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INFLUENCE OF PARENTAL EXPECTATIONS FOR ACADEMIC

SUCCESS ON SELF-EFFICACY BELIEF AND ACHIEVEMENT

MOTIVATION OF PUPILS IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN

OWERRIEDUCATION ZONE II OF IMO STATE,

NIGERIA

BY

NDUKWU, ERIC CHIMA

PG/M.Ed./09/50678

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS, FACULTY

OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.

AUGUST, 2012.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Self confidence in one’s competence plays a vital role in an individual’s life

endeavours. Nothing in life could be more compelling and gratifying than people’s

trust in their capabilities to accomplish a given task. Individuals’ belief in their

ability to satisfactorily achieve a set goal is called self-efficacy beliefs (Matsubima

& Shiomi, 2003). Self-efficacy beliefs are beliefs about one’s personal competence

in a particular situation (Woolfolk, 2007). It is pupils’ beliefs that they can

successfully accomplish a task (Roy & Brad, 2007). Albert Bandura who

originated the concept of self-efficacy in 1977, views self efficacy as people’s

belief in their own ability to succeed in a particular task (Bandura, 1993). People

acquire self-efficacy belief through their past experiences, modeling, social

persuasion and psychological factors.

People who have succeeded before in education are more likely to achieve

academic success than their counterparts who have not succeeded before; pupils

learn through vicarious reinforcement. Verbal persuasion and psychological factors

tend to influence how pupils learn. Bandura (1997) posited that self efficacy

beliefs affect academic achievements. Bandura added that people who have high

self-efficacy beliefs are more likely to achieve success in school than their

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counterparts who do not. This is because they put in their best and have faith that

they will do well. High self-efficacy belief makes pupils to work very hard to

conquer a task and achieve success. Pupils with high self-efficacy belief resist

failure through hard work and see success in hard work, while pupils who have low

self-efficacy beliefs do not work hard because they believe that they cannot do well

no matter how they try (Pajares & Schunk, 2001). Pupils with low self-efficacy

beliefs have been suggested to attribute success to good luck and failures to bad

luck while pupils with high self-efficacy attribute success to hard work and failure

to laziness.

When individuals have a strong belief in their ability to achieve a particular

goal, they may design steps towards achieving the goal. Self-efficacy belief is a

motivator (Bandura, 1991). If pupils have a high sense of efficacy in a given area,

they will set higher goals, be less afraid of failure, and find new strategies when

old ones fail (Shwarter & Hallum, 2008). If their sense of efficacy for doing a

particular thing is high, they are likely to set high goals. But if their sense of

efficacy is low, however, they may avoid doing a particular thing altogether or give

up easily when problems arise. There is evidence that a higher sense of self-

efficacy supports motivation, even when the efficacy is an overestimation. Pupils

and adults who are optimistic about the future are more mentally and physically

healthy, less depressed, and more motivated to achieve success.

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Woolfolk (2010) said that motivation to learn is the tendency to find

academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and try to benefit from them.

Pupils’ self-efficacy beliefs determine their motivation to achieve success in

school. Self-efficacy also influences motivation through goal setting (Sahusrzer,

2005).

Achievement Motivation is the internal drive to achieve success or the

willingness to actualize a set goal. Achievement motivation is a construct

postulated by David McClelland (1961) in his book titled “The Achieving Society”

(Anusiem, 2006). In the book, McClelland defined achievement motivation as the

need for achievement (n-ach). He argued that the need for achievement is

internally motivated and that achievement motivated people set goals which they

can achieve with their own efforts and ability. McClelland said that people with

high achievement motivation behaviour are successful both in education and other

areas of human endeavour (Anusiem, 2006). Woolfolk (2007) observed that a

person who has high levels of achievement motivation would have a high tendency

to strive for success, persist in the face of failures/setbacks and experience pride in

accomplishment while others with low achievement motivation do the contrary.

The achievement motivation theory is one of the psychological theories that

concern themselves with the reason why people do what they do, their persistence

and vigor in carrying out a task. Achievement motivation varies from one

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individual to another, depending on the reason different people engage in the task.

Learners who are achievement motivated do very well in school, whether they are

influenced by parents or teachers to do so or not. Achievement motivation is an

inner need to succeed (Woolfolk, 2010).

Gage and Berliner (1998) see achievement motivation as the desire or

interest in general or in a specific field. They argued that achievement motivation

is influenced by social comparisons. They held that some children have the drive to

compete with their peers right from their early school years. They also observed

that many students are motivated by their parents’ praises and competitions with

others in the classroom rather than by self-determination. Gage and Berliner agreed

that gender and parents’ expectations could also influence pupils’ achievement

motivation especially when they are compared with others who did well in

academics. They propounded that when children are encouraged that they can do

better. Woolfolk (2007) observed that one of the factors that could affect a child’s

achievement motivation in school is parents, teachers or students’ expectations.

The sources of pupils’ achievement motivation are: Parents’ expectations,

encouragements of independence of their children, praises and rewards for success,

association of achievement with positive feelings, association of achievement with

one’s own competency and efforts not luck, desire to be effective, and the desire to

achieve high academic success ( www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needs).

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Academic success could also be called high academic achievement.

Academic success means achieving the targets people have set for themselves, and

against the set standards for whatever task they engaged in. In a specific task like a

test, it would mean attaining a score that is above average. Academic success could

be defined as achieving excellence in all academic disciplines, in class as well as

extracurricular activities. It includes excellence in sporting, behaviour, confidence,

communication skills, punctuality, Arts, and Culture alike.

Many students are high achievers who do not need help to do well in their

class works. Others struggle with school works and need extra support and

instruction across a variety of subjects. Today’s pupils are under higher parental

pressure and expectations than the previous generations. This could be due to the

level of academic success parents want their children to achieve. The need for

academic success helps students to plan ahead for tests and assignments. It enables

learners to organize their work so that they can avoid being attacked by higher

academic requirements than they can afford at the time of reckoning, and to

circumvent last minute panic. Philip Zimbardo an American Psychologist said that

academic success depends on hard work and preparation

(http://www.Brainyquote.com).

In an educational institution, success is measured by academic

achievements, or how well a student meets standards set by government and the

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institution itself. As career competition grows fiercer in the working world, the

importance of students doing well in school has caught the attention of parents,

legislators and government alike. Most, if not all parents want or expect their

children to do well in academics at all levels. Today’s students are under higher

parental pressure and expectations than the previous generations. This could be due

to the level of academic success parents want/expect their children to achieve.

Most parents show a keen interest in their children’s achievement both in

education and other areas of human survival. That is why many parents strive and

try their best to provide for their children’s needs. Parents struggle everyday and

do all sorts of things to care for their children (Mba, 2007). Such parents do not

labour themselves because they derive joy in suffering, but, it is because they have

some expectations from their children.

Many enlightened parents believe that they can only expect great

achievements and success from their children only when the children are well

cared for. Some parents may believe that when they provide children with the

necessary things they need, that their children will do well in school (Adebayo,

2000). Such parents tend to blame pupils’ poor achievement on low self efficacy

beliefs and low achievement motivation.

Parents’ constant provision for their children’s needs seems to enable them

have influence on their children’s actions and prospects from childhood till the

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adolescence stages (Egereonu, 2001). Parents’ influence on their children extends

to the kinds of expectations they have for their children’s school achievement.

Students who believe that their parents expect them to attend the university may

have better attendance and better attitude towards their academics in high or

secondary schools. When parents’ expectations for a child are made known to the

child, it appears to energize the child’s self-efficacy beliefs and achievement

motivation. Parents’ expectations for their children are more likely to have

influence on the children, if and only if the parents-child’s relationships are

characterized by warmth and closeness (Family Study, 2009). Katz (1999) held

that high expectations without caring can result in setting goals that are impossible

for students to attain. Parents who have high expectations for their children try to

provide them with nurturing support. Such parents are more involved in their

children’s life and do their best to share quality time with their children. Children

from such homes tend to do well in school because they know that their parents

love them and expect them to do well in school. Many educated parents tend to

believe strongly in their abilities to help their children learn.

Parents could expect certain accomplishments from their children but, too

high parental expectations on school children may trigger anxiety on a school

child. Sigelman and Shaffer (1995) found that high parental expectations can only

cause anxiety, poor performance, and failures to pupils in school. They concluded

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that limits that are too severe or harshly enforced are difficult to attain. To

Sigelman and Shaffer, such tasks engender tension and restrictive behaviours

rather than motivation and engagement. When parents pressure a child with an

academic expectation higher than the child’s ability, the child may either drop out

of school or stay in school with anxiety (Sigelman & Shaffer, 1995). Sigelman and

Shaffer were of the view that high parental expectation has little fish big pond

effect (Woolfolk, 2010).

High parental expectations occur when parents expect their child to achieve

the highest academic grade or be the best in the class. Parents’ expectations are

influenced by the reason parents ascribe for their children’s achievement in school.

Stevenson and Lee (1990) in their study on “Family Based Expectations” found

that parental expectations have positive influence on children. They held that

children will generally live up to, or down to, their parents’ expectations. This is

because parents’ expectations for their children trigger self-fulfilling-prophecy (a

prediction if believed comes true). Some researchers like Stevenson and Lee

(1995) hold that low parental expectations may also make a child to be dull and

unserious with the child’s studies and life as well. Low parental expectation occurs

when parents do not expect a child to do well in school because of one reason or

the other. Katz (1999) opined that caring without high expectation is dangerous on

students. Parental expectation seems to be best when it is moderately high. Parental

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expectation is moderately high when it is attainable and realistic. That is when

parents expect their child to do well in school, but in event the child did not do

well, they take it in good fate and encourage the child. It is unfortunate that despite

the type of expectations different parents have in their children’s education, their

academic achievement in the state and national common entrance examinations

have continued to decline steadily. Parental expectations could be affected by the

level of academic success parents expect of their children. Some parents assume

that their children’s academic success is determined by their gender.

Gender is both a psychological and sociological construct capable of

affecting a person’s actions. Gender is a concept used to distinguish between males

and females. Particularly in the cases of men and women, masculine and feminine,

that is attributes assigned to them (Woolfolk, 2010). The characteristics

demonstrated by boys and girls vary from sex to social role and gender identity.

Sexologist John Money introduced the terminological distinction between

biological sex and gender as a role in 1955. Before his work, it was uncommon to

use the word “gender” to refer to anything. However, Money’s meaning of the

word (gender) did not become widespread until the 1970s, when feminist theory

embraced the distinction between biological sex and the social construct of gender.

Today, the distinction strictly followed in some contexts, like feminist literature.

The meaning of gender has expanded to include “sex” or even to replace the latter

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word. Most researchers believe that gender has a way of affecting the kind of

expectations parents have for their children. Denzin (2008) was of the view that

gender tends to be one of the factors that affect pupils’ perseverance and

achievement at all levels of education. Pupils’ self efficacy beliefs and

achievement motivation seem to be affected by gender. In this study, gender serves

as a moderating variable in determining pupils’ self efficacy beliefs and

achievement motivation. The researcher seeks to know whether gender and

parental expectation influence pupils’ self-efficacy beliefs and achievement

motivation in Owerri education zone II of Imo State.

Statement of the Problem

In a culturally bounded society like Nigeria, pupils seem to be influenced by

the stereotype placed on their gender. Both pupils with high and low self efficacy

belief and achievement motivation tend to believe that their parents expect them to

perform highly or lesser because of their gender. Evidence has shown that the

prevailing problem in Owerri education zone II of Imo State, Nigeria is that, the

achievements of pupils in the state and national common entrance examinations are

declining steadily. Parents, teachers, and the government are worried, especially,

now that pupils’ poor achievement is attributed to low self efficacy beliefs and low

achievement motivation. There is fear that if pupils’ achievements in the state and

national examinations continue to fall like this, it may make pupils to drop out of

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school, become deviants, or indulge in examination malpractices. This may also

affect the future economic and technological growth of Nigeria. Studies in Europe

and America show that when parental expectation for a child is made known to the

child, it appears to energize the child’s self efficacy belief and achievement

motivation. One wonders if the above statement is true of the Nigerian children.

How parental expectations influence self efficacy belief, achievement motivation

and academic success of Nigerian pupils who operate in different socio-cultural

environments, is yet to be determined.

Purpose of the Study

This study aimed at investigating the influence of parental expectations for

academic success on self-efficacy belief and achievement motivation of pupils in

primary schools in Owerri education zone II of Imo state, Nigeria.

Specifically the study seeks to:

1. Determine the influence of age on the self efficacy belief and achievement

motivation of pupils in their academic activities.

2. Determine the influence of parental expectations on pupils’ self-efficacy

beliefs.

3 Determine the influence of parental expectations on pupils’ achievement

motivation.

4 Determine the influence of gender on pupils’ self-efficacy beliefs.

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5 Determine the influence of gender on pupils’ achievement motivation.

Significance of the Study

Generally the findings of this study when properly disseminated through

publications, seminars, and workshops, will have the capability of being useful to

pupils, parents, teachers, school counselors, school administrator and education

planners who will read the work. Specifically, the findings of this study will

encourage pupils who will read it to have self-efficacy beliefs and achievement

motivation in their education. It will make them have self-confidence, reduce test

anxiety, reduce fear of failure, increase hard work in pupils, increase pupils’

interest in learning, increase their persistence and effectiveness at all levels of

education. It will enable pupils to learn and realize that they can do well

academically on their own.

The findings of this study will be capable of influencing pupils’ self-efficacy

beliefs, feelings, motivation to learn, and ways of life. It will also help to determine

the level of self efficacy belief and achievement motivation of pupils. It will also

depict whether self- efficacy belief and achievement motivation influence

academic success or not.

The findings of the study will show how parental expectations influence

pupils’ self efficacy belief and achievement motivation. It will also enlighten

parents on the type of expectation they should have for their children, and the need

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to interact and encourage their kids at all times to achieve high academic success

irrespective of their expectations or the child’s gender. It will reveal whether

gender influences self-efficacy beliefs and achievement motivation or not. This

study has the potential of contributing to literature on gender, parental

expectations, self-efficacy beliefs and achievement motivation theories.

Scope of the Study

The study focused on the influence of parental expectations for academic

success on self-efficacy-beliefs and achievement motivation of pupils in primary

schools. The content scope covered parental expectations, academic success, self

efficacy belief and achievement motivation. The study explored the influence of

gender and parental expectations on self-efficacy beliefs and achievement

motivation in the area. Owerri education zone II is a sub zone in Owerri education

zone of Imo state. Owerri education zone II is made up of the following towns;

Enyiogugu, Nguru, Okwuato, Mbutu, Uvuru, Lorji and, Amuzu.

Research Questions

The following research questions were posed to guide the study;

1. What is the influence of age on self efficacy belief and achievement

motivation of pupils in their academics?

2. What is the influence of parental expectations on pupils’ self-efficacy

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belief?

3. What is the influence of parental expectations on pupils’ achievement

motivation?

4. What is the influence of gender on pupils’ self-efficacy beliefs?

5. What is the influence of gender on pupils’ achievement motivation?

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Hypotheses

Five null hypotheses were formulated and will be tested at 0.05 probability

level.

HO1: There is no significant difference in the mean self efficacy belief and

achievement motivation ratings of pupils based on age.

HO2: There is no significant difference in the mean self efficacy beliefs score

of pupils whose parents have either high or low expectations for their

academic success.

HO3: There is no significant differences in the mean achievement motivation

score of pupils whose parents have either low or high expectations in

their school achievement.

HO4: There is no significant difference in the mean score of male and female

pupils’ self-efficacy beliefs.

HO5: There is no significant difference in the mean score of male and female

pupils’ achievement motivation.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter reviewed related literature under the following sub-headings:

Conceptual framework, theoretical framework, empirical studies and summary of

literature reviewed.

Conceptual Framework

Concept of Self-Efficacy Beliefs

Concept of Achievement Motivation

Concept of Academic success

Concept of Parental Expectations

Concept of Gender

Theoretical Framework

Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory

David McClelland’s Achievement Motivation theory

Review of Empirical Studies

Studies on Self-Efficacy Beliefs

Studies on Achievement Motivation

Studies on academic success

Studies on Parental Expectations

Studies on Gender

Summary of Reviewed Literature

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Conceptual Framework

This section presents the concepts used in this study.

The Concept of Self Efficacy Beliefs

The concept of self-efficacy beliefs; Albert Bandura is of the belief that one

can master a situation and produce positive outcomes in an activity. Self efficacy

belief is the belief that “I can”. Self efficacy is people’s belief in their capabilities

to organize, execute and achieve success in a particular task (Bandura, 1997). Self

efficacy belief is the trust people have in themselves that they are capable of

performing in a certain manner to attain a set goal (Bandura, 2008). Self efficacy

beliefs are the beliefs individuals have about their capabilities to produce

designated levels of performance that exercises influence over events that affect

their lives. It is a belief that one has the capabilities to execute the courses of

actions required to manage prospective situations (Smith, & Betz, 2000). Self

efficacy beliefs are individuals’ trust in their abilities to solve a problem. Self

efficacy beliefs are the expectations peoples have that they can perform a task

(Pajares & Schunk, 2001). Efficacy, competence or effectiveness is the power to

produce effects or do something well. It is pupils’ judgment of their capabilities

based on mastery criteria. Pajares and Schunk added that self-efficacy belief is a

sense of people’s competence within a specific framework, focusing on the

individual’s assessment of their abilities to perform specific tasks in relation to

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goals and standards rather than in comparison with others’ capabilities (Rushi,

2007). Woolfolk (2010) said that self-efficacy is a person’s sense of being able to

deal effectively with a particular task. It is a belief about one’s personal

competence in a particular situation. Self efficacy refers to people’s conviction that

they can achieve a specific goal (Weiten & Lloyd, 2000). Bandura (1997)

emphasized that self-efficacy belief is a critical factor in whether or not students

achieve. He maintained that self efficacy has much in common with mastery,

motivation and intrinsic motivation. Self efficacy beliefs determine how people

feel, think, achieve, believe and motivate themselves. Self efficacy beliefs are

pupils’ trust in their capabilities to solve a given problem without external help.

The Concept of Achievement Motivation

Achievement means success in a task or undertaking while motivation is the

willingness to hit a target, or the internal state that energizes, arouses, directs,

channels, maintains and sustains a behaviour till a goals is achieved (Gage &

Berliner, 1998). The study of motivation focuses on the reason why people initiate

actions and direct them towards a specific goal. How long it takes pupils to get

started, how involved and expectant they are depends on the type of motivation

they have. Motivation is of two types; intrinsic and extrinsic motivations.

Intrinsic motivation is the natural tendency pupils have to seek out and

conquer challenges as they pursue their personal interests (Gage & Berliner, 1998).

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Intrinsic motivation is not affected by external forces, such as reinforcements and

rewards (Woolfolk, 2007). Intrinsic motivation is all about doing something for the

pleasure and joy of doing that. That is, doing a particular thing for its own sake

(Santrock, 2009). Extrinsic motivation is based on factors not related to the activity

itself. It means doing something because of external forces, such as the rewards

and reinforcement (Woolfolk, 2007). This is in-line with the view of Fishbein, the

expectancy value theorists who said that “our motivation for success is the value of

the goal to us”. Those who are extrinsically motivated quantify

success/achievement in terms of rewards/money and the fame it will attract to

them. They do not embark on a task for the sake of achieving the task or the

challenge posed by the task, but for the rewards they stand to gain when they

conquer the task. Achievement motivation is the zeal to succeed in a particular

undertaking, or the willingness to be good at doing something. Achievement

motivation is of two kinds; autonomous achievement motivation and social

achievement motivation (Gage & Berliner, 1998).

Autonomous Achievement Motivation: This is when an individual compares

his/her performances with the initial ones; using “inner” standards. This individual

will be motivated to achieve more if he/she believes that he/she is doing well or

needs to do better.

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Social Achievement Motivation: This is when people compare their performance

with that of others. Achievement motivation is the need to achieve success.

Psychologists have observed that people with a high level of achievement

motivation exhibit unique characteristics such as hard work and perseverance

(Woolfolk, 2007). Achievement motivation is the tendency to endeavour for

success, and choose goal oriented/success activities. Achievement motivation

forms the basis of a successful life. Pupils, who are oriented towards achievement,

generally enjoy life and feel in control. Achievement motivated pupils are dynamic

and they have self-respect. Achievement motivated people set moderately difficult

but easily achievable targets, which help them to achieve their objectives (Dweck,

2000). They do not set extremely difficult or extremely easy targets. They ensure

that they only undertake on the tasks they can achieve to attain both their parents’

expectations and theirs. Achievement motivation is the willingness to hit a target or

the internal drive to achieve success.

Concept of Academic Success

Academic Success means achieving a set academic target. Philip Zimbardo

an American psychologist said that academic success depends on research and hard

work. Zimbardo added that academic success is pertinent in education at all levels.

Academic success is imperative because it is strongly linked to positive outcomes

which parents value for children. Researches show that adults with high levels of

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education are more likely to be employed, and to earn higher salaries.

Academically successful students will have more employment opportunities than

those with less education. Research also shows that people who are academically

successful are more stable in their employment, more likely to have health

insurance, less dependent on public assistance, less likely to engage in criminal

activities, are more active as citizens, charitable volunteers, and more healthy

(Rentner & Kober, 2001).

To achieve academic success, some skills must be employed. Most pupils

want to do well in school, yet many still fail to complete the level of work

necessary to succeed academically. The reason is often motivation and self –

efficacy beliefs. It takes a combination of skills – organization, time management,

prioritization, concentration and motivation – to achieve academic success.

Many students think that being a good student means just showing up for

classes, taking a few notes, reading the textbooks, and studying right before the

tests. However, learning, like many other activities, involves a complex set of

skills that require constant practice. For example, if a person wants to become a

good football player, he/she would have to learn how to dribble, pass, shoot,

rebound, be a team player, etc., and they would have to practice these individual

skills over and over in order to improve them. Similarly, studying involves

learning a complex set of skills, such as note taking, test taking, etc., that must be

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practiced in order for children to become good pupils (http://dus.pus.edu/academic

success/studyskills.html).

To achieve academic success many factors should be considered and

employed. Location/Environment: Pupils who are serious about achieving

academic success should find a good location. They can use the libraries, study

rooms, or empty classroom. Such pupil should make reading a habit and work

every day. Cramming is not conducive to understanding and retaining large

amounts of information. Pupils should use the time between classes to read. They

should seek help to improve their grades. Pupils should make use of day planner or

wall calendar. They should plan ahead for assignments and examination periods.

Students should get energized by eating; exercising and sleeping well;

fatigue and stress weaken memory and comprehension. Eat properly, exercise

regularly, and get adequate sleep. Perform like a pro; go to class prepared and take

thorough notes. Don’t miss class. Someone else’s notes aren’t going to be as good

as having gone to the lecture yourself. While taking notes, listen for emphases and

examples. Lessons and textbooks are useful; for school learning requires

understanding how pieces of information fit together to form a “big picture”. Use

tables of contents, headings and subheadings to organize information. Do

something to remember key information; be active, generate examples, create

mnemonics, make summary notes, identify key words, highlight textbooks, or add

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margin notes. Improve your memory by being creative and interested. Remember

key points and prove them; no matter how well you understand something, without

practice forgetting will occur. Before a test, recall information without looking at

notes or textbooks and by practicing questions. Be test smart; don’t lose marks

because of test-writing errors. Use strategies to tackle different types of tests. Read

instructions, budget time to marks, and do less difficult questions first to build

confidence. The above practices and factors if properly used are most likely to

result to academic success which parents desire or expect from their children.

Concept of Parental Expectations

Parental expectations are parents’ desires, set standards, and aspiration for

their children. Parental expectations of early childhood education are the focus of

social psychology, child development psychology, and family education (Li,

2002). Parental expectation is an important factor that influences children’s

physical and mental development. Suitable expectations contribute a lot in the

shaping of children’s good qualities (http://www.ehow.com).

Parental behaviours and expectations influence not only how parents treat their

children but also what the children in turn believe about their own abilities and

performances (Woolfolk, 2007). Parents who believe that hard work matters when

it comes to abilities and how one achieves tend to have children who bear their

parents’ expectations. For example, if a boy’s parents believe that the child should

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do well in sciences, he probably will. Likewise, if a girl’s parents believe that she

will do well in sciences, she probably will (Gage, & Berliner, 1998). The cultural

significance of the subject areas and the expectations for a particular child plays a

vital role in determining the attitudes the child goes to the classroom with.

Stevenson and Lee (1990) in their study on “Family Based Expectations”

found that parental expectations have positive influence on children. They added

that children will be what their parents expect them to be while Sigelman and

Shaffer (1995) in their research study found that high parental expectations cause

anxiety, poor performance and failures in school. To Sigelman and Shaffer, high

parental expectation is a vice and not a virtue.

Li (2002) views the source of high parental expectations as the Confucian

heritage. Li said that five thousand years of feudal era produced unique cultural

beliefs; such as academic achievement leads to higher social status (Li, 2002). That

is in line with Abraham Lincoln’s assertion that “A sound education is a sure key

to success. And John F. Kennedy’s assumption that, it is only education that can

bridge the gap between the rich and the poor (Iluebe, 2004).That could be the

reason why Chinese children who come from poor homes work hard to succeed

and bring honour to their families. Li posited that in China, all parents want their

children to achieve privileged positions through academic excellence (Li,

2002).Other factors that influenced parental expectations in the world include

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parents’ childhood experiences, position and culture. How parents were motivated

to achieve by their own parents influences the expectations they have for their

children (Family Study, 2009). Most parents today want their children to obtain a

quality education and reap its benefits (Sue & Abe, 1995). Li reflected that the

high expectations parents experienced in their childhood by their own parents not

only contributed to their own success, but also followed the next generation,

leading parents to have high expectations for their children (Chen & Uttal, 1988).

Chinese parents see high educational expectations as a cultural essence of

Confucian philosophy (Okazuki, 1990). Children’s striving for excellence in China

is not an individual’s affair but a collective responsibility of both the family and

community at large (Epstein, 2001). Chinese cultural expectations held that both

the authority of tradition, and societies were judged by the educational background

of a city. High achievers are valued and celebrated for their excellence while poor

performers are discriminated as well, Epstein concluded.

Parents are the children’s first and most powerful teachers. They have

enormous power to influence the lives of their children in many ways. Most

parents acknowledge that students’ learning does not occur only in the classroom.

No parents want their children to do poorly in school, though many parents do not

understand what it takes to guide a child to a successful life. A clear vision and

understanding of the pupils’ school activities by their parents can help children to

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do well in school (Gage & Berliner, 1998). Parents’ involvement in a child’s

school improves the pupils’ achievements. It helps a child to accomplish many

social goals as well. Parents’ involvement in their children’s education is

influenced by the expectations they have for their children.

There is evidence about the benefits of parents’ expectation and involvement

in their children’s education, and literacy activities in particular (Van- Steensel,

2006). Research shows that parental involvement in children’s learning positively

affects the child’s performance at school, both in primary and secondary schools

(Jeynes, 2007). The impact is the same regardless of ethnicity, family background,

parents’ level of education and the child’s gender. There are also numerous studies

that have shown that children who grow up in an education stimulating home

environment do very well academically regardless of their socio-economic

background (Jeynes, 2005).

Parental expectation and involvement have a significant effect on children’s

achievement and adjustment. Parental expectation and involvement lead children

to a greater problem solving skill, school enjoyment, better school attendance,

fewer behaviourial problems at school, great social and emotional development

(Van- Steensel, 2006). Parents get involved in their children’s school achievements

to realize the expectations they have for their wards and make a difference in their

28

children’s achievements. Parents who promote reading as a valuable and

worthwhile activity tend to have children who are motivated to read for pleasure.

Parental expectations and involvement have the greatest effect in the child’s

early years of education. Many researchers have found that parental interest and

expectation in their children’s education are the greatest predictors of academic

achievements. Dearing, Kreider, Simpkins and Weiss (2006) postulated that family

expectation and involvement in school matters most for children.

Parents are fundamentally motivated to become involved in their children’s

education by their sense of self-efficacy in helping their children succeed in

education. This is due to the expectations they hold for their children. These

perceptions and beliefs contribute to parents’ involvement in their children’s

education (Family Study, 2009). Parental expectations are parents’ desires,

aspirations and set standard for their children to do well both in school and other

areas of human endeavours.

The Concept of Gender

Gender is a concept used to distinguish between masculine and feminine,

that is, male and female. Every culture has gender based expectations for students,

in most cultures it is assumed that males and females are supposed to act

differently; learn some things differently and achieve differently (Gage & Berliner,

1998). Some cultures expect that males or females cannot excel at certain things

29

because of their gender. Parents have higher academic expectations for girls than

they do for boys. http://www.childtrendsdatabarnk. Researchers like Lent, Lopez

and Beischke (1991) in their study on gender and academic achievement found that

boys achieve more than girls in calculation subjects while the study of Fennema

and Sherman (1977) revealed that there is no difference in students’ academic

achievements based on gender. Gender schema develops from the child’s innate

tendency to classify and simplify information based on gender. Gage and Berliner

(1998) were of the view that gender schema develops in pupils and influences their

zeal; what they believe, how they do, learn, remember and achieve success in life.

One wonders if the types of expectations parents have for their children based on

gender influences the self-efficacy beliefs and achievement motivation in school.

Relationship among Gender, Parental Expectations, Self-Efficacy Beliefs,

Achievement Motivation and Academic Success

Gender and the type of expectations parents have for their children tend to

determine the levels of self-efficacy beliefs and achievement motivation their

children exhibit at all times. Self-efficacy belief is pupils’ trust in their capabilities

to achieve a set goal. Self-efficacy belief determines students’ resilience and

spontaneity. Achievement motivation is the zeal to actualize a set goal. Self-

efficacy beliefs and achievement motivation seem to be two sides of a coin, they

are inseparable, but many researchers believe that self-efficacy belief influences

achievement motivation at all levels of education. Pupils’ self-efficacy beliefs and

30

achievement motivation could be assumed to be determined by their gender and

parental expectations.

Fig.1 Relationship among Gender, Parental Expectations, Self Efficacy Beliefs

and Achievement Motivation

The diagram above shows the relationship between gender, parental

expectations, self-efficacy beliefs, achievement motivation, and levels of academic

success. The diagram also depicts that gender could influence the type of

expectations some parents have for their children. Gender and parental

Gender

Levels of

Achievement

Motivation

Level of

Self-efficacy

Beliefs

Parental

Expectations

Levels of

Academic

Success

31

expectations are assumed to have the potential of influencing both pupils’ self

efficacy beliefs and their achievement motivation in school. The diagram also

illustrates that self efficacy belief and achievement motivation tend to influence the

level of academic success pupils achieve in school.

Theoretical Framework

This section discusses the theories used in this study as follows;

Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory by Albert Bandura provides a framework for

explaining how personalization and modeling are used to enhance the capabilities

of human learning. Self-efficacy is a major construct of this theory. Bandura

(1977) sought to address the related question of what mediates knowledge and

action beginning with his seminal work on self-efficacy (Bandura,1977).

Self efficacy beliefs theory was propounded by Albert Bandura in 1977 in

his publication titled Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change

(Bandura, 1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change was

an extension of Bandura’s social cognitive learning theory. Bandura defined self-

efficacy belief as peoples’ belief in his/her abilities to accomplish a given task

(Bandura, 2008). The idea of self-efficacy is one of the centre points in positive

psychology; this branch of psychology focuses on the factors that make meaning to

people’s lives. It is believed that people’s personalized ideas of self-efficacy

32

beliefs affect their social interactions in almost every way. It is vital to understand

how necessary it is to foster the development of self efficacy beliefs in pupils. Self-

efficacy beliefs lead to productive and happy life. Peoples’ beliefs about their

efficacy could be developed through four main sources of influence (Bandura,

1977).The sources of SEB include;

1. Past/Mastery experience

2. Modeling

3. Social persuasion

4. Psychological factors.

Bandura said that the most effective way of creating a strong sense of self

efficacy beliefs is through mastery (past) experiences (Bandura, 1997). Bandura

said that success builds a robust belief in one’s personal competence. Success

raises self efficacy beliefs while failure lowers it (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002).

Failures undermine self efficacy belief especially if it occurs constantly or occurs

before a sense of self-efficacy is firmly established. If people experience only easy

successes, they will begin to expect quick results and are easily discouraged when

failure eventually occurs (Bandura, 1991; Woolfolk, 2007). A resilient sense of

efficacy requires experiences in overcoming obstacles through perseverant efforts.

Some setbacks and difficulties in life pursuits serve as a useful purpose in teaching

people that success requires sustained efforts and hard work (Jimenez, 2006).

33

When people become convinced that they have what it takes to succeed, they

persevere in the face of setbacks and achieve their goals (Schwarzer, 2005).

Another way of creating self-efficacy belief is through vicarious experiences

(modeling or observing others perform a task) provided by social models. One can

hear some kids say that “if they can do it, I can do it as well”. This is the process of

comparison between an individual and some other people. When people see their

equals succeeding at something, their self-efficacy belief will increase (Schunk &

Pajares, 2002). And when they see their equals failing, their self-efficacy beliefs in

that particular task decrease vice-versa (Smith & Betz, 2000). This process is more

effectual when pupils see the performer of a task as being similar to them in

abilities/gender or as model. Modeling is a powerful influence on an individual,

especially when learners are unsure of their own abilities to perform a particular

task (Matsushima & Shimoi, 2003). Self efficacy is learned (Weiten & Lloyd,

2000). Therefore people seek proficient models who possess the attributes to which

they aspire to have. Having mastery of a good skill raises one’s self-efficacy

beliefs (Lent & Hackett, 1987).

Some people rely on encouragements and discouragements to take actions.

Social persuasion has a strong influence on some people. Individuals must

remember a particular thing they did not do because they were discouraged. This is

because it is easier to decrease one’s self efficacy beliefs with persuasion than to

34

increase it (Jimenez, 2006). While self confidence and positive persuasion increase

self-efficacy beliefs, negative persuasion decreases it (Schwarzer, 2005). However

people can be persuaded verbally that they possess the capabilities to master a

given skill, do something, or that they can succeed in a particular activity.

The fourth way of modifying peoples’ self-efficacy belief is by reducing

their stress reactions, and altering their negative psychological/emotional state(s)

(Schunk & Pajares, 2002). In an unusual stressful situation, people easily exhibit

signs of distress; such as aches, pains, fatigue, fear, shaking of head to mention but

a few (Matsushima & Shiomi, 2003). If a person is caught by stage fright before

presenting a public speech, the person may lack self-efficacy beliefs. Thus, what

affects self-efficacy beliefs could be the implication or what the outcome of an

event may be. For instance, before an examination, a child may think “what will

my parents tell me if I fail this examination?” It is the fear of uncertainties that

may affect one’s psychological state in carrying out some activities.

Parents’ self-efficacy beliefs have made most parents to hold for their

children such high expectations their children cannot achieve. Many of them

believe that since they have made head way in life that their children must follow

suit. Parents’ self-efficacy belief is one of the reasons behind the pressure most

children receive from their parents. Many parents believe that since they are

educated, their children must equally be, forgetting the concept of individual

35

differences, which states that no two individuals are perfectly alike even identical

twins (Egereonu, 2001). Parents’ expectation for their children is reinforced by

their own belief in their own efficacy.

Students with low self efficacy beliefs shy away from academic interactions

with their peers and isolate themselves in their studies (Jimenez, 2006). Pupils with

high self-efficacy beliefs seem to be more able to live stress free lives that is

rewarding, such pupils are happy pupils (Bandura, 1997; Ormrod, 2006).

Self efficacy belief helps to determine the outcomes people expect (Schunk &

Pajares, 2002). Confident people anticipate successful outcomes. Pupils who are

confident in their social skill anticipate successful social encounters (Matsushina &

Shiomi, 2003). Pupils who are confident in their academic skill expect high marks

in examinations and expect the quality of work they do to reap personal and

professional benefits for them (Pajares & Schunk, 2001). Pupils who doubt their

skills often envision rejection or ridicule even before they establish a social

contact. Such students lack confidence in their academic skills and capabilities

(Woolfolk, 2007). They foresee a low grade before they begin an examination.

Students with low efficacy beliefs attribute academic success to good luck and

failures to bad luck while students with high self efficacy beliefs attribute

academic success to hard work and failure to laziness (Price & Crapo, 2002). Low

self-efficacy belief is the prime cause of academic avolition in students and pupils.

36

Avolition is one’s inability to pursue and achieve a set goal (Nolen-Heoksema,

2004). Self efficacy belief enhances human accomplishments and well being in

countless ways (Bandura, 1998). It influences the choices people make and the

courses of actions they pursue. Pupils tend to select tasks and activities which they

feel competent and confident in and avoid those in which they lack confidence

(Bandura, 2001). Self-efficacy belief helps in determining how much effort pupils

will expend in a school task, how long they can persevere when confronted with

obstacles, how resilient they will be in the face of failure or setbacks (Pajares,

2002). The higher the sense of self efficacy belief pupils have, the greater the

effort, persistence and resilience they will also have (Bandura, 1997). Pupils with a

strong sense of personal competence approach difficult tasks as challenges to be

mastered rather than as threats to be avoided (Schunk & Pajares, 2002). Pupils with

high self-efficacy beliefs have greater intrinsic interest and deep engrossment in

school activities. They set themselves challenging goals and maintain strong

commitment, heightened, and sustained efforts to succeed in the face of failure.

Students with high sense of self-efficacy beliefs quickly recover their sense of

efficacy after failure or setback. They attribute failure to insufficient effort or

deficient knowledge and skill that is required to do well in the task (Alderman,

2004). Pupils with low self-efficacy beliefs believe that academic works are

37

tougher than they really are, such beliefs foster anxiety, stress, and undermine self

efficacy belief (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Students who have low self efficacy beliefs tend to shy away from difficult

tasks because they see difficult tasks as personally threatening. This often results to

loss of self confidence (Woolfolk, 2007). Students with low self-efficacy beliefs

set low achievements for themselves. People with low self-efficacy beliefs have

weak commitment to the goals they set (Bransford, Broari, & Cocking, 2000).

They do not pursue a task with the vigor to achieve it but dwell on their weakness

and limitations in pursuing a task. They hypothesize all sorts of dooms and glooms

as outcomes in whatever they do. When they encounter setbacks or failures, they

quit (Woolfolk, 2007). Low self-efficacy belief is like an evil wind that blows no

one good. Low self-efficacy belief is not good for students, teacher and parents.

Low self-efficacy belief leads to failure syndrome (failure syndrome refers to

having low expectations for success and giving up at the first sign of difficulty)

(Santrock, 2009). Bandura (1993) reviewed a good deal of research on how

individuals who have low or high self-efficacy beliefs could be measured.

Bandura (1993) said that the perceptions we have of our own abilities to succeed in

a particular task determines our self-efficacy beliefs.

Self efficacy belief is one of the intrinsic factors that motivate learners to

achieve a goal they have set (Schwarzer, 2005). In this study, the theory above

38

illustrates how necessary it is for children to acquire high self-efficacy beliefs in

their academic activities.

David McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory

Achievement motivation is a construct originated in 1961 by David

McClelland in his book titled “The Achieving Society”. He defined achievement

motivation as the need for achievement (n-ach) (Anusiem, 2006). McClelland said

that those who are achievement motivated set goals they can achieve with their

own efforts and abilities. He added that such people do well both in education and

other areas of human endeavour.

McClelland said that achievement motivated pupils prefer to work on a

problem rather than leaving the outcome to chance. It is also believed that

achievement motivated pupils seem to be more concerned with their internal needs

for achievements rather than the rewards success will earn them. Achievement

motivated students are mastery oriented; they study for mastery and not because

they want to avoid failure. Mastery oriented learners are not ego involved learners

who engage in all kinds of malpractices to pass their examinations (Woolfolk,

2007). It is generally noticed that achievement motivated people (pupils) show

significantly higher rate of advancement in their schools achievement compared to

other students, who are not achievement motivated.

39

Pupils’ achievement motivation is affected by a number of variables, which

include; parents’ socio-economic status, parents’ level of education and

enlightenment, gender, parents’ expectations on their children. Some pupils from

poor homes who are in primary/secondary schools who have no hope of attending

the University lose interest in working hard to achieve going to the university.

Such children may say “Even if I make distinction in all the subjects, who will

sponsor me in the university” (Garcia, 2002). This type of thought may kill their

achievement motivation. But, pupils whose parents are financially well to do often

work hard because they know that money to attend the university is not a problem

to their family, though it does not always work that way. Pupils whose parents are

highly educated tend to try their best to borrow a leaf from their parents, while

children whose parents are traders or artisans tend to follow suit on the average;

children whose parents know the value of education are compelled by their parents

to go to school. The achievement motivation theory by David McClellan is a

branch of study which has greatly established its prominence in education and

work places. In this study the theory highlights the need for pupils to be

achievement motivated in their academic activities.

40

Review of Empirical Studies;

Studies on Self Efficacy Beliefs

John and Mtari (nd.) studied the influence of gender on self-efficacy and

academic performance. This study investigated the influence of gender differences

in self-efficacy and academic performance in the science subjects namely: Biology,

chemistry and physics among form three secondary school students in Lugari

District. Data was collected from 230 students (129girls and 101 boys) selected

from eight secondary schools. Stratified and simple random sampling techniques

were used to collect data from the schools. A questionnaire generated data on

students’ self-efficacy. End term examination scores for science subjects measured

the students’ academic performance. Data analysis was done using descriptive and

inferential statistics. Pearson product moment correlation coefficient was used to

establish the relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance based

on gender. There were significant gender differences in the academic performance

in the sciences. There was also a significant relationship between the students’ self-

efficacy and academic performance in the science subjects. The findings revealed

that students with higher levels of self-efficacy obtained higher academic

performance scores than those with lower level of self-efficacy. From the findings,

it is recommended that strategies should be put in place by the teachers and parents

to boost self-efficacy and curb gender differences. Since t-test which is a stronger

41

statistical instrument will be used in the data analyses of this study, the findings

may reveal whether parental expectations would influence self-efficacy beliefs.

Development of high self-efficacy belief by students will enable them approach

academic tasks with confidence.

Tor Busch’s (1995) study on Gender differences in self-efficacy and

academic performance among students of business administration, investigated

gender differences regarding perceived self-efficacy and academic performance in

marketing, organizational behaviour, accounting, computing, mathematics and

statistics among 154 (77 male and 77 female) college students in business

administration. At the beginning of their second year in college, the students

completed a questionnaire designed to measure self-efficacy in subjects they had

studied during their first year. There was no significant gender difference in

academic of male and female students generally. Several studies have investigated

female students’ choices of courses and careers. And self-efficacy has turned out to

be a critical predictor. Recent studies report that women’s performance is actually

at par with Men’s. The study above is in line with the present study because both

of them are exploring the influence of gender on achievement.

The study above is in line with the present study because both of them are

exploring the influence of gender on achievement.

42

Studies on Achievement Motivation

Ibrahim (2011) carried out a study on academic achievement and

achievement motivation of volleyball players. The aim of the study was to examine

the relationship between academic achievement and Sports Achievement

Motivation of volleyball players. A group of (N = 50) male subjects divided into

two groups (N = 25 high performers) and (N = 25 low performers) were selected

for this study from rural games held at Mendhar Tehsil of Jammu and Kashmir

State. The age range of the subjects was 25 to 30. It was hypothesized that there

may be significant differences with regard to academic achievement and

achievement motivation among low and high performers. A t-test was used to

analyze data. The achievement motivation scale by Kamlesh was used to assess the

differences among the low and high performers. The level of p < .05 was

considered significant. Results indicated that there is no significant difference in

academic achievement between high/low performers.

http://www.iiste.org/journals/index/artcle.

The study above is related to this present study if not for the variation in the

sample and age of the subjects.

Muola (2010) conducted a study on the relationship between academic

achievement motivation and home environment among standard eight pupils.

43

The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between academic

achievement motivation and home environment among standard eight pupils. The

study was carried out on 235 standard eight Kenyan pupils from six urban and

rural primary schools randomly selected from Machakos district. Their age ranged

between 13 and 17 years. Two questionnaires, the simple profile (SP) and home

environment questionnaire, were used to provide information on the pupil’s levels

of academic motivation and home environment. A significant (p<0.05) positive

relationship was found between six of the home environmental factors, that is

fathers’ occupation (r = 0.22), mothers’ occupation (r = 0.26), fathers’ education (r

= 0.15), mothers’ education (r = 0.14), family size (= 0.26) and learning facilities

at home (r = 0.23) and academic achievement motivation. Parental encouragement

was the only factor that was not significantly (r = 0.03) related to academic

achievement motivation. Although these correlations were low, they showed that

pupil’s motivation to do well in academic work is to some extent dependent on the

nature of their home environment. It was recommended that parents need to be

aware of the importance of their role in their children’s academic achievement

motivation so that they can provide the necessary facilities at home. Parents should

know their role in their children education so that they do not put blames entirely

on teachers. The study concluded that there is a positive relationship between home

environs and pupils’ academic achievement. Home environs determine and

44

achievement motivation. mateemuola2000@yahoo.com. The two studies have

correlation in terms of topics; sample size and age bracket of the subjects, but vary

in their method of data analyses.

Studies on Academic Success

John (1998) undertook a study on the academic success of students on in-

class and out- of- class learning opportunities. This study examines one first year

program (FYP) and attempts to determine the effects of the program on the

academic success of the participants. Gender and ethnic differences were also

examined. Academic success was defined as those elements of students’ collegiate

experience that relate to retention and graduation. The instrument used in this study

for data collection was questionnaire based on a specific definition of academic

success.

Five hundred and thirty five students were asked to participate in the study,

and a total of 249 usable instruments were returned, for a response rate of 48.44%

of the 249 participants, 264 (49.35%) were in the FYP and 271(50.65%) were not

in the FYP. Mean and standard deviations were used for data analysis. The non-

FYP students lived in a variety of buildings on campus. There were significant

findings in several areas of academic success. FYP participants had higher grades

overall and completed more class credits. FYP students were more likely to

complete all assignments before class and they were more likely to begin taking

45

steps towards their career goals. Students in the FYP also were reported to have

higher levels of contact with faculty and higher attendance at university events.

The FYP appeared to have offered opportunities that could enable the students to

reach higher levels of academic success. Scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/public/et

Ryan, Reid, & Epistein (2004) conducted a study on peer-mediated

intervention studies on academic success for students with EBD. The purpose of

this study was to examine the effectiveness of peer-mediated interventions on the

academic functioning of students with emotional and behaviour disorders (EBD).

Fourteen studies using cross-age, same-age, class-wide peer tutoring, or

cooperative learning met the criteria set forth for this study. A sample of 169

students within the ages of 5-12 was used for the study; between 1980 and 2001.

The research design was a Meta – analysis which included 14 previous studies.

Findings from these studies indicated that peer-mediated interventions were

successful across academic subject areas and grade levels. However, the

participants and settings used within these studies did not accurately reflect the

current EBD population, ethnic, gender composition or actual classroom

placement. Finally, peer tutoring aids and increases academic success. This study

is age of the respondent are almost the same but the study above is a longitudinal

study.

46

Studies on Parental Expectations

Tina and Andrieam (2010) studied the educational expectations of Latino

children and their parents as predictors of academic achievement. The purpose of

the study was to examine the educational expectation of Latino parents on their

children’s academic achievement. The participants of the study were 44 Latino

children in grades 2 through 5, and 44 parents of low socio-economic status (SES)

from an inner-city of California public school. Of the children 33 were high

achieving and 11 were low achieving. Of the 44 parents, 32 had high-achieving

children and 12 had low-achieving children. Sampling technique: all the

participants were selected through a stratified systematic sampling procedure using

children’s score from the 2004 California Achievement Test 6th Edition (CAT/6)

Race and SES were indicated in the school demographic section of the testing

report, and the selected children were confirmed as having both low SES and

Latino backgrounds. Participants answered either a parent or children survey

addressing parents’ educational expectations for their children or children’s

expectations of themselves and their perceptions of their parent’s expectations for

them. Questionnaires were administered to small groups of five to seven children.

Each of the questions and the possible answers were read aloud; questions were

repeated and clarifications given when requested. Completion of the surveys took

appropriately 25 minutes for each group. Parents completed their surveys, and

47

returned them to their child’s teacher. Method of data analysis: all survey

responses were recorded into Microsoft Excel spreadsheets according to

participants’ coded number response. Frequencies and percentages were obtained

to examine parents’ and children’s educational expectations. The findings revealed

that the low SES Latino parents in this study had high educational expectations for

their children; however, parents of high-achieving children had higher educational

expectations for their children compared to parents of low-achieving children.

While research has indicated SES to be a prominent factor in predicting academic

achievement, many of the children in this study demonstrated high academic

achievement despite the educational barriers that typically accompany low SES.

Likewise, the majority of the parents of both high-and-low-achieving children had

high educational expectations, with most believing that their children will complete

high school or college. Parents of low-achieving children had lower educational

expectations for their children. Many of their children perceived that their parents

had higher educational aspirations for them, and these children felt that they could

accomplish the levels of education their parents expected. Children’s expectations

for themselves were associated with academic achievement of both high and low

achiever. This study suggests that, achievement is not only influenced by parental

expectations, but also by the educational expectations children have for

themselves. The results suggest that the educational expectations that children have

48

for themselves and that parents have of them are prominent factors in the academic

achievement of low SES Latino children.

www.iiste.org/journals/index.php/JEP/article. The study above is in line with the

present study if not the variations in their samples, methods of data collection and

analyses.

Ksiazak (2002) investigated the relationships among birth order, perceived

parental expectations and personality traits as predicted by Walter Tolman. The

purpose of the study was to know whether birth order, parental expectations

actually have relationships with academic achievements. Questionnaires were

administered to a sample of 100 Miami university students for the study. Pearson

product moment correlation was used to correlate birth order and personality traits,

birth order and perceived parental expectations. The finding show that high

perceived parental expectations correlate significantly with perfectionism, frequent

discipline as a child, similarity with parents, high academic success, high verbal

ability, early maturation, obedience to authorities etc while low perceived parental

expectations correlate highly with indiscipline, acting as a follower, marked

difference from parents low academic achievement and expecting little from life.

The findings also reveal that an individuals’ personality depends on his or her

family dynamics, gender, race, culture, social class, parental expectations etc.

ksiazakm@muohio.edu.

49

The above study is relates to the current study in terms of method of data collection

but varies in sample and met5hod of data analyses.

Alvin, Zhi-Jin, Hamar and Xixi (2011) undertook a study on the effects of

parental expectations and cultural-values orientation on career decision-making

difficulties of Chinese University students. This study aimed at examining the

effects of cultural-values conflict and parental expectations on the career decision-

making difficulties of university students in three cities in China (Beijing, Wuhan,

and Hong Kong, N = 1342). The multidimensional scales of individual

traditionality and modernity by (Yang, Yu, & Ye, 1989) were used as a measure of

cultural-values conflict and cultural orientation. The living-up-to Parental

Expectation Inventory (Wang & Heppner, 2002) was used to measure parental

expectations. The Career Decision-Making Difficulties Questionnaire (Gati &

Saka, 2001) was used as a dependent measure. Mean and Pearson r were used for

data analyses. It was found that levels of cultural-value conflict were associated

with higher levels of career decision-making difficulties for students in the Chinese

Mainland cities but not for students in Hong Kong. Perceived parental expectations

and perceived self-performance in the expected areas were found to be predictive

of career decision-making; cultural-value orientation, especially endorsement of

Chinese traditional values, was found to moderate the relationship between

parental expectation and career decision-making. The relationship among birth

50

order, perceived parental expectation and personality have been found to be

positive. Ksiazakm@muduo.edu. The study above is in line with the present study

if not the variations in their population size, methods of data collection and

analyses.

Pamela and Davis-Kean (2010) studied the influence of Parents’ education

and family income on children’s academic achievement: The indirect role of

parental expectations and the home environment. This study examined how

socioeconomic status, specifically parents’ education and income, indirectly relates

to children’s academic achievement through parents’ beliefs and behaviours. The

population of the study was 8,000. The sample was 868: 8 – 12 years-old, divided

approximately equally across gender (436 females, 433 males). This sample was

49% non-Hispanic European American (423) and 47% African Americans (411).

It was a survey study, which adopted interview and achievement test for data

collection. Data analyses were done using structural equation modeling technique.

The study found that the socioeconomic factors were related indirectly to

children’s academic achievement through parents’ beliefs and behaviours but that

the process of these relations was different by racial group. Parents’ years of

schooling also was found to be an important socioeconomic factor to take into

consideration in both policy and research when looking at school-aged children.

51

The study above is in line with the present study if not the variations in their

samples, methods of data collection and analyses.

Studies on Gender

Shikden (2009) conducted a study to establish the relationship between the

attitudes of male and female teachers towards inclusion of learners with visual

impairment. The study premised on 1 hypothesis while the population consists of

20 male professional and 20 female professional teachers. Data was collected using

questionnaire and analyzed using Pearson product Moment correlation co-efficient.

The study revealed that female professional teachers are better disposed to

inclusion of persons with visual impairment than their male professional counter-

parts (Shikden, 2009 cited in Adaka, 2011). The study above is in line with the

present study because both of them are exploring the influence of gender on

achievement.

Obiweluozo (2009) undertook a comparative study on male and female

teachers’ improvisation and application of assistive technology for inclusive

education at primary school level where 2 research questions were set and the

study adopted a descriptive research design. Data was collected from 87 teachers

using teachers’ improvisation and assistive technology questionnaire (TIAT) and

analyzed using arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test. The findings

52

indicated that female teachers are generally not prepared for improvisation and

application of assistive technology (Obiweluozo, 2009 cited in Adaka, 2011).

Summary of Reviewed Literature

The reviewed literature helped to provide useful and needed information to

the researcher on the variables under study. Basic concepts such as gender,

parental expectations, academic success, self-efficacy beliefs and achievement

motivation were reviewed.

Parental expectations are parents’ desires, aspirations and set standards for their

children. Self-efficacy belief is a person’s sense of ability to be able to deal

effectively with a particular task, or beliefs about one’s competence in a particular

situation. Self-efficacy-belief is affected by past experiences, vicarious

reinforcement, psychological factors and verbal/social persuasion.

Literature reviewed in this study showed that no study has been carried out

on the influence of parental expectations for academic success on self-efficacy

belief and achievement motivation of pupils in primary schools in Owerri

education zone II of Imo state, Nigeria.

53

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter presents the procedure for carrying out this study. Specifically,

it describes the research design, area of the study, population, sample and sampling

technique, instruments for data collection, validation of the instruments, reliability

of the instruments, method of data collection and method of data analysis.

Research Design

This study adopted ex-post-facto research design to determine the

influence of parental expectations for academic success on self-efficacy belief and

achievement motivation of pupils in primary schools in Owerri education zone II

of Imo state, Nigeria. Ex-post-facto study is that in which the independent variable

is not manipulated. The design is appropriate for the study because no variable

was manipulated in this study. Ex-post-facto or causal-comparative design helps us

to establish a relationship between two or more variables (Ali, 2006). Ex-post -

facto research design can only be used to examine the influence of the independent

variable on the dependent variables.

[

Area of the Study

The Area of this Study is Owerri Education Zone II of Imo State. This zone

is made up of all the public primary schools in Aboh Mbaise local government area

of Imo state. Currently there are 58 public primary schools in the area. Owerri

52

54

education zone II is a place the achievement of pupils in state and national

common entrance examinations have been discouraging in the recent past.

Population of the Study

The population of this study was 2011/2012 primary five pupils in 58 public

primary schools in Owerri education zone II numbering 2,334 (1,361) boys and

(973) girls. Source: (Research and Statistics) Imo state Universal Basic Education

Board, Owerri 2012. See Appendix A, page 86. Primary five pupils were chosen to

know their problems on time and know how to prepare them to achieve success in

common entrance examinations in the future.

Sample and Sampling Technique

The sample for the study is 233 2011/2012 primary five pupils who were

randomly sampled from 10 out of the 58 public primary schools in the area. The

ten schools were composed using a simple random sampling technique. The names

of all the public primary schools in the zone were written on pieces of paper. They

were folded and put into a small container and shoveled, and then ten schools were

balloted without replacement, for this study. Then, 23 pupils were chosen in each

of the ten primary schools that were used for the study, using simple random

sampling technique. 233 is 10% of 2334.The choice of the sample size is based on

Margaret Smith’s (2004) proposition that ten percent of a target population should

be sufficient in all research situations.

55

www.amstat.org/publications/jse/v12n2/smith.html.

Instruments for Data Collection

The researcher used three instruments for the study. They are:

Self-Efficacy Belief Questionnaire (SEBQ),

Achievement Motivation Questionnaire (AMQ) and

Parental Expectations Questionnaire (PEQ).

The self-efficacy belief questionnaire (SEBQ) was developed by the researcher to

assess pupils’ self efficacy belief in their academic activities. The items are 10 and

are in the form of questionnaire, since pupils are expected to tick any option that is

in line with their experiences. The items were generated from the literature

reviewed on the variables in the topic. It is a four point rating scale with response

options ranging from Strongly Agree (4), Agree (3), Disagree (2) and Strongly

Disagree.

Achievement motivation questionnaire (AMQ) was developed to assess

pupils’ achievement motivation. The items are 10 and were generated from the

literature reviewed. It is a four rating scale with response options ranging from

Strongly Agree (4), Agree (3), Disagree (2), and Strongly Disagree (1).

Parental expectation questionnaire (PEQ) was developed to assess parents’

expectations on their children. It was responded by pupils because they know the

type of expectations their parents have for them. The parental expectation

56

questionnaire was used to analyze and evaluate the influence of parental

expectations on pupils’ self efficacy belief and achievement motivation.

The items are 10 and were summed up based on relevant information gotten

from literature reviewed. It is a four point rating scale ranging from Strongly Agree

(4), Agree (3), Disagree (2), and Strongly Disagree (1) See appendix B, page 88.

Validation of the Instruments

The self-efficacy belief questionnaire (SEBQ) developed by the researcher

was validated by three experts in educational psychology and measurement and

evaluation units, University of Nigeria Nsukka (UNN). They were told to validate

the content of the instruments and validate them. Their constructive criticisms and

corrections were used to form the instrument for the study.

The achievement motivation questionnaire (AMQ) developed by the

researcher was validated by three experts in educational psychology and

measurement and evaluation (UNN). The comments of the experts were used to

structure the instrument for the study.

The parental expectation questionnaire (PEQ) developed by the researcher,

was validated by three experts in educational psychology and measurement and

evaluation (UNN). Their comments were used to form the final instrument for the

study.

57

Reliability of the Instruments

To ascertain internal consistency of the instrument (SEBQ), it was trial

tested in two public primary schools in Nsukka local government area of Enugu

state. Twenty copies of self-efficacy belief questionnaire were administered to

pupils in the schools. The data collected through the trial testing were used to

determine the internal consistency of the instrument (SEBQ) using Cronbach’s

Alpha which yielded 0.988. See appendix C, page 93.

To ensure the internal consistency of the instrument (AMQ), it was trial

tested. The instrument was administered to a sample of twenty primary five pupils

in two public primary schools in Nsukka L.G.A. The data obtained through the

trial testing were used to determine the internal consistency of the items.

Cronbach’s Alpha was used to determine the internal consistency of the (AMQ)

which yielded 0.852.

The instrument was trial tested by administering it (PEQ) to twenty primary

five pupils drawn from two public primary schools in Nsukka L.G.A. Cronbach’s

Alpha was used to determine the internal consistency of the instrument (PEQ)

which yielded 0.82 respectively.

Method of Data Collection

The instruments were administered to the respondents by the researcher with

the help of ten research assistants (Teachers) to facilitate the study. The researcher

58

instructed the research assistants to read out and explain the items to the pupils in

their vernacular and collect the instruments back from the respondents the same

day, when they must have filled in their opinions in the questionnaires, to avoid

losses.

Method of Data Analyses

The data collected by administering the various research instruments were

organized in tables and analyzed using mean and standard deviations in answering

the five research questions posed by the researcher to guide the study. A mean of

2.5 was used as the yardstick for low or high score. Any item scoring a mean

below 2.5 was seen to be low while any item scoring 2.5 and above was seen to be

high. The five null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance using t-test.

59

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

The results of this study are presented in this chapter. The data presented are

in accordance with the research questions and null hypotheses formulated to guide

the study.

Research Question I: what is the influence of age on the self efficacy belief and

achievement motivation of pupils in their academics?

Table 1: Mean ratings and Standard Deviation of Pupils on Self Efficacy

Belief and Achievement Motivation Based on Age.

Age of Respondents N Mean Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

Mean

Difference

Self-efficacy

10-12

13-15

210

23

2.9981

2.8739

.47653

.35830

.03288

.07471

.12

Achievement Motivation

10-12

13-15

210

23

3.2710

3.1957

.48889

.56042

.03374

.11686

.75

Data in Table 1 show the mean ratings and standard deviation of pupils on

self efficacy belief and achievement motivation based on age. The data indicate

that the mean self efficacy belief score of (210) pupils whose ages fall between 10-

12 years is 3.00 with a standard deviation of .48.The mean score of the (23) pupils

who fall within the ages of 13-15 years is 2.87 with a standard deviation of .36.The

58

60

table also indicates a mean difference of .12 on self efficacy belief between pupils

whose ages range between 10-12 years and those who fall between 13-15 age

bracket in favour of those whose ages fall between 10-12 years. Data in the table

above show the influence of age on pupils’ self efficacy belief. The table above

also indicates a mean score of 3.27 with a standard deviation of .49 of the

achievement motivation of 210 pupils within the ages of 10-12, and a mean score

of 3.19 with a standard deviation of .56, of the 23 pupils who are within the ages of

13-15 years. The table indicates a mean achievement motivation difference of .075

between pupils in the following age bracket: 10-12 and 13-15 years in favour of

those within the ages of 10-12.

A corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question

is:

Ho1: There is no significant mean difference on pupils’ self-efficacy belief and

achievement motivation based on age.

Table 2: A t-test on the Influence of Age on Pupils’ Self Efficacy Belief and

Achievement Motivation

Age of Respondents t d/f Sig. Mean Std .error

(2-tailed) difference difference

Self-Efficacy Belief

1.212 321 .227 .12418 .10247

Achievement Motivation

.691 321 .490 .07530 .10897

61

Data in Table 2 indicate that age of pupils has no significant mean difference

on their self efficacy belief and achievement motivation. This is indicated by the

calculated t-value of .691in respect of self efficacy which is significant at .490

probability level and therefore not significant at .05 levels of significance; and the

calculated t-value of 1.21, in respect of achievement motivation which is

significant at .227 probability level and therefore not significant at .05 levels of

significance. Thus, the null hypothesis of no significant mean difference on self-

efficacy and achievement motivation based on age is upheld.

Research Question 2: What is the influence of parental expectations on pupils’

self-efficiency belief?

Table 3: Mean Score, Standard deviation and Mean Difference of the Influence of Parental

Expectation on Self-Efficacy Belief

Parental expectation N Mean Std

Deviation

Std

Error

Mean

Diff.

Self-Efficacy

High parental expectation

Low parental expectation

151

82

3.1629

2.6598

.35055

.48070

.02853

.05308

.50

Table 3 shows the mean Scores, Standard deviations and Mean Difference of

the Influence of Parental Expectation on Self-Efficacy Belief. The indicate the

mean academic self efficacy of 3.16 with a standard deviation of .350 of 151 pupils

62

whose parents have high academic expectation, and a mean of 2.65 with a standard

deviation of .480 of 82 pupils whose parents have low academic expectation. The

table also indicates a high/low parental expectation mean difference of .50, is in

favour of pupils whose parents have high academic expectation. To further address

the research question the following hypothesis was raised.

HO2: There is no significant difference in the mean self efficacy belief scores of

pupils whose parents have high expectations for their academic success and those

whose parents have low expectations in their academic success.

Table 4: A t- test on the Influence of Parental Expectation on Pupils’

Self-Efficacy

Data in Table 4 show the influence of parental expectation on pupils’ self-

efficacy. Table 4 shows that parental expectations have significant influence on

pupils’ self-efficacy beliefs. This is indicated by the calculated t-value of 9.146

which is significant at .00 levels and therefore significant at .05 levels of

significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant

Parental expectation t d/f

Sig.(2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference

Std. Error

Difference

Self-Efficacy Belief

9.146

231

.000

.50316

.05501

63

difference in the mean self efficacy belief scores of pupils whose parents have high

expectations for their academic success and those whose parents have low

expectations in their academic success is rejected.

Research Question 3: What is the influence of parental expectations on pupils’

achievement motivations?

Table 5: Mean ratings, Standard Deviation and Mean Difference on

Achievement Motivation based on Parental expectations

Table 5 shows mean ratings, standard deviation and mean difference on

achievement motivation based on parental expectation. The data in the table

indicate a mean score of 3.46 with a standard deviation of 0.333 of 151 pupils

whose parents have high expectations for their academic success. The table also

shows mean score of 2.90 with a standard deviation of .599 of 82 pupils whose

parents have low expectations for their academic success.

A corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question

is:

Parental expectations

N

Mean

Std.

Deviation

Std error

mean

High parental Expectation

Low parental Expectation

151

82

3.4596

2..9024

.33310

.54251

.02711

.5991

64

Ho3: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement motivation

scores of pupils whose parents have high expectations for their children’s academic

success and those pupils whose parents have low expectation in their academics.

Table 6: A t-test on the Influence of Parental Expectations on Achievement

Motivation

Table 6 shows a t-test on the influence of parental expectation on

achievement motivation. Data in Table 6 indicate that parental expectations have

significant influence on pupils’ achievement motivation. This is indicated by the

calculated t-value of 9.702 which is significant at 0.00 level and therefore

significant at .05 levels of significance. Thus, the null hypothesis which states that

there is no significant difference in the mean achievement motivation

scores of pupils whose parents have high expectations for their children’s academic

success and those pupils whose parents have low expectation in their academics is

rejected.

Parental expectation t d/f

Sig.(2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference

Std. Error

Difference

Achievement Motivation 9.702 231 .000 .55716 .05743

65

Research Question 4: What is the influence of gender on pupils’ self-efficiency

belief.

Table 7: Mean Score and Standard Deviation of Pupils’ Self Efficacy Belief

Based on Gender

Table 7 shows the mean score and standard deviation of pupils’ self efficacy

belief based on gender. The data indicate a mean self efficacy belief score of 3.06

with a standard deviation of .420 for 114 boys and a mean of 2.91 with a standard

deviation of .497 for 119 girls. The table also indicates a mean difference of .151

between boys and girls favour of the boys.

A corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question

is:

HO4: There is no significant difference in the mean score of male and female pupils’

self-efficacy beliefs.

Gender N Mean Std.

Deviation

Std.

Error

Mean

Self-efficacy

Male

Female

114

119

3.0632

2.9118

.42097

.49782

.03943

.04564

66

Table 8: A t-test on the influence of Gender on Pupils’ Self-efficacy Belief

Table 8 shows a t-test on the influence of gender on pupils’ self-efficacy

belief. The data show that gender does not have influence on pupils’ self-efficacy

belief. This is indicated by the calculated t-value of 2.501 which is significant at

0.13, and therefore not significant at 0.05 probability level. The null hypothesis

which states that gender has no significant difference in the means score of male

and females’ self-efficacy beliefs is up-held.

Research Question 5: What is the influence of gender on pupils’ achievement

motivation?

Table 9: Mean Standard Deviation and Mean Achievement Motivation

Ratings based on Gender

Gender

Mean

Std

Deviation

t

d/f

Sig.(2-

tailed)

Mean

difference

Std .error

difference

Self-

Efficacy

Male

Female

3.0632

2.9118

.42097

.49782

2.501

231

0.13

.15139

.06052

Gender N Mean Std.

Deviation

Std.

Error

Mean

Achievement Motivation

Male

Female

114

119

3.3693

3.1622

.42283

.53899

.03960

.04941

67

Table 9 shows mean standard deviation and mean achievement motivation

ratings based on gender. The data indicate a mean achievement motivation of 3.4

with a standard deviation of .422 for boys and a mean score of 3.12 with standard

deviation of .538 for girls. The table also revealed a mean achievement motivation

difference of .20 between boys and girls is in favour of boys.

A corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question

is:

Ho5: There is no significant difference in the mean score of male and female

pupils’ achievement motivation.

Table 10: A t-test on the influence of Gender on Pupils’ Achievement

Motivation

The data in Table 10 show that gender influences achievement motivation

and there is a significant mean difference in achievement motivation between the

boys and girls. This is indicated by the calculated t-value of 3.254 which is

Gender

Mean

Std.

Deviation

t

d/f

Sig.(2-

tailed)

Mean

difference

Std .error

difference

Achievement

Motivation

Male

3.3693

.42283

Female

3.1622

.53899

3.254

231

.001

.20711

.06365

68

significant at .001, and therefore significant at 0.05 probability level. Thus, the null

hypothesis of no significant difference in the scores of male and female pupils’

achievement motivation is rejected.

Summary of the Major Findings

The results presented in this chapter highlighted the following major

findings:

1. Age does not influence pupils’ self efficacy belief and achievement motivation..

2. Parental expectations have significant influence on pupils’ self efficacy belief.

3. Parental expectations have significant influence on pupils’ achievement

motivation.

4. Gender influences pupils’ self efficacy beliefs.

5. The findings of this study indicate that gender influences achievement

motivation significantly.

6. High self efficacy belief and high achievement motivation result to high

academic success.

69

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, EDUCATIONAL

IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, LIMITATIONS AND

SUMMARY OF THE STUDY

This chapter focuses on the discussion of the major findings of the study, the

conclusions, educational implications, recommendations, limitations and summary

of the study.

Discussion of Major Findings

The findings of this study were discussed under six sub-headings:

1. Influence of age on pupils’ self efficacy belief and achievement motivation.

2. Influence of parental expectation on pupils’ self efficacy beliefs.

3. Influence of parental expectation on pupils’ achievement motivation.

4. Influence of gender on pupils’ self efficacy beliefs.

5. Influence of gender on pupils’ achievement motivation.

6. Influence of self efficacy belief and achievement motivation on pupils, academic

success.

A. Influence of Age on Pupils’ Self Efficacy Belief and Achievement

Motivation

The result of this study reveals that age does not influence pupils’ self

efficacy belief and achievement motivation. It was also indicated that there is no

significant mean difference on pupils’ self efficacy and achievement motivation

belief based on age. The findings of this study is at variance with the study

68

70

conducted by Rubie-Davies and Robyn (2010) which found that high parents’

expectation, positively influence older students’ self perception and achievement

goal and the study of Tanja (2010) which indicated that age affect people’s

motivation to work. The variation of the results could be as a result of the sample or

methods used in the studies.

B. Influence of Parental Expectation on Pupils’ Self Efficacy Beliefs.

The findings of this study indicate that parental expectations have significant

influence on pupils’ self efficacy belief. This is indicated by both mean rating

scores and the tested null hypotheses. This implies that high parental expectation

leads to high self efficacy belief and consequently high academic success. The

study of Li Jun (2002) revealed that high education expectation of Chinese parents

lead to their children’s self confidence and high academic achievement. This

present study is in agreement with the research work conducted by Li Jun.

C. Influence of Parental Expectation on Pupils’ Achievement Motivation.

The result of this study reveals that parental expectations have significant

influence on pupils’ achievement motivation. This is indicated by both mean rating

scores and the tested null hypotheses. That means that high parental expectation

leads to high academic achievement and vice versa. This supports the studies of

Stevenson and Lee (1990) who found that parents’ expectation for their children’s

post secondary outcome is associated with high academic achievement. They also

71

found that parents’ verbal expectation and urging are related to high academic

achievement.

The result of a Meta analysis indicated that high parental expectation is

associated with high students’ achievement outcomes (William, 2011). A study by

Ramerez and Cruz (2002) found that high parental expectation leads children to

achieve highly in school. Yamamoto and Holloway (2010) in their study found that

parental expectations play a vital role in students’ academic achievement. The

study revealed that students whose parents have high expectations in their

education tend to score higher in achievement tests and persist longer in school

than those whose parents have low expectations in their academics. The study

conducted by Tina and Andrieam (2010) which suggested that, achievement is not

only influenced by parental expectations, but also by the educational expectations

children have of themselves has a varied opinion.

D. Influence of Gender on Pupils’ Self Efficacy Beliefs.

The findings of this study indicate that gender does not influence pupils’ self

efficacy belief. This was show by the tested null hypothesis which indicated that

there is no significant mean difference between boys and girls. That implies that

gender influences self efficacy belief and that there is a variation on pupils’ self

efficacy belief based on gender. The findings on this study are at variance with the

study of Murphy and Ross (1990) which found gender to be an influential factor in

72

determining mathematics and learning success. Murphy and Ross suggested that

gender maintains a significant influence on mathematics self efficacy belief

(http://www.positivepractices.com/selfefficacy.htm).

The findings of this current research work validates the result of the study of Lent,

Lopez and Beischke (1991) which revealed that gender is an influential source of

self efficacy information in modeling.

E. Influence of Gender on Pupils’ Achievement Motivation

The findings of this study indicate that gender influences achievement

motivation significantly. This was shown by both the mean score of the data

analyzed and the tested null hypothesis which show that gender. The findings of

this study are in line with the study conducted by Tor Busch (1995) which found

that there was no significant gender difference in academic achievement of male

and female students generally but, are at variance with the study undertaken by the

following researchers: Fennaman and Sherman (1977) which found that there was

no significant differences with gender and learning mathematics nor gender and

motivation for learning. Po Yin, Kwok, Kit and Angel (2001) in their study

revealed that there was gender difference regarding intrinsic motivation. Gisela

Chavez (2011) found that male students tend to be more motivated to achieve in

mathematics class than females. Gisela concluded that gender influences students’

achievement motivation.

73

F. Influence of Self Efficacy Belief and Achievement Motivation on Pupils’

Academic Success

This study reveals that high self efficacy belief and high achievement

motivation lead to high academic success. This implies that the moment a learner

develops high self efficacy belief and high achievement motivation academic

success is sure. This result is supported by the study carried out by John and Mtari

(nd.). In their study, they found that students with higher levels of self-efficacy

obtained higher academic performance scores than those with lower level of self-

efficacy. Heidi and Karen (2005) also found that self efficacy is a key predictor of

achievement, motivation, retention, and academic success in most study areas.

Conclusion

The researcher made some conclusions in this study based on the findings of

the study. The conclusions are as follows:

1. Age influences pupils’ self-efficacy belief and achievement motivation.

2. Age has a significant influence on pupils’ achievement motivation.

3. Parental expectations have significant influence on both pupils’ self efficacy

belief and on their achievement motivation.

4. It is only high but attainable parental expectations that have positive influences

on pupils’ self-efficacy beliefs.

74

5. High but reasonable parental expectations also influence pupils’ achievement

motivation positively.

6. Gender does not influence pupils’ self efficacy belief.

7. Gender influences achievement motivation significantly.

8. High self-efficacy beliefs and high achievement motivation lead to high

academic success.

Educational Implications of the Findings

The results of this study have obvious educational implications to parents

and pupils. The results of this study have provided empirical evidence on self-

efficacy beliefs achievement motivation, age and gender. The findings of this study

suggest that; there is need for parents to have high expectations for their children

and communicate their expectations to the children. Parents should treat their

children well and share quality time with their children irrespective of the pupils’

age and gender. When efficacy belief and achievement motivation of pupils are

raised, their academic success will be sure.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study the researcher made the following

recommendations:

Parents should have high but realistic and attainable expectations for their

children at all times. Parents should encourage their children to have high self-

75

efficacy beliefs and high achievement motivation. Parents should make their

expectations known to their children. To ensure that, parents should share

quality time with their children and praise them when they perform well in

school.

As models, parents should demonstrate self confidence and achievement

motivation behavour before their children, so that their children will emulate and

practice them in their academic activities.

Parents should have high but achievable expectation for the children

Irrespective of age and their gender.

Pupils should develop high self-efficacy beliefs and high achievement

motivation in their academic activities to achieve optimal academic success.

Limitations of the Study

The major limitation of this study are the fact that this research work was

carried out in a rural area and may not give a clear picture of what happens in urban

schools and that, the sample tends to be small for generalizations.

Summary of the Study

This study sought to explore the influence of parental expectations, age and

gender on self-efficacy beliefs and achievement motivation of pupils in primary

schools. The need to undertake this study was motivated by the continued decline in

76

pupils’ academic achievement in the state and national common entrance

examinations. This topic and the area were considered in view of the evidences of

poor academic achievements in Owerri education zone II of Imo State, Nigeria.

Five research questions were posed to guide the study. They are as follows:

What is the influence of age on the self efficacy belief and achievement

motivation of pupils in their academics?

What is the influence of parental expectations on pupils’ self-efficacy

beliefs?

What is the influence of parental expectations on pupils’ achievement

motivations?

What is the influence of gender on pupils’ self-efficacy beliefs?

What is the influence of gender on pupils’ achievement motivation?

To guide the study properly, five null hypotheses were formulated. They are

as follows:

There is no significant mean difference on pupils’ self efficacy belief and

achievement motivation ratings based on age.

There is no significant difference in the mean self efficacy belief score of

pupils whose parents either have high or low expectations for their academic

success.

77

There is no significant difference in the mean achievement motivation score

of pupils whose parents have either high or low expectations in their school

achievement.

There is no significant difference in the mean score of male and female-

pupils’ self-efficacy beliefs.

There is no significant difference in the mean score of male and female-

pupils’ achievement motivation.

The research design adopted for this study was ex-post-facto research

design. Simple random sampling technique was used to compose a total of 233

primary five pupils for the study, out of the 2,334 primary five pupils in the 58

public primary schools in Owerri education zone II of Imo State.

The research instruments were; self-efficacy belief questionnaire (SEBQ),

Achievements Motivation Questionnaire (AMQ), and Parental Expectation

Questionnaire (PEQ). The three instruments were validated and trial tested.

Cronbach’s Alpha was used to compute data obtained from the trial testing. The

data yielded 0.988, 0.85, and 0.82 respectively. The data obtained for this study

through the administration of the three instruments were organized in tables and

analyzed using mean, standard deviation and t-test. This study revealed the

following findings:

1. Age does not influence pupils’ self efficacy belief and achievement motivation.

78

2. Parental expectations have significant influence on pupils’ self efficacy belief.

3. Parental expectations have significant influence on pupils’ achievement

motivation.

4. Gender influences pupils’ self efficacy beliefs.

5. The findings of this study indicate that gender influences achievement

motivation significantly.

6. High self efficacy belief and high achievement motivation result to high

academic success.

79

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87

APPENDIX A

S/N Names of P/S In Owerri Education Zone II Number of Primary Five Pupils in the

Zone

1 Central Sch. Amator Amuzu 44

2 Central Sch. Amuzu 39

3 Central Sch. Enyiogugu 52

4 Central Sch. Egbelu Umuhu Enyiogugu 49

5 Central Sch. Eke Nguru 48

6 Central Sch. Lorji 52

7 Central Sch. Mbutu 43

8 Central Sch. Nguru 41

9 Central Sch. Nriukwu Amuzu 39

10 Central Sch. Ogbor Uvuru 40

11 Central Sch. Okwuato 51

12 Central Sch. Uvuru 50

13 Central Sch. Uzunorji 33

14 Community Sch. Amaohuru Nguru 48

15 Community Sch. Egbelu Umugu Enyiogugu 59

16 Community Sch. Egbelu Uvuru 46

17 Community Sch . Egberede Nguru 49

18 Community Sch. Eke Ugiri Mbutu 38

19 Community Sch. Eziala Engiogugu 43

20 Community sch. Eziala Nguru 50

21 Community Sch. Ibeku Okwuato 45

22 Community Sch. Lagwa Okwuato 41

23 Community Sch.Lorji 38

24 Community Sch. Mbutu 42

25 Community Sch. Ndigbo Uvuru 53

26 Community Sch. Ngurunweorie 49

27 Community Sch. Obibi Nwguru 39

28 Community Sch. Oboama Enyiogugu 38

29 Community Sch. Ogbor Nguru 41

30 Community Sch.Ogwu- Okwu Nguru 47

31 Community Sch. Okwu Nguru 25

32 Community Sch. Olakwo Engiogugu 34

33 Community Ngurunweorie II 39

34 Community Sch. Umuebe Amuzu 43

35 Community Sch. Umugaragu Engiogugu 32

36 Community Sch. Umuogu Okwoato 41

37 Community Sch. Umukihie Uvuru 32

38 Community Sch. Umuogu Amuzu I 40

39 Community Sch. Umuogu Amuzu II 36

40 Community Sch. Umuopara Nguru 29

41 Group Sch. Engiogugu 30

88

42 Group Sch. Ezuhu Nguru 44

43 Group Sch. Lagwa Okwuato 39

44 Group Sch Mbutu 41

45 Ogwu/Eziala Pri. Sch Nguru 36

46 Town Sch. Amuzu 27

47 Town Sch. Ibeku Okwuato 38

48 Town Sch. Mbutu 42

49 Town Sch. Ogbor Uvuru 36

50 Town Sch. Umuanuma Nguru I 38

51 Town Sch. Umuanuma Nguru II 47

52 Town Sch. Umuhu Okwuato 33

53 Town Sch. Uvuru 35

54 Community Sch. Oboma Nguru 41

55 Town Sch. Enyiogugu 39

56 Community enyiogugu 37

57 Community Sch Uvuru 40

58 Community Sch Umuebe Nguru 33

Total 2,334

89

APPENDIX B

Department of Educational Foundations,

Faculty of Education,

University of Nigeria, Nuskka,

Enugu State.

Date: 25/05/12.

Dear Pupil,

INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLECTION

I am a master’s degree student of the above named department, conducting a

research work on the INFLUENCE OF PARENTAL EXPECTATIONS FOR

ACADEMIC SUCCESS ON SELF-EFFICACY BELIEF AND ACHIEVEMENT

MOTIVATION OF PUPILS IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN OWERRI EDUCATION

ZONE II.

You are kindly requested to respond honestly to this questionnaire. Any

information you give will be seen as your sincere and personal view and will be

treated as confidential and used specifically for the purpose of this research work.

Thanks for your anticipated co-operation.

Yours faithfully,

Ndukwu, Eric Chima.

PG/M.Ed/09/50678

90

SECTION A

PERSONAL DATA OF THE STUDENTS

GENDER: Male Female

Class: Primary V

AGE: 10-12 13-15

SECTION B

KEY:-

Strongly Agree (SA) 4 Points

Agree (A) 3 Points

Disagree (D) 2 Points

Strongly Disagree (SD) 1 Point

91

SELF EFFICACY BELIEF QUESTIONNAIRE (SEBQ)

Mark ( √) Strongly Agree (SA) Agree (A) Disagree (D) Strongly Disagree (SD)

S/N ITEMS RESPONSES

SA A D SD

1 I am sure that I must pass well in all the

subjects.

2 I have the ability to perform well in

school.

3 I am one of the best students in my

class.

4 I believe that I have a lot of weaknesses

in my academics.

5 I have the ability to help my classmates,

when they ask for my help.

6 I am the most intelligent student in my

class.

7 I will pass well whether my parents

expect me to do well or not.

8 I cannot do well in academics, I think it

is better I learn a work or trade.

9 My gender is not a hindrance to my

academic success.

10 My gender influences my abilities to do

well in school.

92

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION QUESTIONNAIRE (AMQ)

Strongly Agree (SA) Agree (A) Disagree (D) Strongly Disagree (SD)

S/N ITEMS RESPONSES

SA A D SD

1 My parents’ socio-economic status, level of

education and occupation influence my zeal to

work hard.

2 I am working hard to be the best in my class.

3 I will pass my common entrance examination once

without external help.

4 I like working hard to achieve success.

5 It gives me pleasure to work hard and pass my

examinations very well.

6 I study my books to achieve what my parents

expect of me.

7 I work hard to make my parents love and praise

me.

8 I don’t need people’s motivation to do well.

9 I try hard to pass my exams so that my parents will

buy me gifts.

10 My parents’ motivation helps me to do well in

school.

93

PARENTAL EXPECTATION QUESTIONNAIRE (PEQ)

Strongly Agree (SA) Agree (A) Disagree (D) Strongly Disagree (SD)

S/N

ITEMS

RESPONSES

SA A D SD

1. My parents expect me to be the best in the class.

2. My parents beat me when I did not do well in

school.

3. My parents compare me with my peers who are

more intelligent than I am.

4. My parents say that I must be a professional because

of my gender.

5. My Parents expect me to be better than them.

6. My Parents encourage me when I did not do well in

school.

7 My parents say that as a boy/girl you should do very

well in school.

8. My parents believe that I am not intelligent.

9. My Parents don’t say anything bad when I did not

pass very well in school

10 My parents say that they will buy me gifts if I ever

pass

94

APPENDIX C

Computation of Reliability Estimates Using Cronbach’s Alpha

Total Reliability

Case Processing Summary

N %

Cases Valid 20 100.0

Excluded 0 .0

Total 20 100.0

Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's

Alpha

N of

Items

.874 30

Computation of Self Efficacy Belief Questionnaire (SEBQ)

Reliability Estimates using Cronbach’s Alpha

Case Processing Summary

N %

Cases Valid 20 100.0

Excluded 0 .0

Total 20 100.0

Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's

Alpha

N of

Items

.988 10

95

Computation of Achievement Motivation Questionnaire (AMQ)

Reliability Estimates using Cronbach’s Alpha

Case Processing Summary

N %

Cases Valid 20 100.0

Excluded 0 .0

Total 20 100.0

Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's

Alpha

N of

Items

.857 10

Computation of Parental expectation Questionnaire (PEQ)

Reliability Estimates using Cronbach’s Alpha

Case Processing Summary

N %

Cases Valid 20 100.0

Excluded 0 .0

Total 20 100.0

Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's

Alpha

N of

Items

.820 10

96

Appendix D

Mean ratings of and Standard Deviation of Pupils on Self Efficacy Belief and

Achievement Motivation based on Age

Age of Respondents N Mean Std.

Deviation

Std.

Error

Mean

Self-efficacy 10-12

13-15

210

23

2.9981

2.8739

.47653

.35830

.03288

.07471

Acht. Motivation 10-12

13-15

210

23

3.2710

3.1957

.48889

.56042

.03374

.11686

A t-test Table on the Influence of Age on Pupils’ Self Efficacy Belief and

Achievement Motivation

Age of Respondents

t-test for equality of mean

t

d/f

Sig.(2-

tailed)

Mean

difference

Std .error

difference

Self-efficacy 1.212 321 .227 .12418 .10247

Achievement Motivation .691 321 .490 .07530 .10897

97

Mean ratings, Standard Deviation and Mean Difference on Self Efficacy Belief

and Achievement Motivation based on Parental expectation

A t-test Table on the Influence of Parental Expectation on Self Efficacy Belief

and Achievement Motivation

Parental expectation

N

Mean

Std.

Deviation

Std

error

mean

Self-efficacy

High parental Expectation

Low parental Expectation

151

82

3.1629

2.6598

.35055

.48070

.02853

.05308

Achievement Motivation High

parental Expectation

Low

parental Expectation

15I

82

3.4596

2..9024

.33310

.54251

.02711

.5991

Parental expectation

t-test for equality of means

t

df

Sig.(2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference

Std.

Errror

Difference

Self-efficacy 9.146 231 .000 .50316 .05501

Achievement Motivation 9.702 231 .000 .55716 .05743

Gender of Respondents

N Mean Std.

Deviation

Std.

Error

Mean

98

Mean Score and Standard Deviation of Pupils’ Self Efficacy Belief and Achievement Motivation Based on Gender

A t-test Table on the Influence of Gender on Pupils’ Achievement Motivation

Self-efficacy Male

Female

114

119

3.0632

2.9118

.42097

.49782

.03943

.04564

Achievement motivation Male

Female

114

119

3.3693

3.1622

.42283

.53899

.03960

.04941

Gender of

Respondents

t-test for Equality of Mean

t

df

Sig.(2-

tailed)

Mean

difference

Std .error

difference

Self-efficacy Equal

variances assumed

2.501 231 0.13 .15139 .06052

Acht. Motivation Equal

variances assumed

3.254 231 .001 .20711 .06365

99

SUMMARIES OF ALL THE MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS

ANALYSED

Self-efficacy, Achievement Motivation * Parental Expectation

Cases

Included Excluded Total

N Percent N Percent N Percent

Parental Expectation 233 100.0% 0 .0% 233 100.0%

Self-Efficacy Belief 233 100.0% 0 .0% 233 100.0%

Achievement Motivation 233 100.0% 0 .0% 233 100.0%

Self-Efficacy * Gender of

Respondents

233 100.0% 0 .0% 233 100.0%

Acht. Motivation * Gender of

Respondents

233 100.0% 0 .0% 233 100.0%

Self-Efficacy * Age of

Respondents

233 100.0% 0 .0% 233 100.0%

Acht. Motivation * Age of

Respondents

233 100.0% 0 .0% 233 100.0%

Parental Expectation Self-

efficacy

Acht.

Motivation

High parental Expectation Mean

N

S.D

3.1629

151

.35055

3.4596

151

.33310

Low parental Expectation Mean

N

S.D

2.6598

82

.48070

2.9024

82

.54251

Total

Mean

N

S.D

2.9858

233

.46703

3.2635

233

.49558

100

Self efficacy and Achievement Motivation * Gender of Respondents

Gender of Respondents

Self-

efficacy

Achievement

Motivation

Male

Mean

N

S.D

3.0632

114

.42097

3.3693

114

.42283

Female Mean

N

S.D

2.9118

119

.49782

3.1622

119

.53899

Total Mean

N

S.D

2.9858

233

.46703

3.2635

233

.49558

Self-efficacy and Achievement Motivation * Age of Respondents

Age of Respondents

Self-

efficacy

Achievement

Motivation

10-12 Mean

N

S.D

2.9981

210

.47653

3.2710

210

.4889

13-15 Mean

N

S.D

2.8739

23

.35830

3.1957

23

.56042

Total Mean

N

S.D

2.9858

233

.46703

3.2635

233

.49558