Joe Brennan VI/SO

Modern History – World War One

WAR ON WESTERN FRONT :

1. REASONS FOR STALEMATE:

[pre-war expectationsSchlieffen PlanBattle of the MarneRace to the Sea]

- expectations of war led to complex mobilisation plans and “war by timetable”, which left little room for flexibility. - Schlieffen Plan [rapid encirclement of Paris before French could mobilise] was in violation of Treaty of London (aka ‘scrap of paper’), and failed due to the alterations of von Moltke.- this led to the Battle of the Marne (Sept. 1914), when Joffre saved the French from defeat, and the Germans were forced back to the River Aisne, and dug trenches.- attempts to outflank eachother as part of the ‘Race to the Sea’ failed and simply lengthened the front.

2. NATURE OF TRENCH WARFARE:

[physical + psychological]

- physical: artillery bombardment, enemy raids (box barrages), gas (mustard/chlorine), mud/drowning, disease (e.g. trench foot), lice, rats, and frostbite. - psychological: shell shock – both Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen were committed to the Craig-Lockhart Sanatorium.

3. ATTEMPTS TO BREAK THE STALEMATE:

[technologythree battlesnew strategyfighting elsewherenaval warfarewartime diplomacy]

- introduction and wider use of new technology: artillery bombardment, tanks, airplanes, gas. - application of these in 3 main battles: Verdun (more than 900,000 casualties, Germans tried to “bleed” French Army dry) , the Somme, and Passchendaele (Over 4.5 million shells were fired).- new strategy = ‘bite and hold’- fighting elsewhere: Gallipolli, Eastern Front, Middle East.- naval warfare: British naval blockade vs. Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare (Scarborough in 1915/17)

- wartime diplomacy: Italy and Romania brought into war by Allies; Pope proposes Peace Plan in 1917.

4. SOLDIERS’ CHANGING ATTITUDES:

- Britain: no need for conscription + pals’ battalions 1916 disillusionment/war-weariness.- Germany: Germany already had a standing army of conscripts naval mutiny at Kiel, 1918.

HOME FRONTS OF BRITAIN/GERMANY:

1. IMPACT OF TOTAL WAR:

Germany: - 50 food riots during 1916; class-specific rationing areas – results of naval blockade.- production of ersatz goods, raw materials companies established.- the cost of living rose by 81% for the skilled labourer

Britain: - 1914: Defence of the Realm Act, effectively instating martial law.- need for union-wide cooperation, i.e. for munitions.- income tax rose by 150 % by 1918- 1918: first official rationing as policy.

2. GOVERNMENT CONTROLS IN BRITAIN:

- January 1916: conscription introduced = 16,000 registered ‘conchies’.- British propaganda film “The Battle of the Somme” [1916]; 20 million viewers after just 6 weeks.- Propaganda built around incidents of German cruelty – as in execution of Nurse Edith Carvell, and sinking of Lusitania – both 1915. - Press Bureau [est. 1914]; London was serviced by 16 newspapers; editors submitting articles for Government ‘vetting’.

3. GOVERNMENT CONTROLS IN GERMANY:

- attempts for peace were censored, including Papal Peace Note.- German propaganda featured elite figures; didn’t connect with

ordinary worker.

4. CHANGING ATTITUDES IN GERMANY:

- OF GOVERNMENT: 1914: fourteen German Social Democrat Party members expressed opposition to war, but voted with party July 1917: ‘Peace Resolution’ put forward in Reichstag,supported by SDP and Catholic Centrists.

- OF PEOPLE: dissent censored rise in working class mortality rates open dissent in press strikes dismissal of Ludendorff.

5. CHANGING ATTITUDES IN BRITAIN: - 1914: only Socialist dissent war weariness due to reportage of death effect of total war BUT ‘conchies’ were always seen as cowards.

6. EXPERIENCE OF WOMEN: - Britain: filled roles of men; changed workforce dynamic; BUT throughout war, biggest employers of women were still domestic services. Not a big employment boost.

TURNING POINTS

1. ENTRY OF USA: - why: unrestricted submarine warfare (Lusitania, 124 Americans) 1917: Zimmerman telegram resumption of submarine attacks.- impact: defeated Ludendorff’s final advance under Foch (1918) broke Hindenburg Line.

2. WITHDRAWAL OF RUSSIA: - impact: gave Luderndorff reason to attempt offensive (no longer 2 fronts) could transport materials without conflict. ALTHOUGH, also diverted German troops, as they had to enforcer the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

3. LUDENDORFF’S SPRING OFFENSIVE: - why it failed: ever-growing American forces didn’t expect strong counteroffensive artillery couldn’t keep up with movement.- AS WELL AS: Ludendorff dealing with blockade and at home, and general German failure re: weaponry (only made 24 tanks during entire war).

ALLIED VICTORY

1. LEADUP TO ARMISTICE: - collapse of Germany because: exhaustion of troops improved Allied generalship (e.g. Monash) lacked secondary plan naval mutiny.[2. REASONS FOR ALLIED VICTORY:] - Schlieffen failure makes it about ATTRITION resources Blockade USA entry Ludendorff defeated.

3. ROLES/GOALS OF LEADERS AT VERSAILLES: - ALL the men: subject to desires of public; all wanted to assign guilt [Clause 231].- Wilson: idealistic Fourteen Points = didn’t represent isolationist American public.- Clemenceau: just won reelection + wanted to crush German war machine 100,000 strong army + no airforce + limited navy.- Lloyd-George: saw Germany as Europe’s economic superpower needed it back on its feet as soon as possible.

APPROACHING PERSPECTIVE/RELIABILITY/USEFULNESS QUESTIONS:

1. PERSPECTIVE:- Who wrote it?- When? Do they have the benefit of hindsight?- Is it from a soldier’s perspective? [letters may have benefit of honesty/or may be censored]2. RELIABILITY:- Is it biased or neutral?- Does it aim to persuade or inform?- Does it use emotive language or statistics?- Photograph: Composed or candid?- Iconography of propaganda. 3. USEFULNESS:- Begin with its shortcomings – e.g. “Although the Source provides no information regarding…”- Quote directly from the source and link THAT to your own knowledge.- What else could the source be used for?