Ogallala aquifer

Springs form when water table or perched water table intersects the surface.

Typical cave features

Sinkhole

Karst region: early development

Karst region: mature development

Water flow underground can also shape the land surface.

Glacial Ice Budget

Note the change in color, top to bottom.

Fjord

Glacial ponds (“kettles”)

Erratics: boulders carried great distances within the ice.

Minnesota: the “Land of Ten Thousand Lakes”

Drumlin: Ice moved to the right.

Esker: Sub-glacial stream bed.

Terminal Moraines: Ex/ Cape Cod and Long Island

Antarctica

Greenland

Glacial Loess: Covers much of the midwestern U.S.

Faint blue light can reach 1000 m in ideal conditions, but the euphotic zone is usually less than 100 m.

Ocean life is dependent upon the availability of mineral nutrients.

The thermocline is a barrier to this.

New shorelines are made by changing the sea level or by changing the elevation of the land.

Longshore currents work to re-smooth the coastline.

Average ocean surface currents in February-March.

Gulf Stream: Map is by the colonial deputy postmaster general in 1768 – Benjamin Franklin. Mail took 2 weeks longer to go from England to the colonies than the other way around.

Simplified “conveyor belt” of oceanic circulation.