes. Magnetic separation is based on the difference of the magnetic susceptibili ties of certain minerals. The flow of mineral particles is led through adjusted magnetic field, separating magnetic and non-magnetic particles from each other. Magnetite, pyrrhotite, and some other ore minerals can be separated by this method from the rest of minerals with low magnetic response.

Froth flotation uses the different wetting properties of ore and non-ore particles in water-based emulsions. Flotation agents, like xanthate are used in this method. In a tank fill ed with agitated air-bubble rich fluid certain minerals are wetted (and thus sink below). Other minerals are not wetted, stick to the ascending are bubbles, and come to the surface of the tank where they can be collected as concentrate. Using different chemical additives in different stages of the process, co-existing sulphides can selectively separated from each other too.

The three methods are either connected in series using relevant combinations of differently sized equipments and material flows to constitute the specific and particular processing flow sheet of the mine.

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19

Above: Flotation plant, below: Sectional view of a flotation cell. Source:

www.outukumpu.fi

d. Mining – crushing/grinding – pre-processing - processing - concentrate semi product or metal end product

In many cases ores do not respond well to conventional treatments (named as refractory), and need a further step to liberate the useful component from the barren rock. Such pre-processing methods are:

Roasting/sintering is a heat treatment, by which the crystal structure of certain minerals is broken up, thus liberating the enclosed smaller useful particles. The method is used mainly for pyrite ores, where useful components are enclosed in the pyrite lattice. Other type of roasting is used for carbonate-hosted iron ores.

Bio leaching – Several bacteria (mainly the different versions of the Thiobacill us ferroxidans) feed on sulphides, converting them to oxides through their metabolism. This phenomenon is now used extensively in the gold industry to pre-process refractory gold bearing minerals, mainly pyrites). e. Mining – crushing/grinding – leaching – metal winning – metal end product A special route of mining and processing is applicable to certain metals, like gold, uranium, copper.

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This special route involves leaching, in which liquid reagents are applied to ore, useful components extracted into leachate, which is then treated and processed to produce metal. Several types of leaching techniques are known and used in industrial scale: Copper leaching – SXEW – (solvent extraction and electrowinning) copper is extracted by sulphuric acid, and the pregnant solution is treated in electrolytic circuit to produce cathode copper. Gold leaching – gold is extracted from the ore by dilute solutions of NaCN, KCN, Ca(CN)2 . The dissolved gold from the pregnant solution is stripped off by carbon. Gold is washed off from the saturated carbon by cyanide reagents, and gold is directly electroplated from the solution. Different versions of the technologies are applied on industrial scale: CIL and CIP are closed circuit versions, where leaching takes place in agitation vessels, heap leaching is open circuit version, where leaching takes place in open heaps. Uranium leaching – uranium is easily leached out from ores using caustic solvents. Pregnant solutions are led through columns fill ed with ion-exchanger resins, which fix the dissolved uranium. Apart from heap leaching and vat leaching versions, in-situ leaching is also used in some occurrences. In this latter version the leaching solutions are circulated through the porous ore-bearing rocks, and the uranium is leached out in-situ in lieu of extracting and processing the ores on the surface. f. Waste re-processing

A special type of mine operation uses the waste and taili ng of the earlier workings to extract the remnant useful component. Since technologies are constantly improving, the earlier versions, being more primitive and less selective, have left more useful components in the waste/taili ng. More recent technologies may be feasible to use for the recovery of such components.

2.5. Environmental impact of different mining and environmental technologies There is no technology, which would have zero impact to the environment. Different industrial processes affect one or more of components of our ambient. However, as the history of mining zones evidence, the society uses the mineralizations in many successive periods of history. From environmental point of view, a mine is a raw material extraction site, which comprises all the phases from the extraction of ore to the concentration of minerals into saleable products. It also includes servicing and social infrastructures. It manages all the input and output of materials – in liquid, solid or gas form.

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Open pit mining undoubtedly causes landscape scar. In many cases the pits remain abandoned after the useful life of the mine ended. The stripped and disposed barren rock may be source of acid rock drainage (ARD). Acid rock drainage derives from the oxidation of sulphides to produce sulphates, which have higher solubility, and dissolve available heavy metals. Open pits produce extensive waste rock dumps, which can also be sources of acid mine drainage and heavy metal contamination.

Saattopora gold mine open pit, Finland. Source: http://www.gsf.fi/

Underground mining methods have significantly smaller surface footprint. Near-surface underground mines may cause land subsidence or collapse. The underground shaft-drift-stope system may have serious effect on the groundwater reservoir, in which the mine has been developed. The underground openings re-route the circulation of groundwater. Intensive water pumping for dewatering the underground workplaces may cause serious water supply problems in the neighboring regions. The open surfaces of the underground stopes may start oxidizing, increasing the dissolvable heavy metal intake to the groundwater.

Aerial view of the surface facilities Tara underground zinc mine/Ireland. Source:

www.outukumpu.fi

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22

Underground mining – blasthole drilli ng in Aljustrel mine, Portugal. Source:

www.eurozinc.com

The ore processing technologies The gravity separation and magnetic separation methods are essentially environment-friendly. The methods use the physical properties of the mineral particles for separation, and utili ze the gravity and magnetic fields for the process. Flotation reagents make no harm on the environment. However, the produced fine-grained taili ng is more sensitive to discharge heavy metals into the environment than the undisturbed solid bedrock. This is due to the exponentially larger specific surface of the ground ore particles.

Roasting/sintering produce gases, which contain SO2, in case of carbonate ores CO2. It may also be producer of other harmful air contaminants, like arsenic emission.

Leaching methods use chemical reagents to dissolve the ore particles. These are either strong acid – typically H2SO4 – in the copper extraction, or strong caustic solvents – in the uranium leaching or alumina processing technology. Gold leaching techniques use cyanide compounds, which are extremely toxic for both human and animal li fe. Bio leaching through the oxidation of the sulphide particles produce acidified environment. Normally the pH is continuously adjusted to maintain the bacteria. In Romania, at Rosia Poieni mine –Apuseni Mountains – bioleaching was used to obtain copper and copper sulphate. The technology used was the percolation (the preparation of the solution was made by using Thiobacill us ferrooxidans in nutritional environment) with a prepared solution of a mining waste deposit. In semi industrial level it was applied on a 30 000 t ore mining deposit.

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23

In industrial level it was applied on 13-15 milli ons tones poor and oxidized ore mining deposit (Fodor, 1996).

2.6. Waste and tailing disposal practices related to mining and processing technologies Some ore types are high-grade (20-70 % useful component content) like iron ore, manganese ore, bauxite, and produce relatively low amount of associated waste and taili ng. The sulphide and oxide ores have about 1-5 % contained useful component, the remaining part of the extracted rock is necessarily waste. Precious metal ores (Au, Ag ores) contain 0,0001-0,001 % useful components, thus practically all the extracted rock volume should be considered as waste.

There are two main types of barren rocks disposed in a typical mine site:

Waste rock – unprocessed barren rock or subgrade ore, which is resulted from the development of the mine or from the overburden of the open pit operations

Waste rock dump, north of Cavnic Pb,Zn,Au mine, Romania

Processing waste (taili ng) – one of the end products of the ore beneficiation process. It is normally finely ground mixture of barren rock and ore particles. (Ore particles always remain in the waste in some amount). In several mine-sites un-economic ore stockpiles are also created to store sub-grade ore for future periods with better market conditions.

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24

Typical section and resulting environmental hazards of a waste rock dump

Surface facilities and tailing pond of the Vihanti mine, Finland. Source: www.gsf.fi

The following important environmental hazards are related to the disposed waste, taili ng and stockpiled ore: Acid rock drainage (ARD) from improperly sealed waste rock or taili ng impoundments

Spill – spill age of semi-fluid material/slurry from impoundments due to dam failure

Landfall – massive outflow of fluidized taili ngs from ponds Heavy metal contamination – discharge of Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr to environment

Cyanide pollution – release of cyanide from the process circuit to surface drainage

Dust pollution – Transport of fines by wind blowouts from the dry surfaces of the taili ngs.

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25

Schematic diagram of tailing ponds and related environmental hazards

2.7. Innovations in ore mining and processing technologies and their environmental effects

Information technology in the mining The most important change in the mining industry is the pervasive increase of information technology applications in every segment of the industry. The intensive use of information technology in mining is summarized by the Telemining concept. The information technology enters in a very early stage of mineral exploration, mine planning and design, offering 3-D insight to mineral deposits. This 3-D information about mineral reserves is the key for management of extraction of the ores. High precision automated drilling prevents overbreaking of rocks during blasting, and assists optimizing the use of explosives. Telemetric monitoring and GIS positioning of mobile mining equipments helps to reduce maintenance requirements and to optimize work time utilization. Remote controlled mining vehicles may be used in adverse mining environments, where men are not allowed to work for safety or health reasons. According to estimates, the Telemining concept may bring 40-50 % increase in productivity in mines. Highly automated process control in ore beneficiation ensures short reaction time to change of process parameters and reduce the amount of used chemicals. Extraction technologies

Open pit mining in the last decades brought large increase of pit sizes and extracted ore volumes. Large volumes of waste rock and ore (50,000-100,000 tonne per day) are moved. The freight of ore and waste is carried out with large capacity trucks (120-220 tonnes) and similar capacity loaders. Rock breaking is by high performance drilling/blasting. To match with the large capacity extraction line, highly efficient automatic rock-drills and explosive loaders are used.

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One increasing new trend in this field is the application of emulsion explosives – of which neither of the components is explosive itself. The largest European open pit mine is Aitik/Sweden copper mine (17 million tonne per year), followed by Medet/Bulgaria copper mine (11 milli on tonne per year).

Medet copper mine open pit, Bulgaria

In underground mining the conventional mine design (vertical shafts, horizontal levels) still prevails. In the mine the conventional mine-railway transport is combined with the so-called trackless (rubber tired, not rail-mounted) mining equipments. Using sophisticated underground geodetical control; more and more of these equipments are un-manned, working under the control of operators sitting in remote safe control-rooms. The underground versions of large capacity trucks and loaders have also been developed, as long, articulated, low profile vehicles. Kiruna iron ore mine is the largest underground operation in the world (18 million tonnes per year). The copper mines of Poland (Lubin, Rudna, Sieroszowice, Polkowicze) have a combined output of 25-28 Mtpy ore.

Ore processing technologies

In gravity separation the increasing use of centrifugal concentrators facili tated the use of this method to very fine grain sizes (under 100 microns) where conventional gravity methods would fail. In flotation the use of column cells in place of the conventional tank-cells provided magnitude increase of flotation capacity on the same plant surface area. The Tara Pb-Zn mine/Ireland and the Neves Corvo copper mine/Portugal are the largest European examples of modern flotation plants.

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27

Leaching techniques are rapidly developing in the copper and precious metal mining. The tendency is towards closed-circuit technologies with minimum use of chemicals. Pressure leaching, autoclaving is used commercially in cases, where rapid oxidation gives advantages over the increased operation cost. El Valle/Spain gold mine uses CIL leach to extract gold from the ore. Several uranium mines in France, Czech Republic, Germany use heap leaching techniques to dissolve the remnant uranium from the process tailings. Bio leaching is increasingly used worldwide for refractory gold ores.

2.8. Best practices and new trends in tailing and waste disposal and management One of the most problematic fields of the mining is the waste management and disposal. Compared to the extracted volumes of ores and number of mining operations in the world, the frequency of serious industrial accidents is very low. The accidents related to dam failures, waste dump seepage, cyanide spill seldom result human fatalities. However, these accidents gain strong public attention due to their deleterious nature to the environment and wildlife. Mining waste creates environmental problems in three ways: - it contains ore particles which may be sources of heavy metal contamination - its sulphide particles may oxidize and produce acid mine drainage - the disposal of large semi-fluid masses may create stability problems The new technologies aim to reduce or completely exclude these sources of pollution. The reduction of ore content of the waste is a main economic objective of ore processing technology innovations, since one percent gain or loss in recovery affects the economy of the operations seriously. The oxidation of sulphide particles in the waste may be prevented in several ways: - application of sealing cover over the waste - continuous neutralization of the waste

Dry cover is generally applied on waste rock dumps and dried tailings. A Swedish research and development project, Mitigation of the Environmental Impact from Mining Waste, with the acronym MiMi, deals extensively with the alternative routes to minimize the deleterious environmental effects. The 3 years (37 M SEK budget) programme aims to develop techniques for decommissioning of mine waste disposal sites. The major objective is to effectively seal the mine waste from surface precipitation and oxygen intake. Three main routes were tested:

- Compacted waste cover - Compacted soil cover - Water cover.

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28

The tests are carried out at Kristineberg (Pb-Zn mine site) abandoned dumps. Preliminary results indicate, that compacted soil cover (clay and till – local moraine sediment) gives the best economic and technical result (Höglund 2001). In Stekkenjokk, Sweden the taili ngs of the closed mine are stored underwater for more than eight years. The efficiency of such disposal to prevent oxidation of sulphides in waste was monitored and tested. (Eriksson et al 2001). It is revealed that the water cover is also effective to seal the underlying waste from oxidation, but – owing to the impoundment characteristics – it requires continuous management and control. The acid rock drainage can also be prevented with the use of different materials, which neutralize the internal chemistry of the waste and taili ng ponds. There are different ways to achieve this objective. Outukumpu Oy has employed biodegradable organic cover (peat) during the landscaping and reclamation of the taili ngs of its Keretti mine, in Finland. This biodegradable material uses all the available oxygen, thus prevents the oxidation of the sulphide components. ( www.outukumpu.fi ). Other systems use granular peat filters for neutralization of the (Börjesson 2001). Acidity of the taili ngs and mine water are controlled and contained by continuous addition of lime to the taili ng (OMENTIN 2001). The present best practices of waste and taili ng disposal comprise one or more of the following main technical solutions (BRGM 2001): - Controlled placement of taili ngs –water and material balance - Foundation grouting of ponds - Slurry trench and earth fill cut-offs in the basement of ponds - Clay liners, soil compaction - Underdrains of ponds to collect seepage – emergency storage - Artificial liners, HDPE (heavy-density polyethylene) sealing These methods are universally applied at the construction of new disposal sites. The following diagram summarizes these improvements in the taili ng pond design.

Improved engineering design of tailing ponds

There are complex methods, which affect every segment of the mining – processing technology. One of the leading mines in environmental management is the Tara zinc mine in Ireland, Meath County. The mine is owned by Outukumpu Oy, a major Finnish mining company. The company has introduced a system called Total Mine Management, TMM, and

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29

achieved the acknowledgement of environmentalists. The underground mine operation uses more than 50 % of the flotation waste as cemented backfill of underground stopes. The mine and plant is designed to use and recirculate the process water. The mine operations are monitored continuously for air and water pollution. The reclaimed and landscaped areas are used for sheep grazing, with sheep continuously checked for heavy metal accumulation in blood or tissues. Similarly, salmon population of the adjacent rivers are regularly checked and tested for mine –derived pollution (www.outukumpu.fi). Several other alternatives are under testing. National Technical University of Athens/Greece works on the development of a new method for ARD prevention at Ligroin mine site: addition of limestone on top of the dumps provides dissolved Ca, which forms crusts on pyrite grains in the underlying taili ng. The pyrite in this way is "welded" to a hardpan impervious layer, which thus prevents oxidation of the waste rocks beneath (Mining and Environmental Management Nov 2001). After the cyanide–related accidents of the previous years, the mining industry in co-operation with national and international authorities and NGOs has worked out a series of recommendations regarding the use of cyanide in the mining industry (ICMM 2001). This Code is voluntary, although it involves all the major mining companies of the international mining industry. It contains detailed descriptions of recommended procedures of transport, handling, storage, use, monitoring and final neutralization of cyanides. Although the preparation work is continuing, it also initiated a constructive dialogue, in which environmental NGOs have also contributed to the preparation works (WWF 2000). Other NGOs dispute and oppose the Cyanide Code, stating, that it over-simplifies the problem. It regulates and monitors only the weak-acid-dissociable cyanides, and not the other cyanide derivatives (cyanates etc), and finally, its voluntary nature weakens its effect on the industry (Moran 2002). One of the most eff icient recent methods to neutrali ze the cyanides before reaching the waste disposal site is the INCO-SO2-AIR process. In this method sulphur-dioxide is used to oxidize the cyanide, which is finall y precipitated as practicall y insoluble metal-cyanate compound (Lindström et al 2001).

3. Sustainable ore mining in Europe After rich past and modest present, what will be the future of ore mining in Europe? The question is raised, whenever mining or environmental professionals work on strategic considerations of the industrial and ecological development of the continent. Sustainable ore mining has multiple meaning and understanding. In the 50s the definition of the ore was: A mineral, which can be mined at a profit. At the turn of the 21st century this definition no longer stands. Profitabili ty is only one side of the coin, ecological, social and environmental sustainabili ty is the other and equally important one. Sustainabili ty means to exploit the present available resources in order to maintain our living standard without jeopardizing the possibili ties of the future generations. Analyzing this statement every element needs careful consideration.

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30

We try to address the following questions: - what are the observable trends in mine developments, explorations? - are the mineral resources decrease with increased rate of exploitation? - is the mining environmentally sustainable in Europe? - is there social agreement to continue and develop mining?

3.1 Trends in ore explorations and mine developments

As it is shown on the attached map, the last decade of the 20th century was critical for the European ore mining. Most of the mine closures occurred during the last 15 years. However, several mines were opened, re-opened, or re-hauled also. In Bosnia-Herzegovina several bauxite mines were closed down in 1992-1993. Most of the Czech ore mines were decommissioned during the 1992-1995 period. In Germany the main period of mine closures fall to 1989-1992, with several mine-sites transformed into mine-museums. In France most uranium mines were decommissioned between 1991 and 1996. The Italian base-metal ore mines in Sardinia finished between 1992-1995. The Polish Pb-Zn mines closed down between 1990 and 2001 (the last Olkusz mine is in the phase of closure). The Swedish and Finnish mining industry has maintained a balance of mine commissioning and decommissioning. In Finland The Vammala, Vihanti mines were closed in 1992-1994, Hitura, Oravesi, Pahtavaara, Sodankyla opened during the 1988 – 1996 period. Several examples can be cited for successful mine openings in other countries: Neves Corvo (Portugal) 1988, Galmoy (Ireland) 1997, Lisheen (Ireland) 1999, Obrochiste (Bulgaria) 1996, Migollas (Spain) 1994, El Valle (Spain) 1998. Europe now has about 4.8 billi on USD, i.e. 6 % share of the world's capital investments in mining industry, the smallest of all continents (EMJ 2001). The following projects are listed as ongoing explorations or developments: Table 3.

Country Project/Locality name Commodity Mining method CZ Kasperske Hory Au UG SF Kemi Cr OP SF Pyhasalmi Cu Zn UG F Salsigne Au OP UG GR Olympias Au Ag Zn UG GR Penama Au OP UG GR Sappes Au Cu OP UG GR Skouries Au UG GR Viper Au UG H Recsk Au OP UG IE Galmoy Zn Pb UG IE Tara Zn Pb UG P Aljustrel Zn Pb Ag UG P Nisa U OP RO Rosia Montana Au OP RO Rosia Poieni Cu OP

j�k�l�m�n on o�p�q�or�l�o�s�n kj�k�l�m�n on o�p�q�or�l�o�s�n k j�om�l�o�t q�u�t�l�v�wo�j�u�j�pxj�om�l�o�t q�u�t�l�v�wo�j�u�j�px n oy�j�k�m�qt�n j�on oy�j�k�m�qt�n j�o olt�z�j�k�{olt�z�j�k�{|"}$~$�'�� ~��$}$�$��'||"}$~$�'�� ~��$}$�$��'| �0��"�� 5�5�7� ��0�$�7�"� �� $�

31

SP Carles Au OP SP Corcoesto Au OP SP Las Cruces Cu OP SP Santa Barbara Zn Pb S Norra Norliden Zn Cu Pb UG S Kristineberg Zn Ag UG S Ermarksberget Zn Au OP S Storliden Zn Cu UG

Several of the above projects are amplifications of existing operating mines. There are other ongoing mine development investments in European countries not evaluated in this study: Armenia 2, Cyprus 1, Georgia 1, Greenland 2, Russia 11 projects were listed.

3.2 Depletion of the mineral resources One crucial question when evaluating sustainability of mining is the availability of mineral resources. If mineral resources exhaust, there will be no mining, even at the highest compliance with legal and environmental requirements. The following chart shows how the defined resources of the World of copper, zinc, and lead metals were increased during the second half of the 20th century. The figures are certainly indicative for our continent too.

The changes of known mineral reserves between 1940 and 1990. After ROGERS and

GEOFFREY FEISS (1998)

At the same time the rate of extraction has also been increased exponentially. The trends indicate, that despite of increased exploitation rate, the more efficient use of exploration methods more than offset the depletion of ore reserves due to mining. With the constant population growth of the world and the increase of living standards, the need for mine products monotonously increases. However, there are temporal differences in

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32

the demand for the different commodities. In the 19th century, iron was the dominant ore for the industry. In the 20th century, aluminum, copper has gained importance. The uranium has shown a peak demand in the mid-1950s, but the demand abruptly declined after the ban and oratory of nuclear weapons. As market conditions (stagnant real value of metal prices) (Richards 2002, Rogers and Geoffrey Feiss 1998) indicate, the growth of market reserves of major metals (due mainly to finding of new mineral resources and subsequent mine production) has generally exceeded the increase of demand in case of most mineral commodities.

The change of copper price during the 20th century. After ROGERS and GEOFFREY FEISS

(1998)

3.3 Economic sustainability of mining Investment and implementation safe practices in mining and processing brings zero profit in short term, but may well prove to be a viable long-term investment, protecting the company from immeasurable financial after-effects of an environmental accident. Costs, which were not borne previously by the mining companies like recultivation of closed mines and physical-social rehabili tation of the environment – become integral part of company costs. These cost elements are now basic requirement in any feasibili ty studies of mining investments. Increasing number of countries require detailed technical plans and financial bonds for the closure of the mine even at the time of its commissioning. According to data coming from a survey of the gold mining companies (Metals Economic Group 1993) the "environmental" costs represent around 12 % of the capital costs, 14 % of the development costs, and about 3 % of the operational costs. Profitabili ty versus sustainabili ty was analyzed by Humphreys (2001), leading economist of the RioTinto company, one of the world's largest multinational firm in the mining industry. He concluded, that increasing pressure for environmental improvements finally leads to better operational parameters, and increasing productivity, the gain of which more than offsets the costs of implementation the environmental improvements. This phenomenon is reflected in the stagnating real-term metal prices.

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33

A detailed study of the potential cost consequences of better waste management was provided by the Symonds Group (2001) in a report made for the DGF Environment European Commission. This study has brought the following conclusions: -According to actual mining cost data of the ore mining industry, waste management costs make 1.5-2.0 % of the total cash costs, (capital and operation costs). Even these costs may be sometimes prohibitive due to the depressed metal market prices. - Any regulation concerning technological modifications for better waste management should necessarily have a long transitional period, owing to the long-term investment nature of ore processing plants. - There is no clear picture about the required time duration and the cost implications of the long-term (perpetual) mining waste management after the closure of the mines.

3.4. Environmental sustainability of mining Sustainabili ty in the mining industry means the followings: - Compliance to national and international regulations during planning and development - Observance of emission thresholds and application of safe techniques during the operation - Planned and systematic closure and reclamation of the mines, social and physical rehabili tation. These requirements do not mean, that mining will have no impact on environment. Instead, they mean, that mining creates a controlled and manageable environmental impact as a trade off for the access of mineral products. Should we tolerate an industry, which causes a series of environmental pollutions? There are evidences, that mining related pollution is as old as the mining industry itself. In the Rio Tinto province, Spain, investigations provided evidence for 5,000 years old heavy metal pollution of the river's estuary, back to the Phoenician times (Davies et al 2001). All of our living is based on primary raw materials, among others, mineral resources, although the present generation is generally not aware of the rate of its use of mineral resources. One seldom recognizes, that purchasing a car means purchasing dozens of mine products, in highly processed form. Similarly, a house construction requires the extraction of a large variety of ore- and non-ore minerals. According to statistical data (NMA 1998) an average citizen of a developed country consumes about 22 tonnes of non-recyclable mine product annually. On the other side, more and more public concern is encountered regarding mining activities in several developed countries. The obvious contradiction is between the monotonously increasing consumption of mineral products and the continuously increasing public opposition against mining of minerals. Societies on local and national level recognize the social and infrastructure benefits resulted from mining. However, they also recognize and assess the environmental risk related to mining. Risk and benefits constitute a sensitive and ever-changing balance, reflected by the

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34

public opinion and attitude. The mining industry has also realized the need of better environmental management. This refers not only to Europe, but also all over the world. Although the developed countries have the most stringent environmental regulations, mining developments cannot be financed in our days in developing countries either without observing strict environmental requirements. Observation of emission thresholds and application of safe mining, processing and waste disposal techniques is the subject of continuous dispute between mining companies and environmental groups. In this aspect there are old mining operations and waste disposal sites, which can be continuous sources of environmental pollution. As example for such risk areas were evaluated and listed by the International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR 2000) in several regions of the Carpathian Mountains. Indeed, repeated pollution of the surface drainage occurred and documented in case of at least one mining site (Borsa/Romania 2000). Many of the modern, recently commissioned mining operations use the best technologies to avoid mining environmental accident. Still, human and climatic factors may combine with the weak points of these technologies to produce serious accidents, like Baia Mare/Romania or Aitik/Sweden in year 2000 (OMENTIN 2001). The major public concern regarding mining waste management is that mine life is generally limited (15-50 years, while the resultant environmental problems (and the necessity of their monitoring and management) seem to be almost perpetual, but at least significantly exceed the lifetime of the mine and mining company. This question remains still unanswered.

3.5 Social sustainability of mining The average citizen of our days buys and uses endless varieties of household equipments, consumer goods, etc, which were all manufactured from mineral raw materials. These raw materials are extracted by the mining industry, and converted into products, semi products, which are built in, or used during the manufacturing of these goods. Due to increasing globalization, which is pioneered by the mining industry, the primary production can be in an African, Latin-American country, and consumption in Europe, North-America etc. Growing number of generations has got no information, but fears and concerns about mining. One direct reaction is to ban mining through legislative efforts, or distract investors from mining using financial tools. One has to realize, however, that the driving force of the mining industry in the demand, created by the consumption. Unless the consumption of these mineral raw materials is not reduced heavily, mining industry will find the country, where production can be feasibly carried on. National regulations render the mining unsustainable in several European countries: Czech Republic and Slovenia are typical examples in Central and Eastern Europe. Higher tolerance for mining is experienced in countries where mining still has serious weight in the national economy like in Sweden and Finland. Interesting to note, that these countries have also the highest standards in environment consciousness and sustainability in Europe.

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35

Some countries have less transparency in environmental information of its mining industry. Romania for example has put confidentiality of all mining-related data of environment after the dispute over the Baia Mare and Borsa accidents (OMENTIN 2001). In Europe there are traditional mining regions, where mining gets wide public acceptance from the local residents, who make their living working in or close to mine operations. Such a region is Northern Sweden, where mining and related metallurgy, transport are the main local industrial employers. Somewhat similar is the position of the Maramures region in Romania, where ore mines are run using substantial government subsidies to ensure employment for the local population (OMENTIN 2001). Ongoing mining operations may also face growing social pressure in many countries. The case of Cassandra mine in Greece (operated by TVX, a Canadian mining company) has gained wide publicity. Strong public opposition forces to stop mining operation in the Chalkidiki region. People has lived on tourism ever since, and mining is an immeasurable hazard to them. The last two years chronology of the dispute between local residents and the ore mining company:

The struggle against gold mines in Greece – information source www.antigoldgreece.org 2000 August – Municipalit y of Stagira-Akanthos rejects TVX's environmental impact study 2000 September – TVX Hellas receives environmental approval for Olympias base metal project 2000 October – Council of State postpones hearings of TVX-related cases 2000 October – International Conference on the Gold Metallurgies in Greece, organised by the Technical Chamber of Greece 2000 November – Mine workers occupy TVX plant in Stratoni Chalkidiki, and go on strike 2000 December – The mining strike is terminated 2001 January – Scientists oppose the installation of a cyanide leaching plant in Greece-Press Conference 2001 January - Municipalit y of Stagira-Akanthos challenges TVX gold project before the Council of State 2001 January – The Technical Chamber of Thrace opposes the exploitation of gold 2001 February – TVX finishess the works on Stratoni taili ng ponds 2001 March – TVX works on Olympias mines to be terminated 2001 May – Financing bank abandones the TVX project 2001 November – Local governmnets demand the termination of TVX activities under the town of Stratoniki 2001 December – TVX declares force majeure – people consider as blackmail 2001 December – Violence and vandalism of TVX mine workers in Ierissos Town Hall .

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36

The tailing pond of the Olympias mine, with 22 million tonne of gold tailing

Social agreement is needed now to create long-term co-operation in managing mining regions. One partner in this agreement is the local community, which has to be well informed and prepared to recognize and eliminate hazards coming from the mining. The other partner is the mining company, which has to be informative, cooperative and open to provide information in all questions which may relate to processes, chemical reagent, effluent and emission data etc. The third partner is the government, which may have important role in realizing the interests of the local residents as well as the national economy.

4. Concluding remarks The history of European ore mines has shown one important fact: ore mining districts are long-term storehouses of mineral raw materials of the mankind. These storehouses have much longer lifetime than economic cycles. Each generation mines what it needs from these "storehouses": the Iberian pyrite belt (Rio Tinto zone) has produced copper, iron, tin, zinc so far. Many other elements are also anomalously enriched, so they may be extracted, when industrial demand arises. Human consumption of metals increases with increasing living standard. This fact makes it probable the survival of the ore mining industry, since this increasing demand in many cases can be met by increased primary production only. The number and the distribution of active ore mines in Europe indicate, that a fairly large group of countries has strong long-term interest in maintaining the ore mining industry. It is also seen, that there is a strong tendency of concentration of the ore mining industry to the most efficient, most profitable occurrences, which, in the other hand, will comply the highest environmental standards, and still remain feasible. The large number of abandoned ore mines forecasts the increased need of revision of techniques and practices of site remediation and rehabilitation.

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It is also shown, that mining-derived environmental pollution is as old as the mining itself. Consciousness in application of mining and processing technologies and continuous care about environmental issues help to diminish these effects. Recent technological approaches, like the application of "wasteless mining" principle, or the development of Total Mine Management would be a proper solution to reach these objectives. There are also numerous technical research programmes and efforts which deal with the waste management of mines. These programmes offer partial solutions to the environmental problems caused by the mining waste. Still one major question remains unanswered: what is the safe method for the long-term management of mine wastes of abandoned mine sites. If we consider the environment as global issue, there is no doubt that the European ore mining should be as sustainable as the European consumption of metal products. Restricting ore mining and not limiting the metal consumption would only result in exporting the potential related environmental problems to somewhere else, where these problems may grow to a serious global issue before we would recognize them. To make ore mining sustainable in Europe, high environmental requirements and standards should be met. Industrial estimates indicate, that the costs of compliance with such higher standards is offset by the benefits of improved performance and economicalness of operations. In the other hand, the mining industry works in or near towns, vill ages, and the communities of these places will be more and more active partners in the discussions with mining companies. To achieve a long-term social agreement over the operation of ore mines, the sources of potential hazards should be completely disclosed. A constructive atmosphere of mutual confidence should be built up, and this is the task of the mining companies, governments and local communities.

Acknowledgements Sincere thanks are due to the following reviewers of the manuscript: Wojciech Sliwinsky Poland University of Wroclaw Tibor Sasvári Slovakia University of Kosice Ioan Denut Romania University of Baia Mare Jeno Csongradi Hungary Michal Stibitz Austria University of Leoben Jim Bergström Sweden CENTEK The figures and photos were used by the courtesy of the following institutions: Outukumpu Oy Finland

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«#¬%�®�¯ °¯ °*±,²#°³.#°�´0¯ ¬«#¬%�®�¯ °¯ °*±,²#°³.#°�´0¯ ¬ «#°®�#°�µ ²#¶3µ4%·�¸°*«#¶#«%±¹«#°®�#°�µ ²#¶3µ4%·�¸°*«#¶#«%±¹ ¯ °º�«#¬%®*²µ4¯ «#°¯ °º�«#¬%®*²µ4¯ «#° °µ:»�«#¬%¼°µ:»�«#¬%¼½�¾�¿�À�Á�Â ¿�ÃÄ�Å�¾�Æ�ÇÅ�½½�¾�¿�À�Á�Â ¿�ÃÄ�Å�¾�Æ�ÇÅ�½ È�É�É�ÊË Ì Ì Í�Í�Í�Î ÏÐ�Ñ�Ò�É�Ó Ò�Î ÏÔ�Õ

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+�,�-/.�0 10 1�243�156-�1�7�0 ,+�,�-/.�0 10 1�243�156-�1�7�0 , +�1.�-�1�8 3�9:8�-�;=<1�+�9�+�2>+�1.�-�1�8 3�9:8�-�;=<1�+�9�+�2> 0 1?=+�,�.�38�0 +�10 1?=+�,�.�38�0 +�1 1-8A@B+�,�C1-8A@B+�,�CDFE#G#H�I�J G=KL/M#E#N#OM�DDFE#G#H�I�J G=KL/M#E#N#OM�D PRQ=QFST U U VWVWVYX Z[R\#]YQF^ ]BX Z_#`

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MINTO, A (1954): ,L’antica industria mineraria in Etruria ed il porto di Populonia, Studi Etrusche vol. 23, pp. 291-319 MORAN, R.E (2002): Decoding Cyanide. An Assessment of Gaps in Cyanide Regulation at Mines. Report sponsored by Hellenic Mining Watch, Ecotopia, CEE Bankwatch, FOE Europe, FOE Hungary, FOE Czech Republic, Food First Information and Action network, MineWatchUK, Mineral Policy Center. NMA (National Mining Association USA) (1998): The Future Begins with Mining. July 1998. OMENTIN (2001): Mission study tour report – Sweden, Hungary, Romania. RICHARDS. J. P. (2002): Sustainable Development and the Minerals Industry. Society of Economic Geologists SEG Newsletter. No. 48. pp. 1-12. ROGERS J.J., GEOFFREY FEISS, P. (1998): People and the Earth. Basic Issues in the Sustainabili ty of Resources and Environment. Cambridge University Press. p. 338. SOL V.M., PETERS S.W.M (2001): Toxic waste storage sites in EU countries. WWF – Institute of Environmental Studies Vrtije Universiteit Amsterdam. IVM Report Nr. R-99/4. SYMONDS GROUP LTD (UK) (2001): A Study on the Costs of improving the Management of Mining Waste. A report made for the DGF Environment of the European Commission. UNEP (with the assistance of ICME) (2000): A Workshop on Industry Codes of Practice: Cyanide Management. Report. 25-26 May 2000. Ecole des Mines, Paris, France. USGS (1999): USGS Mineral Yearbook 1998. WWF (2000): Industry Codes of Practice for Cyanide Management. The WWF Position.

Websites accessed for information during Jan-Feb 2002 The websites are cited in the text only at the pictures and figures. 1 www.gl.rhbnc.ac.uk/geode/basemap/ 2 www.antenna/nl/wise/uranium/ 3 www.zinkgruvan.com 4 www.aluminium.org 5 www.people.freenet.de 6 www.minesandcommunities.org 7 www.gsf.fi 8 www.minesite.com 9 www.cia.gov

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10 www1e.btwebworld.com/mining-journal 11 www.mepp.gov.al 12 www.calle.com.world.albania 13 geode.ethz.ch/Srednegorie/elatsite.html 14 www.asarel.com 15 www.suc.org 16 www.dnsrs.org 17 www.cri.ca 18 www.infomine.com 19 www.environmental-center.com 20 www.outukumpu.fi 21 www.sardinien.com 22 www.csmaconsultant.com 23 www.foei.org 24 www.bgr.de 25 minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/ 26 www.eurozinc.com 27 www.mineralresourcesforum.org 28 www.polishcopper.com 29 www.rionarcea.com 30 www.navanminingplc.co.uk 31 www.azsa.es 32 www.unece.org/env/epr/experts/Romania/ 33 europa.eu.int/comm/environment/waste/mining_cost.pdf/

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