OPPORTUNITY IN THE WORKPLACE LOW-WAGE EMPLOYMENT IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES Ken Mayhew Caroline...
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Transcript of OPPORTUNITY IN THE WORKPLACE LOW-WAGE EMPLOYMENT IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES Ken Mayhew Caroline...
OPPORTUNITY IN THE OPPORTUNITY IN THE WORKPLACEWORKPLACE
LOW-WAGE EMPLOYMENT IN LOW-WAGE EMPLOYMENT IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATESEUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES
Ken Mayhew
Caroline Lloyd
Susan James
BACKGROUNDBACKGROUND
Russell Sage Foundation Projects in Russell Sage Foundation Projects in the USthe US
LOW WAGE AMERICALOW WAGE AMERICA, 2004, edited , 2004, edited by Eileen Appelbaum, Annette by Eileen Appelbaum, Annette Bernhardt and Richard MurnaneBernhardt and Richard Murnane
RSF commissioned comparable RSF commissioned comparable studies in Europe studies in Europe
THE EUROPEAN STUDIESTHE EUROPEAN STUDIES
5 countries: UK, France, Germany, 5 countries: UK, France, Germany, Netherlands, DenmarkNetherlands, Denmark
Common occupations in 5 sectors: Hotels, Common occupations in 5 sectors: Hotels, Hospitals, Food Processing, Retail and Call Hospitals, Food Processing, Retail and Call CentresCentres
UK team: SKOPE, National Institute for UK team: SKOPE, National Institute for Economic and Social Research, and Economic and Social Research, and StrathclydeStrathclyde
STAGE 1STAGE 1
STAGE 2 STAGE 2
Proportion of employees below LPT across the 5 Proportion of employees below LPT across the 5 countriescountries
FR GER NL DK UK
Year 2002 2004 2002 2002 2002
% employees below LPT
12.2 * 20.8 17 8.5 22.1
% male employees below LPT
8.0 * 13.8 6.5 (approx)
13.2
% female employees below LPT
17.0 * 21.1 10.5 (approx)
31.3
* refers to
Proportion of UK workforce falling below LPT, Proportion of UK workforce falling below LPT, 1975-20051975-2005
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005
Year
Per
cen
t o
f w
ork
forc
e b
elo
w l
ow
pay
th
resh
old
Men-NES
Women-NES
Total-NES
Men-ASHE
Women-ASHE
Total-ASHE
THE GROWTH OF LOW PAID WORKTHE GROWTH OF LOW PAID WORK
The rise in earnings inequality generallyThe rise in earnings inequality generally
The decline of trade unionsThe decline of trade unions
The removal of legislation and institutions The removal of legislation and institutions which had provided some protection for which had provided some protection for the low paidthe low paid
Distribution of low-paid employment in the Distribution of low-paid employment in the
UK economy, analysed by sectorUK economy, analysed by sector
SIC code Sector
% of total low-paid employees in UK economy
% of employees in sector earning
below LPT
52 Retail 26 49
85 Health services 13 18
55 Hotels 12 59
15-37 Manufacturing 9 13
80 Education 8 16
90-93 Social and community services 7 29
74Cleaning, security and miscellaneous business services 6 18
60-64 Transport and communications 5 13
50-51 Wholesale 5 22
45 Construction 3 13
65-73 Other private services 3 8
75 Public administration 2 6
01-14; 40-41 Other industries 1 15
TOTAL 100Source: Labour Force Survey
Proportion of employees earning less Proportion of employees earning less than 2/3 of median hourly wages, than 2/3 of median hourly wages,
1976-20011976-2001
Percentage of group who are low paid
Full-time Part-timeMale Female PT FT Total
Male Female Male Female
1976 6 26 41 33 6 27 34 12 14
1981 6 24 42 46 7 30 46 12 16
1986 8 24 54 52 9 31 52 13 18
1991 9 22 53 50 10 29 50 14 19
1996 11 22 54 50 13 30 51 15 21
2001 11 20 54 49 13 29 50 15 21
Proportion of employees earning less than Proportion of employees earning less than 2/3 of median hourly wages, 2/3 of median hourly wages,
1976-2001, analysed by age group1976-2001, analysed by age group
Percentage of age group who are low paid
16-24 25-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 plus Total
1976 31 7 9 10 10 18 14
1981 30 7 10 13 14 21 16
1986 35 10 12 14 15 22 18
1991 35 12 13 16 18 29 19
1996 44 16 15 16 21 34 21
2001 46 16 15 16 20 35 21
Source: New Earnings Survey Panel Dataset.
Employees earning less than 2/3 of Employees earning less than 2/3 of median hourly wages, 1991-2001, median hourly wages, 1991-2001,
analysed by selected occupational groupanalysed by selected occupational group New Earnings Survey (SOC 1990 classification)
% of occupation group who are low paid
SOC 1990
1991 1996 2001
640 Assistant nurses, nursing auxiliaries 14 17 15
641 Hospital ward assistants 31 33 39
720 Sales assistants 66 66 66
721 Retail cash desk and check-out operators 65 74 78
800 Bakery, confectionery process operatives 41 38 46
809 Other food, drink and tobacco process operatives 23 23 25
958 Cleaners/domestics 67 73 76
Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (SOC 2000 classification)
% of occupation group who are low paid
SOC 2000 2005
6111 Nursing auxiliaries and assistants 19
7111 Sales and retail assistants 75
7112 Retail cashiers and check-out operators 78
7211 Call centre agents/operators 27
8111 Food, drink and tobacco process operatives 31
9233 Cleaners, domestics 76
Earnings experience of workers in lower Earnings experience of workers in lower quartile (Q1) of earnings distribution in quartile (Q1) of earnings distribution in
1977, 1984 and 1991 1977, 1984 and 1991 1977- 83 1984 - 90 1991- 97
Total % in Q1 in Year 1 who were still employed and still in Q1 in Year 7
50.9 49.6 40.1
Total % in Q1 in Year 1 who were still employed and still in either Q1 or Q2 in Year 7
79.6 79.8 82.8
Males % in Q1 in Year 1 who were still employed and still in Q1 in Year 7
28.0 33.8 29.8
Males % in Q1 in Year 1 who were still employed and still in either Q1 or Q2 in Year 7
61.4 66.4 74.4
Females % in Q1 in Year 1 who were still employed and still in Q1 in Year 7
83.1 56.9 45.3
Females % in Q1 in Year 1 who were still employed and still in either Q1 or Q2 in Year 7
97.6 86.0 87.1
Source: McKnight, 2000, Tables 6.4-6.6
MethodologyCall
CentresFood Pro-cessing
Hotels Hospitals Retail
Segments
4 finance 4 utilities
3 meat processing 3 confectionery
3 4* chain 1 5* chain 2 Budget chain 2 2-3* independent
7 NHS hospitals
4 food retailers 4 electrical retailers
Focus in-house v outsourcing union v non-union
Meat – initially pork; predominantly chicken Chocolate and sugar confectionery More than 100 employees Mass v batch production
Independent v chain labour market location 4-5* v 2-3*
geographical areas in-house v. out-sourced
High quality v low-priced products
No. 129 interviews
70 interviews 68 interviews
54 interviews 58 interviews
Interviews
Managers HR Managers Team Leaders customer service agents Union reps Managers of temp work agencies
Managers Team Leaders supervisors Operatives Union/Employee Reps
GM Op Manager HR Manager Housekeeping Manager Housekeeping Supervisor Room Attendants
Finance Managers HR Managers Nursing managers domestic services managersTemp work bank managers Assistant nurses Cleaners
Managers in HQ Store managers Jr store managers Supervisors Sales assistants & check-out operators
Food processing
Turnover of £58 billion in 2004
6,000 companies employing 385,000 workers
Exports accounted for only 15% of sales in 2004
The ‘Big Four’ account for 70% of all food sales
Food processing work
Varies from continuous production with high levels of automation to hand-made, individual or small batch products
Skills requirements generally fairly basic
Manual dexterity Ability to undertake routine and repetitive tasks
Jobs learnt in a short space of time
Issues of pay
Chocs Novelty Minty Clucks Ltd
Poultry Co
Baconco
Median Pay 5.64 6.45* 7.22 6.03* 6.71* 7.61 (mean)
% Workers below LPT
83% 41% 0% 63% 29% Below 10%
AgencyPay
5.05-5.52
5.05-5.60
5.05 5.05 5.05 5.05
Agency below LPT
100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Team Leader Pay(highest)
8.45 7.61* 12+* 7.38* 8.27* na
*Alternating 2 shiftsLPT = £6.37na = data not available
Issues of payYou would struggle…especially if you are the main earner...I mean it doesn’t go that far. (Op, Mintys). For other workers, the only way to live on the pay is to share accommodation costs, be part of a dual income family or undertake substantial levels of overtime. Undertaking an additional 20 hours per week all year could raise annual income from around £12,500 to £20,000. (Shop Steward, Baconco)
I have to do overtime… my husband he’s disabled so he can’t work… so I do the overtime so that I can pay the mortgage. (Op, Clucks Ltd)
Most people are forced without a shadow of doubt are forced to work more than 48 hours to bring home a living wage. It’s as simple and straightforward as that. It’s not a case of want, it’s a case of need’ (Shop Steward, Baconco)
Qualifications
No qualifications required for entry level operative jobs
Over 1/3 of all employees in the sector do not have basic school leaving age qualifications
Less than 1/3 have intermediate qualification or above
What are the jobs like?
Pay depressed
Working harder
Benefits cut
Heavy reliance on foreign workers
Hotel Industry Remains a low skill, labour intensive service industry with low wages
Suggested total turnover of £27 billion
Employing between an estimated 240,000 to 309,000
Significant revenue fluctuations
Hotel Work
Characterised by low pay, poor working conditions and patterns, and high labour turnover
I liken my staff to the elves in Harry Potter – beds are made, work is done, but no one sees anyone, the majority of work is done behind the scenes and staff are more or less invisible’ Executive Housekeeper, cited in Hunter-Powell
Issues of payH1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7
Star rating*
4 star deluxe
5 star 2/3 star
4 star deluxe
2/3 star
2/3 star
2/3 star budget
Pay £5.05 per hour
Salaried = £6.16 per hour
£1.72 per room(approx. £6.88 p/h)
£5.05 per hour
£5.05 per hour
£5.05 per hour
£2.47 per room(approx £5.61 p/h)
Rooms in hotel
117 186 380 111 31 60 60
No. of rooms to clean
14 per 8 hrs
11 per 8 hours
16 per 4 hours
14 per 8 hours
9 per 4.5 hours
16-18 per 5 hours approx.
10-15 per 5-6 hours approx.
No. of RAs
14 f/t 30 = 25 f/t, 5 p/t
31 = 23 contract cleaning employees, 8 TWA
14 f/t 5 f/t 4 f/t 4 f/t
Issues of pay
‘for the work you do the rate of pay is unbelievable’ RA, H1 (4* hotel)
‘The pay is crap’ RA, H4 (4* hotel)
‘I think it is difficult to get the right people now…people don’t want to come into the hotel industry…I think it is all down to pay…if you can sit in Tesco’s for £4.85 on your bum putting food through a scan then people are going to do that rather than physically bending down and moving beds and washing floors and stuff like that’ Head Housekeeper, H1 (4* hotel)
Recruitment
No qualifications required
Heavy use of agencies in London
Local women in Scotland
The Polish factor is a big factor in London right now. Britain has opened the door completely to Polish labour which was strangely supported by the government largely because the business community very much supported it because it’s fantastic for business. It is great for the hotel industry to have the labour market flooded with desperate, exploitable Polish women. The people that are doing outsourced chambermaid jobs are Lithuanian, Polish, Russian, Latin American (Living Wage Campaign Officer)
Training Training was on-the-job and shadow existing workers
Work alone with some supervision and fewer rooms
Deemed competent around 12 weeks
Statutory occupational health and safety training
Upper market hotels committed to more formal training and regular on-going training thereafter
Middle market hotels had limited training beyond statutory
Career Progression Opportunities for progression were limited due to flat structure and smaller sized departments
Room attendants, supervisors and department managers were the main jobs
Could become a ‘self-checker’
Some of the hotels provided the opportunity to work in other departments and in some cases other hotels within the group
‘We are a bit scared, as soon as you say the hotel’s university courses. I mean I did too, I really freaked out when I was told you had to do this but I think they are great now and I have been trying to encourage the girls’, Head housekeeper, H4
Call centresCall centres
Call centre agentsCall centre agents 10% paid close to NMW10% paid close to NMW 30% paid below LPT (40% part-timers)30% paid below LPT (40% part-timers)
8 Cases8 Cases Financial services & utilities (2 outsourcers)Financial services & utilities (2 outsourcers) In-bound, mass marketIn-bound, mass market
Call centre jobsCall centre jobs call length: 2.5 - 6 minutescall length: 2.5 - 6 minutes number of calls: 50-120 per daynumber of calls: 50-120 per day tightly monitored & controlledtightly monitored & controlled 1-6 weeks initial training1-6 weeks initial training
‘‘so tedious, it was like watching paint dry’ (Agent F4)so tedious, it was like watching paint dry’ (Agent F4)
‘‘I think it’s just the nature of the job at the end of the I think it’s just the nature of the job at the end of the day… the fact that you’re in a call centre and you’re day… the fact that you’re in a call centre and you’re taking non-stop calls… It’s just some people can do taking non-stop calls… It’s just some people can do that for a long period of time and others can’t’ (Agent that for a long period of time and others can’t’ (Agent F3)F3)
Improving job quality?Improving job quality?
6 companies: quality issues & labour 6 companies: quality issues & labour turnoverturnover
Response:Response:– Less agency workersLess agency workers– Pay increasesPay increases– Improve working timeImprove working time– Other activities, eg. employee involvement, Other activities, eg. employee involvement,
social events, trainingsocial events, training No changes to job designNo changes to job design ‘‘Revolving door’ mentalityRevolving door’ mentality
Retail sectorRetail sector
26% of all low paid workers are in retail26% of all low paid workers are in retail
70% check out operators & sales assistants below 70% check out operators & sales assistants below LPTLPT
Intense competition but increasing concentration Intense competition but increasing concentration & largely profitable& largely profitable
CasesCases Food retailers & electrical/ electronic goodsFood retailers & electrical/ electronic goods
High quality v low priceHigh quality v low price
General trendsGeneral trends
FoodFood No qualificationsNo qualifications Customer service Customer service
skillsskills 2-5 days training2-5 days training Part-time women on Part-time women on
shifts + students etc.shifts + students etc. Lack of opportunities Lack of opportunities
for part-timersfor part-timers
ElectronicsElectronics No qualificationsNo qualifications Product knowledgeProduct knowledge 2-5 days training2-5 days training Full-time men on Full-time men on
shifts + overtimeshifts + overtime Some opportunities, Some opportunities,
eg. management eg. management developmentdevelopment
HospitalsHospitals
17% nursing assistants & 56% cleaners < LPT17% nursing assistants & 56% cleaners < LPT
CasesCases NHSNHS In-houseIn-house & outsourced& outsourced
Key DevelopmentsKey Developments Major increase in spending followed by budget constraintsMajor increase in spending followed by budget constraints Agenda for Change – national pay scales, job ladders, end Agenda for Change – national pay scales, job ladders, end
of two tier systemof two tier system Improved payImproved pay Other benefits, eg. sick pay, pensions, holidays, unsocial Other benefits, eg. sick pay, pensions, holidays, unsocial
hours paymentshours payments
Nursing AssistantsNursing Assistants
No qualifications but No qualifications but GCSEs Maths & GCSEs Maths & English preferredEnglish preferred
Downward mobilityDownward mobility Job ladders improvedJob ladders improved NVQ2 & 3NVQ2 & 3 Pay differentials Pay differentials
narrowed with narrowed with cleanerscleaners
Lack of postsLack of posts
CleanersCleaners
No qualificationsNo qualifications
‘‘reasonable standard reasonable standard of literacy & of literacy & numeracy’numeracy’
Downward mobilityDownward mobility
No incentives to trainNo incentives to train
Outsourcing barrier to Outsourcing barrier to progressionprogression
Lessons for skills policyLessons for skills policy
Four popular assertions follow, all of Four popular assertions follow, all of which are strong elements in current which are strong elements in current English/UK skills policy, yet all of English/UK skills policy, yet all of which are contradicted by our which are contradicted by our findings on low paid work.findings on low paid work.
1. Employers are being held 1. Employers are being held back by lack of skillsback by lack of skills
‘‘The skills of the workforce are a key The skills of the workforce are a key driver of the productivity of an economy. driver of the productivity of an economy. Improving the skills of individuals Improving the skills of individuals enables firms to improve products and enables firms to improve products and processes, to adapt more quickly to processes, to adapt more quickly to changing competitive environments and changing competitive environments and to increase opportunities for to increase opportunities for investment.’ investment.’
(HM Treasury, Pre-budget Report (HM Treasury, Pre-budget Report 2007:51)2007:51)
2. Level 2 = minimum platform 2. Level 2 = minimum platform for employabilityfor employability
Market FailureMarket Failure
‘‘We cannot rely on employers to invest in the We cannot rely on employers to invest in the skills of the lowest skilled without some form skills of the lowest skilled without some form of government intervention as there is a of government intervention as there is a market failure, most likely because market failure, most likely because employers cannot be sure the individual has employers cannot be sure the individual has the ability or motivation to benefit from the ability or motivation to benefit from training’training’
((DfES/DWP (2006: 29) Evidence to Leitch)DfES/DWP (2006: 29) Evidence to Leitch)
3. Qualifications = 3. Qualifications = progressionprogression
Bill Rammell, the further and higher Bill Rammell, the further and higher education minister defending the education minister defending the focus on boosting skills in colleges:focus on boosting skills in colleges:
‘‘vocational training would save vocational training would save thousands of teenagers from a thousands of teenagers from a future in low-paid jobs’future in low-paid jobs’
(Report in TES 23 June 2006 p1)(Report in TES 23 June 2006 p1)
4. Skills = new protection in 4. Skills = new protection in the labour marketthe labour market
We conclude that whatever market We conclude that whatever market segmentation does exist is explained segmentation does exist is explained primarily by social disadvantage, caused by primarily by social disadvantage, caused by lack of basic skills and qualifications, rather lack of basic skills and qualifications, rather than by barriers created by labour law. In than by barriers created by labour law. In the UK context, therefore, we recommend the UK context, therefore, we recommend that measures to improve employability, that measures to improve employability, rather than modernisation of labour law, rather than modernisation of labour law, should be the main priority of government should be the main priority of government policy toward the labour market.policy toward the labour market.
(Select Committee on European Union, 22(Select Committee on European Union, 22ndnd Report, Report, 2007)2007)
Recruitment criteriaRecruitment criteria
Call centre agentCall centre agentQualifications - NONEQualifications - NONEOther – ‘Attitude’, personality, ‘staying Other – ‘Attitude’, personality, ‘staying
power’power’
Food processing operativeFood processing operativeQualifications – NONEQualifications – NONEOther - Basic English, dexterityOther - Basic English, dexterity
Recruitment criteriaRecruitment criteria
Hotel room attendantHotel room attendantQualifications – NONEQualifications – NONEOther – NONEOther – NONE
Nursing assistantNursing assistantQualifications – GCSE Maths/English Qualifications – GCSE Maths/English
preferredpreferredOther – Experience in caringOther – Experience in caring
Recruitment criteriaRecruitment criteria
Sales assistantsSales assistants
Qualifications – NONEQualifications – NONE
Other – ‘attitude’, ‘friendliness’, Other – ‘attitude’, ‘friendliness’, communications skills, basic literacy communications skills, basic literacy and numeracy.and numeracy.
Example 1Example 1
So I suppose you don’t need to be perfect So I suppose you don’t need to be perfect for English, well, not English but maths for English, well, not English but maths and everything but as long as you can and everything but as long as you can sort of read ‘Danger’ and don’t walk in sort of read ‘Danger’ and don’t walk in front of the [machine] that sort of thing.front of the [machine] that sort of thing.
(Line operative, female, poultry (Line operative, female, poultry processing factory, previously worked processing factory, previously worked as a nanny (trained) & chip fryer)as a nanny (trained) & chip fryer)
Example 2Example 2
We are not so much interested in product We are not so much interested in product knowledge, because you can train that. For me knowledge, because you can train that. For me it’s about flexibility… because we do operate it’s about flexibility… because we do operate eight to eight, Monday to Saturday. … It’s about eight to eight, Monday to Saturday. … It’s about attitude. It’s about telephone manner. But again, attitude. It’s about telephone manner. But again, you can train that. It’s the way that they speak on you can train that. It’s the way that they speak on the phone. … Keyboard skills to a large extent. the phone. … Keyboard skills to a large extent. Knowledge of systems, not necessarily ours but Knowledge of systems, not necessarily ours but just your way around a computer. You know. So just your way around a computer. You know. So those are the sort of things that we tend to look those are the sort of things that we tend to look for. for. But it is more about flexibility and attitude.But it is more about flexibility and attitude. (Operations manager, financial call centre)(Operations manager, financial call centre)
Qualification levelsQualification levels
Majority of workers had few/ no Majority of workers had few/ no qualifications – process operative, hotel and qualifications – process operative, hotel and hospital cleaners, retailhospital cleaners, retail
Significantly levels of over-qualification – Significantly levels of over-qualification – call centres, hospitals, migrant workerscall centres, hospitals, migrant workers– Call centres: graduates/ A levels etc. (transitory Call centres: graduates/ A levels etc. (transitory
job)job)– Hospitals: women returnersHospitals: women returners
Downward occupational mobilityDownward occupational mobility
Examples of previous jobsExamples of previous jobs Assistant nursesAssistant nurses
– Dairy farm manager (own business)Dairy farm manager (own business)– Shop manager, Cable TV salesShop manager, Cable TV sales– Aerobics teacherAerobics teacher– Owner of hair salonOwner of hair salon– Accounts clerkAccounts clerk
CleanersCleaners– Accounts/bookkeepingAccounts/bookkeeping– Retail supervisor/ TailorRetail supervisor/ Tailor– Qualified (level 3) nursery nurseQualified (level 3) nursery nurse
Hotel room attendantsHotel room attendants
RAs interviewed in a five star hotel outer RAs interviewed in a five star hotel outer LondonLondon
RA1 Polish - studied economics at university RA1 Polish - studied economics at university & worked in a bank& worked in a bank
RA2 Polish – retail supervisorRA2 Polish – retail supervisor RA3 Vietnamese – no formal qualificationsRA3 Vietnamese – no formal qualifications RA4 Slovakian – degree in accountingRA4 Slovakian – degree in accounting RA5 British – studied childcare at college – RA5 British – studied childcare at college –
dropped outdropped out
Progression opportunities for Progression opportunities for low paid workerslow paid workers
Very limited 1:15 – 1:30?Very limited 1:15 – 1:30? Flat organisational structuresFlat organisational structures Supervisory/team leaders but little Supervisory/team leaders but little
extra payextra pay Rare opportunities for part-timersRare opportunities for part-timers Managers – graduates cascading Managers – graduates cascading
down through labour market into 1down through labour market into 1stst line manager jobsline manager jobs
Qualification = protection in Qualification = protection in labour marketlabour market
Requires labour market shortage e.g. Requires labour market shortage e.g. some call centres (due to turnover)some call centres (due to turnover)
Improved pay and benefitsImproved pay and benefits
Less agency workersLess agency workers
Improved shift systemImproved shift system
Increased employee engagementIncreased employee engagement
No change to work organisation OR No change to work organisation OR skill.skill.
Migrants are the new reserve Migrants are the new reserve army of labour….army of labour….
Migrant workers Migrant workers – Out-compete locals ‘attitude’ and ‘work ethic’Out-compete locals ‘attitude’ and ‘work ethic’– Willingness to work for very low payWillingness to work for very low pay
Our pay scales are lower [than other local Our pay scales are lower [than other local companies] … We tried local, you just can’t get the companies] … We tried local, you just can’t get the people. Even if you get the numbers, you can’t get people. Even if you get the numbers, you can’t get the quality. They will turn up for a couple of days the quality. They will turn up for a couple of days and then won’t bother getting out of bed again so and then won’t bother getting out of bed again so the only way to get reliable agency staff is from the only way to get reliable agency staff is from abroad. abroad.
(HR manager, food processing, agency pay= NMW)(HR manager, food processing, agency pay= NMW)
Qualifications, training and Qualifications, training and progressionprogression
No qualification requirementsNo qualification requirements
Many ‘over-qualified’ workersMany ‘over-qualified’ workers
Lack of trust in qualifications?Lack of trust in qualifications?
Lack of positions not unwillingness to Lack of positions not unwillingness to traintrain
ConclusionConclusion
Jobs very simple, easy to learn, TayloristJobs very simple, easy to learn, Taylorist Jobs require little trainingJobs require little training Most employers will train at lower levels Most employers will train at lower levels
if its neededif its needed Abundant labour supply removes Abundant labour supply removes
constraintsconstraints Regulatory constraints minimalRegulatory constraints minimal What about ‘displaced locals’?What about ‘displaced locals’?
Better
Worse
Call centres
FoodHospitals HotelsRetail
Are jobs getting better or worse?