Notes - To Ch7

Introduction

Essential management skills:1. Managing time and stress2. Recognizing, defining, and solving

problems3. Self awareness

Personal skills

4. Communicating [supportively]5. Motivating and influencing others6. Conflict management7. Decision making

Interpersonal skills

8. Delegating [and empowering]9. Setting goals and articulating a vision10.Team building

Group skills

Management skills are behavioral i.e. observable and learned. Management skills are controllable i.e. adaptable. Management skills are developable i.e. can be learned and improved. Management skills are interrelated and overlapping

Developing Management Skills1. Skill assessment of current level of skill competence and knowledge; and create readiness

to change.2. Skill learning.3. Skill analysis of effective performance/behavior and why they work.4. Skill practice re: adaption of principles to personal style; and receive feedback and

assistance.5. Skill application in real life situations.

Leadership and Management skills organized by the Competing Values Framework:1. Clan skills focus on collaborative [effective interpersonal relationships skills]:

i. communicating supportivelyii. building teams and teamworkiii. empowering

2. Adhocracy skills focus on create [articulating a vision]:i. creative problem solving

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ii. leading positive changeiii. fostering innovation

3. Market Skills focus on competition [power and influence]:i. motivating othersii. gaining power and influenceiii. managing conflict

4. Hierarchy skills focus on control [and rationality]:i. Managing personal stressii. Managing timeiii. Maintaining self-awarenessiv. Analytical problem solving

Effective leadership and effective management are inseparable.

Effective management is a key source of financial success for firms. But effective managers are not always successful personally, and vice versa, personally successful managers are not always effective. Effective managers focus on managing employees, getting results, downward communication and motivation, problem solving and human resource management. Successful managers focus on networking and relationship building, especially with higher ups.

Thus, even though good management of people might be the best predictor of a firm’s financial success, being a good manager (and helping the firm financially as a result) is not a good predictor for your own success. Ideally, you will combine behaviors that lead to success and effectiveness by:

1. Being good at networking, upward communication (managing your boss), stress management, power and influence and conflict resolution

2. Being good at problem solving, downward communication, motivating your employees, delegating, empowering and team building

“Skills” or “competencies” are identifiable sets of action that lead to outcomes. Unlike personality traits they are controllable and can be developed. Being a good manager or even a good sales person is attributable to skills rather than personality, and these competencies can be learned and developed. The key is emotional intelligence. That is, being able to handle emotions and balance contradictory skill areas such as human relations, power and control, innovativeness and rationality.

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Scientific Management Time and motion studies Selection Training Financial incentives Piece rates

Human Relations ManagementFocuses on group relations/behavior.

Chapter 1 - Developing Self-Awareness

Self-AwarenessSelf-awareness involves:

1. Self-knowledge: our assumptions, trigger points, sensitive line, comfort zone, strengths and weaknesses.

2. Understanding differences in others: different perspectives, needs, inclinations; and focusing on those differences rather than on distinctions such as qualifications, titles, status, etc.

Most of us have a tendency to interact with others like ourselves, but if managers do that they lose information and perspectives that aid decision making. Good managers need to be much broader minded than the average person.

Fear of self-awareness People are afraid of self knowledge and self awareness because it threatens self-concept.

The fear of public speaking shows that humiliation that causes harm to our self concept is prevalent.

The sensitive line is the point at which individuals become defensive or protective when encountering information that is inconsistent with their self-concept or when encountering pressure to alter their behavior. This is similar to the notion of cognitive dissonance, that people resist holding two inconsistent beliefs at the same time. If we need a positive self-concept to survive, then negative information about ourselves will cause cognitive dissonance, or mental conflict, which we will resolve, likely by rejecting the information, possibly to the extent of the treat-rigidity response to protect the image we hold of ourselves.

To overcome the sensitive line: Use psychological tests since objective information is less threatening. Self-disclosure. Opening up to another person, is another way of building self-awareness.

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Become more self-aware of key traits including personal values, learning style, orientation toward change, and interpersonal orientation.

Dimensions of Self-Awareness:

1. Emotional Intelligence is the ability to manage ourselves [recognize and control our emotions]; and to manage relationships with others [recognize and respond appropriately to the emotions of others].

2. Personal values identify an individual’s basic standards about what is good/bad, worthwhile/worthless, desirable/undesirable, true/false, moral/immoral. Personal values may be either:

i. Terminal values that refer to end states or goals. An example would be “peace.” They can be personal or social, or

ii. Instrumental values that refer to standards of behavior. Examples would include morality and competence.Several psychologists have argued that the level of moral development is a key predictor of the way people behave. Moral development or moral maturity has most famously been measured by Kohlberg in his Values Maturity scale.

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Kohlberg Values Maturity scale:Preconventional (self centered):Moral duty resides in external factors, and consequences, not persons or relationships.

i. Fear of punishment. Think of a criminal. Infantile stage.

ii. Individual instrumental purpose and exchange. Meeting one’s own needs, and being fair to others. Childish stage. Think of the mafia.

Conventional (Conformity):Moral value resides in duty, maintaining social contracts, keeping commitments.

iii. Mutual interpersonal expectations. Relationships and conformity to others; keeping commitment. Think of adolescence.

iv. Social system. Upholding social order. Doing one’s duty to society. Average adult.

Postconventional (Principled): Moral value resides in commitment to freely selected standards, rights, and duties.

v. Prior rights. Moral behavior is freely chosen. Upholding rights and contracts. Think of Kant’s universal ethics. Think of Socrates

Values often conflict. Chester Barnard, in his seminal book The Functions of the Executive, argues that the executive’s most important function is to motivate employees to accept moral codes that are consistent with the firm’s goals. Firms need to balance economic performance with social performance most adults have neither constructed nor do they follow a well developed sense of principle.

3. Learning style refers to the manner in which we perceive, interpret and respond to information. Two dimensions are: gathering information and evaluating information.Gathering information is characterized by two poles of one dimension:

i. Abstract Conceptualization (AC): information is obtained from books and/or from analysis of theoretical relationships, and

ii. Concrete Experience (CE): information is obtained from other people and/or from experience.

Evaluating information is characterized by two poles of a second dimension:i. Reflective observation (RO) which involves pondering and reflecting on information.

Differing perspective are considered.

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ii. Active experimentation (AE) which involves testing and acting. Ability to get things done. Taking risks. Influence through action.

The four poles result in four learning styles, combining one gathering and one evaluating information pole each:

a. Diverging combines RO & CE indicating that the learner is creative, imaginative, and interactive such as people in the arts and social services. These people view concrete situations from many points of view and are good at idea generation.

b. Accommodating combines AE & CE indicating people act on gut feel and are risk taking…such as entrepreneurs, marketing, sales, managers.

c. Converging combines AC & AE indicating problem solvers: technical people and decision makers who are good at processing a wide range of information. They are good at practical uses for ideas. Engineers.

d. Assimilating combines AC & RO indicating abstract thinking: science, computers and math. These people are good at processing a wide range of information.

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4. Attitudes toward change involve the ability to learn, and adapt. Two dimensions that reflect the ability to cope with change are tolerance of ambiguity and locus of control:

I. Tolerance of ambiguity refers to the extent to which individuals have difficulty coping with ambiguous, changing circumstances. Tolerance of ambiguity is related to cognitive complexity, the ability to integrate seemingly contradictory information. Cognitive complexity, though, may be associated with lack of focus. Three subdivisions are:

a. Novelty: extent to which people are tolerant of new, unfamiliar information or situations,

b. Complexity: extent to which people are tolerant of multiple, distinctive, or unrelated information, and

c. Insolubility: extent to which people are tolerant of difficult problems.II. Locus of control refers to the attitude people develop regarding the extent to which

they are in control of their own destinies. Locus of control can shift over time, or vary according to position or situation.

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People having internal locus of control believe reinforcements or outcomes are contingent on their own actions. Such people are associated with successful management in North America, are less alienated from work environment, are more satisfied at work, and experience less stress and more position mobility. On the negative side, they are less likely to comply with leader directions, and are less accurate in processing feedback about successes and failures. They also have greater difficulty making decisions that have serious consequences.People having external locus of control believe others or external factors cause success or failure. Such people are most commonly found in managers from Eastern cultures, tend to use coercive power more than internal leaders, and perform poorly in stressful situations.

5. Core Self-evaluation is positive self-regard comprised of:i. Self-esteem: the extent to which people see themselves as capable, successful, and

worthy,ii. Self-efficacy: sense of one’s ability to perform capably in a variety of circumstances,iii. Neuroticism: tendency to have a negative outlook and pessimistic approach to life,

andiv. Locus of control discussed above.

Positive core self-evaluation implies sensitivity to others and to the environment so that relationships with others are strengthened and developed.

PersonalityPersonality is the relatively enduring traits that make an individual unique. In contrast to skills, which can be learned, and values, which are inculcated through cultural exposure, personality traits are relatively permanent and difficult to change. Locus of control and tolerance of ambiguity are borderline traits/values and is easier than some of the other traits, like the ones in FIRO-B to change. You should not think of changing your personality traits, such as those measured by FIRO-B (see chapter 6 notes). Your values can change much more easily.

The Big Five Dimensions of Personality are:1. Extraversion2. Agreeableness3. Conscientiousness4. Neuroticism

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5. Openness

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Trompenaars—Cultural Values DimensionsValue dimension

Valued Country example

Universalism Societal rules and norms USParticularism Individual relationships KoreaIndividualism Individual contributions United StatesCollectivism Team contributions Mexico, JapanAffective Emotional response Iran, SpainNeutral Unemotional response Korea, JapanSpecific Segregating Life’s Roles HollandDiffuse Integrating Life’s Roles ChinaAchievement Personal accomplishment United StatesAscription Inherent attributes EgyptPast and Present

Past is tightly connected to future France

Future Future disconnected but valued US, HollandInternal Internal locus of control US, UKExternal External locus of control. Japan, China

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Chapter 2 – Stress ManagementStress management is important because the ability to manage stress will help you to succeed. Stress affects managers’

abilities to make decisions, to be creative and to focus. Furthermore, stress has many health and other social

implications. Managing stress is fundamental to our ability to manage change, and the management of change is a key

management mandate in today’s technologically shifting and globally evolving world.

One of the key sources of stress, interestingly, is incompetent management. Characteristics of low level positions make

them much more stressful than high level positions. I’d rather be CEO than a secretary because CEOs have more

discretion. The CEO gets to give the incompetent orders, but the secretary has to obey the incompetent orders, and it’s

a lot harder to obey incompetent orders than to give them!

Cultural differences play a role:

1. Egalitarian cultures tend to experience more stress.

2. Affective cultures tend to experience more stress.

Force field analysis suggests that there are stressors whose force is opposed by resistors or resiliency. Your job is to

build the resiliency and so manage the stressors.

Sources of StressSource Causes CountersTime Work overload

Lack of control Effective time management (doing the right

thing) Efficient time management (doing things

right) Delegating

Encounter Role conflicts (incompatibility) Issue conflicts (disagreements) Action conflicts (personal

antagonisms)

Membership in a stable, closely-knit group or community. Collaborating & team building Emotional intelligence

Situational Unfavorable working conditions Rapid change

Work redesign [Change management]

Anticipatory Unpleasant expectations Fear

Goal setting Small wins

Reacting to stress:1. Alarm stage is characterized by acute increases in anxiety/fear/sorrow/depression.

2. Resistance stage in which defense mechanisms predominate. Defense mechanisms include:

a. aggression – attacking the stressor directly

b. regression – adoption of previously successful behaviors

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c. repression – denial, forgetting, or redefining the stressors

d. withdrawal – fantasizing, inattentiveness, purposive forgetting, escape

e. fixation – persisting in a response regardless of its effectiveness

3. Exhaustion stage (if resistance fails to counter stressors) in which efforts to defend against stress ceases.

Stress management1. Enactive: eliminate stressors by creating new environments.

2. Proactive: develop resiliency (capacity to handle stress).

3. Reactive: temporary on the spot remedies including deep breathing, muscle relaxation, imagery and fantasy,

rehearsal of positive reactions to potentially stressful situations, and reframing by redefining the situation as

manageable.

Effective time management:1. Distinguish between important -v- urgent tasks.

2. Spend time on important rather than urgent matters.

3. Focus on results rather than methods

4. Say no without guilt.

Efficient time managementInefficient time management causes stress. Inter alia:

1. We tend to misuse time:

2. We do what we like first

3. We do easy, planned, routine and scheduled things first

4. We wait until deadlines

5. The squeaky wheel gets our attention

Efficient time management includes:

1. Reading selectively

2. Making to-do lists

3. Prioritizing

4. Placing everything in designated places

5. Doing one important thing at a time but several small things simultaneously

6. Dividing up large projects

7. Not procrastinating

8. Doing something productive while waiting

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9. Holding routine meetings at the end of the day

10. Setting time limits

11. Meeting visitors in your doorway

12. Etc…

Work RedesignHackman and Oldham argue that more interesting, challenging and fulfilling jobs have certain characteristics that lead to

psychological states that in turn lead to job performance outcomes.

Job Characteristics Applications to eliminate stressors at work

Skill variety Combine tasks to utilize more skills, and foster pride of ownership in the job.

Task identity Form identifiable work units to facilitate greater integration of related tasks, and to eliminate/minimize monotony.

Task Significance Establish customer relationships to foster a greater sense of purpose and pride in

output which becomes more associative with customer satisfaction.

Autonomy Empowerment: increase decision-making authority to provide greater control and sense of ownership.

Feedback Open feedback channels to communicate ultimate results of efforts, and to provide for self monitoring.

Goal SettingGood goals are SMART: Specific, Measurable, Achievable (but challenging), Relevant, and Time-Bound.

1. Establish SMART goals.2. Specify actions & behavior requirements.3. Generate accountability and reporting mechanism.4. Identify criteria of success and reward.

Resiliency1. Physiological resiliency is attained through exercise, proper diet, avoiding alcohol, sugar, fat.

2. Psychological resiliency is attained by “hardiness” and avoiding Type A personality. Hardiness means feeling in

control, feeling committed and feeling challenged. In turn, it implies internal locus of control and self esteem. In

contrast, Type A personalities feel a lot of tension, focus on having rather than being, are unaware of the

broader environment, have a strong need to compete, chronic sense of being in a hurry, have a feeling of guilt

when relaxing.

Ways to build psychological resiliency include balanced lifestyle, small wins strategy, and deep relaxation.

3. Social resiliency implies developing a supportive social system: mentors, small groups and teams.

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Chapter 3 – Problem SolvingProblem solving is an important skill and marketable to employers. Creativity is important to entrepreneurship. But

problem solving and creativity are likely NOT critical to career success and moving up the corporate ladder. Networking

and power and influence skills are likely more important to career success. Creativity, problem solving and innovation

and (more importantly) management of creativity, problem solving and innovation are important for managerial

effectiveness.

Two types of problem solving are analytical problem solving which focuses on eliminating problems, and creative

problem solving which focuses on creating something new.

Analytical Problem SolvingFour steps to analytical problem solving are:

1. Define the problem.

a) Differentiate fact from opinion

b) Specify underlying causes

c) Tap everyone involved for information

d) State the problem explicitly

e) Identify what standard is violated

f) Determine whose problem it is

g) Avoid stating the problem as a disguised solution

2. Generate alternatives

a) Be sure all involved individuals generate alternatives

b) Specify alternatives that are consistent with goals

c) Specify both short- and long-term solutions

d) Specify alternatives that solve the problem

e) Postpone evaluating alternatives

f) Build on others’ ideas

3. Evaluate and select alternatives

a) Evaluate relative to an optimal standard

b) Evaluate systematically

c) Evaluate relative to goals

d) Evaluate main effects and side effects

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e) State the selected alternative explicitly

4. Implement and follow up

a) Implement at proper time and in the right sequence

b) Implement using a small-wins strategy to discourage resistance

c) Provide opportunities for feedback

d) Engender acceptance by facilitating participation by affected individuals

e) Establish ongoing measurement and monitoring system

f) Evaluate based on problem solution not side benefits

Limitations of Analytical Problem SolvingLimitations include: time pressures, non-existing or unclear standards, paucity of alternative solutions, inability to determine accuracy of information obtained, and insufficiency of information.

1. Defining problem - Lack of consensus on the problem, acceptance of problem definition, symptoms are often

confused with the real problem, confusing information.

2. Generating alternatives - Alternatives are evaluated as they are proposed, few possible alternatives are usually

known, the first acceptable solution is usually accepted, and alternatives are based on what was successful in

the past.

3. Evaluating and selecting alternatives - Information on alternatives is limited, search for information occurs close

to home, the type of information is constrained by other factors, gathering information is costly, preferences for

the best alternatives are not always known.

4. Implementing - Acceptance is not always forthcoming, resistance to change, uncertainty about which part of the

solution to monitor, political and organizational processes must be managed, it may take a long time to

implement a solution.

Creative problem solving

Four types of creativity:1. Incubation (be sustainable)

a) Capitalize on teamwork, involvement, coordination, cohesion, empowering people, building trust.

b) Flexible/internal/slow.

c) Requires existence of a diverse community with strong values; need for collective effort and consensus;

empowered workforce.

2. Imagination (be new)

a) Experimentation, exploration, risk taking, transformational ideas, revolutionary thinking, unique vision.

b) Flexible/External/Large.

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c) Appropriate when there is need for brand-name breakthrough, emerging markets, resources needed for

experimentation.

3. Improvement (be better)

a) Incremental improvements; process control; systematic approaches; careful methods; clarifying problems.

b) Internal/control/small.

c) Requirement for quality, safety, and reliability; high technical specialization; effective standardized

procedures.

4. Investment (be first)

a) Rapid goal achievement, faster responses than others; competitive approaches; attack problems directly

b) External/control/fast

c) Fast results a necessity; highly competitive environments; emphasis on bottom line outcomes.

Conceptual BlocksConceptual blocks are mental obstacles that constrain the ways problems are defined. Selective perception causes

conceptual blocks. We are bombarded with much information and our minds screen that information out. For example,

formal education makes people less creative. Play, not education, leads to creativity.

1. Constancy: being wedded to one way of solving a problem

a) Vertical thinking: defining a problem one way without considering alternative views.

b) One thinking language: not using more than one language (Words, Symbols, Sensory, feelings and emotions,

visual imagery) to define and assess the problem.

2. Commitment: being committed to one point of view.

a) Related to cognitive dissonance, defined as discomfort with contradictions among beliefs and actions

b) Perceptual stereotyping: define present problems in terms of problems faced in the past.

c) Ignoring commonalities: failure to find the common thread that exists between dissimilar problems.

3. Compression:

a) Artificial constraints: defining the boundaries of a problem too narrowly (not thinking outside the box).

b) Distinguishing figure from the ground: Not filtering out irrelevant information or finding needed

information.

4. Complacency

a) Non-inquisitiveness: not asking questions.

b) Non-thinking: a bias toward activity in place of mental work. Reliance on left-hemispheric (logical,

sequential, analytical, linear) thinking instead of being ambidextrous. Right-hemispheric thinking utilizes

intuition, synthesis, qualitative judgment, etc.

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Steps to creative problem solving:1. Preparation – gathering data, defining the problem, generating alternatives, and examining all available information.

2. Incubation – unconscious mental activity that combines unrelated thoughts in pursuit of a solution.

3. Illumination – recognition of insight and articulation of a solution.

4. Verification – evaluating the creative solution relative to some standard of acceptability.

Improving creativityA. Improving the definition of the problem:

1. Synectics: Put something you know in terms of what you don’t know. Transform the problem definition through

synectics or analogies and metaphors. Ask: what does this remind me of? What does it make me feel like?

a) Personal analogies - Identify yourself as the problem.

b) Direct analogies - Apply facts, technology, and common experience to the problem.

c) Symbolic analogies - Impose symbols or images on the problem.

d) Fantasy analogies - In my wildest dreams how would I wish the problem to be resolved.

2. Elaborate on the definition.

a) Generate several plausible definitions.

b) Question checklist - is there anything else? Is the reverse true? Is this a symptom? Who sees it differently?

3. Reverse the definition: reverse the way you think about the problem. Janusian thinking: thinking contradictory

thoughts at the same time.

B. Create more alternatives:

1. Fluency - number of ideas.

2. Flexibility - diversity of ideas.

3. Brainstorming/Deferring judgment.

a) Encourage wild/divergent ideas. Generate ideas separately then submit to a central coordination (nominal

group technique).

b) No evaluation. Quantity is more important than quality.

c) Build on others’ ideas.

4. Expand current alternatives through subdivision of the problem into smaller parts.

5. Combine unrelated alternatives using morphological synthesis: write the problem, list attributes of problem, list

alternatives to each attribute, and then combine different alternatives. An ability to see common relationships

among disparate factors is a major factor differentiating creative and uncreative individuals.

C. Applying creative problem solving:

1. Give yourself relaxation time.

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2. Find a place where you can think.

3. Talk to others about ideas and solicit suggestions.

4. Read a lot.

5. Protect yourself from idea killers (“back holes”).

D. Pull people apart—put them together

1. Heterogeneous teams.

2. Let people work alone and in groups.

3. Separate competing groups.

E. Monitor and prod: hold people accountable.

1. The ultimate inspiration is the deadline.

2. Sharp pointed prod: mandates that demand innovativeness.

F. Reward multiple roles.

1. Idea champions.

2. Orchestrator (facilitator).

3. Sponsors and Mentors.

4. Rule breakers who go beyond boundaries and barriers to ensure success.

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Chapter 4 – CommunicatingCommunication has gotten more accurate because of technology such as e-mail and fax machines. But good

communication depends on trust as well as accuracy. Much writing on communication focuses on accuracy. Technology

has improved accuracy but not the emotional content of communication.

The ability to communicate, face-to-face in interpersonal communication is the most important managerial skill. Models

of communication that focus on accuracy emphasize the following:

Sender Message Encode Medium Decode Message Receiver

But the emotional dimension of communication is more important than accuracy. More often than not, it is the

impersonal aspect of communication that stands in the way of accuracy.

Supportive communication seeks to preserve a positive relationship between communicators. Good relationships

produce bottom-line advantages. It is particularly important for coaching and counseling.

Coaching - giving advice, direction or information to improve performance. It is relevant for addressing ability problems:

inability, incompetence, or insufficient information or understanding.

Counseling - helping someone understand and resolve a problem him/herself by displaying understanding. It is relevant

for addressing attitude problems: personality clashes, defensiveness, and other emotions.

Obstacles to communicationIf principles of supportive communication are not followed, two major results are:

1. Defensiveness:

i. One individual feels threatened or attacked as a result of the communication

ii. Self-protection becomes paramount

iii. Energy is spent on constructing a defense rather than on listening

iv. Aggression, anger, competitiveness, and/or avoidance as a result of the communication.

2. Disconfirmation:

i. Individual feels incompetent, unworthy, or insignificant as a result of the communication

ii. Attempts to reestablish self-worth take precedence

iii. Energy is spent trying to portray self-importance rather than on listening

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iv. Showing off, self-centered behavior, withdrawal, and/or loss of motivation are common reactions.

Principles of supportive communication1. Congruence: a match between what an individual is thinking and feeling.

2. Descriptive and reduces the tendency to evaluate and cause defensiveness.

a) Describes objectively the event, behavior, or circumstance.

b) Focuses on the behavior and your reaction.

c) Focuses on solutions.

3. Problem-oriented and does not focus on personal traits which cannot be changed.

4. Validating helps others feel recognized, understood, accepted, and valued. It is egalitarian, flexible, two-way, and

based on agreement.

Invalidating communication conveys superiority, rigidity, indifference, and imperviousness and creates negative

feelings of self worth.

5. Specific and identifies something that can be understood and acted upon.

6. Conjunctive (not disjunctive) and joined to a previous message and provides equitable opportunities to speak.

7. Owned and acknowledges the source of the idea. Ownership conveys responsibility.

8. Active listening and responding effectively to someone else’s statements.

Listening Responses1. Advising provides direction, evaluation, personal opinion, or instruction. Most appropriate when the listener has

expertise that the speaker lacks. Cautions:

a) Creates listener control over the topic.

b) Can produce dependence.

c) The speaker may feel misunderstood.

d) Shifts the focus of the conversation.

e) Should almost always follow other responses.

2. Deflecting switches focus from the speaker to the listener e.g. “A similar thing happened to me.”, and can produce

feeling of being one-upped. Appropriate if reassurance is needed. Implies that the communicator’s issues are not

important.

3. Probing: Ask a question about what the speaker just said to gather more information. “Why” questions are seldom

as effective as “What” questions. “What do you mean by that” is better.

4 kinds of probes:

i. Elaboration – to solicit more information.

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ii. Repetition to confirm statement or prevent topic drift.

iii. Reflection to encourage more in-depth discussion of the same topic, and

iv. Clarification to eliminate ambiguity.

4. Reflecting: mirror back to the speaker to indicate and contribute acceptance of what was said. Least intrusive

listening response.

Even more important than good listening technique is genuine concern for the person with whom you are

communicating. Covey advocates empathetic listening: seek first to understand, then to be understood. Through

empathy for others, you will gain their trust.

Behavioral Guidelines1. Differentiate between coaching situations and counseling situations.

2. Use problem-oriented statements rather than person-oriented statements.

3. Communicate congruently by acknowledging your true feelings without acting them out in destructive ways.

4. Use descriptive, not evaluative, statements.

5. Use validating statements that acknowledge the other person’s importance and uniqueness.

6. Use specific rather than global statements when correcting behavior.

7. Use conjunctive statements that flow smoothly from what was said previously.

8. Own your statements, and encourage, the other person to do likewise.

9. Demonstrate supportive listening.

10.Implement a personal management interview program characterized by supportive communication.

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Chapter 5 – Power and InfluencePower is the potential to influence behavior - to get things done. Political competence is critical to getting things done in an organization. In involves management of bosses, underlings, customers, suppliers, unions, etc. It also involves the capacity to make others feel powerful.

Not all cultures see power the same way. Ascriptive cultures value inherent attributes, and don’t value personal power as Americans do. They believe that power resides in stable, personal characteristics. Collectivist cultures believe in power of groups.

Need for Power1. Personal power – some people seek power for themselves.2. Institutional power - people who seek power on behalf of their organizations.

McClelland predicted that while entrepreneurs have a high need for achievement and like to get things done and demonstrate excellence, top managers tend to have a high need for power.

Current organizational trends:a) flatter organizationsb) technology and decentralizationc) boundaryless organizationsd) smaller firms

Power determinants1. Personal attributes: abilities and competencies, also referred to as human capital, and

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2. Positional characteristics: social connections within and without the organization, also referred to as social capital.

Sources of Personal Power1. Expertise: task relevant knowledge. Skillful subordinates make knowledge available in a

manner that does not threaten a boss. But, avoid the expertise trap, where you are locked in a field that you have expertise in, but the company does not want to replace you.

2. Personal attraction: charisma, likeability, and physical attractiveness. Likeability implies:a) Emotionally accessible.b) Honest and loyal.c) Positive regard and acceptance.

3. Effort: higher than expected commitment of time leads to cognitive dissonance on others’ part. They associate the hard worker with a higher level job. But in some organizations hard work is discouraged by peer groups and group norms. In some organizations everyone works very hard, so effort will not distinguish anyone. If you put out more effort your boss relies on you. At the same time, it is better to benefit than to impress your boss. It is important to:

a) Understand your boss’s goals and objectives.b) Understand your boss’s traits.c) Maintain a relationship that fits the needs and style of both you and the boss.

4. Legitimacy: Conformity to organizational norms and values. The person who mirrors their boss and conforms to the boss’s ways and the ways of the higher ups and of the organization tends to be more successful.

Sources of Position Power1. Centrality: access to information. Being part of a broad network of interpersonal

relationships. Horizontal and vertical networks are important. Informal network power precedes formal power.

2. Flexibility: freedom to exercise one’s judgment and discretion. 3. Visibility: people oriented positions are often more powerful than task oriented ones. Being

in a position that allows you to interact with a large number of influential people increases your power by making your accomplishments more evident to the people who allocate resources.

4. Relevance: working on activities directly related to the central objectives and issues in the organization.

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Developing long term relationships is key to gaining power. In contrast, managers tend to have their careers derailed if they are

Cold, aloof and arrogant, Insensitive to others and betraying their trust, Overly ambitious, Unable to delegate, and Unable to trust.

Converting power into influenceThe skill of transforming power into influence hinges on securing the consent of others that engenders support and commitment.

Three influence strategies:1. Retribution: using threat/intimidation of negative consequences to force others comply. “If

you don’t do x you’ll regret it”. Likely to incur resentment/resistance/opposition.2. Reciprocity: bargaining and emphasizing mutual gain. “If you do x, you’ll receive y”.

Requires some degree of trust; and may generate cynicism.3. Reason: promote the merits of the proposition to elicit willing compliance. The best

approach but takes time. Is disadvantaged by different cultural and other value systems, and by incongruent goals.

Influencing your boss:Ways to sell issues upwards:1. Congruence with your position and role.2. Credibility: honest, non-self-serving, and straightforward.3. Communication through multiple channels.4. Payoff – emphasize benefits to the organization.5. Bundling of similar issues.6. Visibility – promote the issue in public forums (meetings)…

Neutralizing retribution attempts1. Use countervailing power to shift dependence to interdependence2. Confront the exploiting individual directly3. Actively resist

Neutralizing reciprocity attempts1. Examine the intent of gift giving

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2. Confront individuals who are using manipulative bargaining tactics3. Refuse to bargain with individuals who use high pressure tactics

Neutralize reason strategies1. Explain the adverse effects of compliance and suggest alternatives. E.g. inability to fulfill your

responsibilities/task.2. Defend your personal rights be treated fairly, not be disadvantaged, and not to be

overburdened because of others’ negligence or overdependence.3. Firmly refuse to comply with the request; and seek the support of a higher authority if

necessary.

Behavioral Guidelines1. Enhance personal power in the organization2. Increase centrality of position3. Increase latitude and flexibility of the job4. Increase visibility of job performance5. Increase task relevance to major organizational objectives6. Use appropriate influencing strategies7. Neutralize inappropriate influencing strategies directed toward you8. Sell issues to superiors.

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Chapter 6 – Motivating OthersEmployee commitment has important competitive value but is difficult to achieve. The challenge for managers is to create a motivating work environment.

PerformanceAttribution bias is the tendency to blame people or a human cause. It is sometime incorrect to say that “someone” is to blame.

Performance =Ability × Motivation (Effort) Ability = Aptitude × Training × Resources Aptitude = mental × personality characteristics Motivation (Effort)= Desire × Commitment

Diagnosing a performance problemDiagnosing a performance problem involves determining whether there is a lack of ability, lack of motivation or both. This requires appreciation of:

1. Difficulty of the task,2. Capability of the individual,3. Degree of effort, and4. Improvement progress of the individual.

Signs of ability deterioration include: Taking refuge in a specialty/retreating to a past area of expertise. Focusing on past performance/measuring one’s value to the organization in terms of past

success. Exaggerating aspects of the leadership role, excessive delegation, micro managing.

Overcoming lack of ability1. Resupply resources —personnel, budget, political clout, etc.2. Retrain employees to respond to changing skill requirements.3. Refit employees and tasks for a better match.4. Reassign to a less difficult job…may involve demotion.5. Release (fire).

Motivation IssuesMacgregor argued that there are two kinds of managers:

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1. Theory X who believe that workers are lazy, need to be closely supervised, need financial incentives.

2. Theory Y who believe that workers can be trusted, and naturally want to do a good job and assume more responsibility.

Relationship between Satisfaction & PerformanceMotivation Performance Outcomes Satisfaction.

Outcomes may be:1. Extrinsic– controlled by someone other than the performer; and includes pay, promotions,

praise, etc.2. Intrinsic – experienced by the performer as a result of successful task performance; and

includes feelings of accomplishment, self esteem, development of new skills, etc.

Management styles1. Indulging focuses on satisfaction rather than performance; and undermines performance of

subordinates.2. Imposing focuses on performance rather than satisfaction; results in exploited, and

consequently, unhappy employees.3. Ignoring both performance & satisfaction is a lack of management.4. Integrating focuses equally on performance and satisfaction though specific cases will

involve some trade-offs.

.

Whetten and Cameron Assumptions for an Integrated, Synergistic Motivational Program1. Lack of motivation is learned (but that’s hard to prove).

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EM

PH

AS

IS O

NS

ATI

SFA

CTI

ON

EMPHASIS ON PERFORMANCE

LOW HIGH

HIGH

LOW

IndulgingIntegrating

IgnoringImposing

2. Management should create a supportive environment.3. Rewards should encourage a high level of personal performance (but it is very difficult for

managers to evaluate subordinates’ performance).4. Motivation works best when based on self governance.5. Individuals should be treated fairly.6. Individuals deserve timely, honest feedback (but it’s hard to get it right)

6 Elements of an Integrative Motivation Program1. Establish moderately difficult goals that are understood and accepted. 2. Remove obstacles to performance.3. Use rewards appropriately to encourage exceptional performance and discipline to

extinguish unacceptable behavior.4. Provide salient intrinsic and extrinsic incentives.5. Distribute rewards equitably.6. Provide timely rewards and specific, accurate, and honest feedback on performance.

Characteristics of good goals:1. Specific2. Consistent3. Appropriately challenging4. Provide feedback

The best awards program:1. Give awards publicly2. Use awards infrequently3. Embed them in a reward process that is timely, equitable (by workers’ perceptions), and has salient intrinsic and

extrinsic values.4. Acknowledge past recipients in awards presentations5. Match award with culture

Path-Goal ModelThe path-goal model is a contingency theory of motivation. It suggests that leaders should get involved to a varying degree depending upon the needs of subordinates: need for support, need for autonomy, need for achievement, locus of control, and experience, as well as the task difficulty and structure. Task structure high low management involvement. Task mastery high low management involvement. Subordinates’ need for autonomy high low management involvement.

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy theory holds that motivation depends on the manager’s ability to gauge the employee’s desire for a given reward, the employee’s expectancy of competence to do the

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required task, the employee’s expectancy that the manager can be trusted, and that the manager will actually provide the reward if the required task is done.

Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence for reward

Valence is the employee’s valuation of the perceived outcome. Instrumentality is the employee’s belief that if he completes certain the tasks then he will in fact achieve the expected outcome. Expectancy is the employee’s belief that he is able to complete the tasks.

Equity theoryEquity is the absolute value the employee associate with a reward. Fairness is comparative value the employee associate with a reward; and is determined by the value of the reward to their efforts, as well as comparing the rewards they receive for their efforts –v- the rewards other employees receive for their efforts. In the latter case,

Equity: Output of person = Output of otherInput of person Input of other

Inequity: Output of person ≠ Output of otherInput of person Input of other

The absence of equity leads to cognitive dissonance. Inequity leads to employees’ attempts to resolve the inequity, such as quitting, forming a union, sabotage, restricting work.

Fiedler’s contingency theory Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership held that the leader’s characteristics will vary depending on whether circumstances are unfavorable or favorable. When the leader has a lot of power, the task is clear and leader-member relations are good, the circumstances are positive. When the leader lacks power, the task is complex, ambiguous or difficult and leader-member relations are poor, the circumstances are unfavorable.

Fiedler distinguished between task and socio-emotional (relations) orientation. Task oriented people focus on the task rather than harmony in relationships, while socio-emotionally oriented people focus on interpersonal relationships and interpersonal harmony. Fiedler measured task versus socio-emotional orientation with his least-preferred coworker scale. The least preferred coworker scale measured the extent to which the subject disliked the coworker s/he liked the least. If the subject liked the coworker s/he liked the least, then they were relations or socio-

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emotionally oriented, while if they disliked the worker they liked the least, then they were task oriented.

Fiedler found that task oriented people tend to do best when the task is very difficult or very easy, as in a military battle (very difficult) or in the civil service (very easy). In those circumstances task orientation is good. In contrast, socio-emotional orientation is important when the task is moderately difficult or unfavorable. Then socio-emotionally oriented leaders work best. Fiedler argued that it is best to fit the manager to the job, and that orientation is difficult to change. Which style works best will depend on the circumstances, so his theory is a contingency theory.

Operant conditioningOperant conditioning or behaviorism is a theoretical underpinning of scientific management, expectancy theory and equity theory. It emphasizes the timing of rewards: it is best to give rewards around the time behavior occurs. Other schedules such as interval (based on time periods) and ratio (based on units of output) are also possible.

BehaviorismBehaviorism emphasizes that learning occurs through experience or reinforcement. The reason behavior changes, is that positive or unpleasant results have occurred because of past behavior.

Types of reinforcement Positive response (rewarding); Extinction: No response (Neutrality). This could be misinterpreted as either negative or

positive response depending on what was the typical/expected response. Negative response (disciplining). Negative reinforcement: (withholding a negative when someone does something right)

Improving Behavior1. Reinforce exceptional behavior,2. Redirect (clarify expected behavior), and3. Reprimand (extinguish unwanted behavior).

Needs HierarchiesAn alternative view of motivation focuses on intrinsic rewards such as self esteem and self actualization. Maslow argued that there is a hierarchy of needs: physiological, safety, social, self esteem, self actualization.

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He thought that you need to satisfy the lower order needs first.

Herzberg built on Maslow’s theory. He suggested that the lower order needs have to be satisfied, but do not motivate workers to achieve important achievements. He called things that satisfy the lower order needs “hygiene factors” or “de-motivators” because their absence dissatisfies or demotivates, but their presence does not motivate.

He argued that what motivates workers to work hard are the higher order needs, the self actualization and self esteem needs. He called the things that satisfy these “motivators.” Intrinsic to the work, motivators are challenge and interest in the work. Interesting work is the most important motivator. In Herzberg’s view, the way you make work interesting is “vertical job loading” or job enrichment. You take the supervisor’s work and give it to the employee.

Manifest needs theoryMurray’s manifest needs theory argued that there are twenty needs. McClelland argued that four of these needs: need for achievement, need for power, need for affiliation, and need for autonomy are important. Entrepreneurs characteristically have need for achievement, while managers are characterized by need for power. Managers who are successful typically have a need for institutional power, that is, they like to use power to benefit the firm.

******************************************************************************************************************************Moral belief is often the most important motivator. Leadership involves inspiring work that is incrementally greater than expectations. Leadership can be transactional, which means that it depends on financial or bureaucratic incentives such as fear of being fired or other work rewards. Leadership can also be transformational, which means based on moral values, and emotional belief.

FIRO-B SCALE AS A MEASURE OF NEEDS

Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation (FIRO)

Inclusion Control Affection

Desires Acceptance Guidance Closeness

Offers Interest Leadership Liking

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Schutz created the FIRO-B questionnaire to measure an individual's orientation toward the six interpersonal needs. The B on the end of the acronym indicates that the purpose of the instrument is to examine behavior. Responding to six sample items will give you a better understanding of the theory and might help you understand yourself at the same time.

1. Inclusion wanted: I like people to ask me to participate in their discussions.

2. Inclusion expressed: When people are doing things together, I tend to join them.

3. Control wanted: I let other people control my actions.

4. Control expressed: I try to have other people do things the way I want them done.

5. Affection wanted: I like people to be close and personal with me.

6. Affection expressed: I try to have close relationships with people.

******************************************************************************************************************************It is important to understand that the best leaders go beyond the transactional and inspire their employees to do more than is expected. This is done through organizational cultures that great business leaders create. Examples include Bill Gates at Microsoft and Jack Welch at GE.

Great leadership involves the creation of a vision and the creation of a moral code that will inspire employees to become committed to the organization. Military organizations have always known this.

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Chapter 7 – Managing ConflictConflict is important to corporate competitiveness. Too much agreement leads to business failure. Conflict leads to deeper understanding and a richer solution set. Confidence in one’s conflict resolution skills and ability to handle conflict leads to better management of conflict.Important to understand and manage conflict in light of heterogeneity and diversity. Different views and diversity lead to conflict but also lead to more and better ideas.Some cultures like Japan have high uncertainty avoidance; others like the US have high tolerance of uncertainty.

Rules of Engagement Work with more information. Focus on the facts. Develop multiple alternatives. Share agreed-upon goals. Inject humor into the decision process. Maintain a balanced power structure. Resolve issues without forcing consensus.

Type of conflictMuch conflict focuses on people rather than issues. People focused conflict is emotional and hurts relationships, whereas issue-based conflict is rational and enhances relatinships. Hostile behavior often reflects the frustrations of people who have good intentions but are unskilled. Issue-focused conflicts are rational negotiations that entail an amicable settlement that is fair to all parties.

Sources of interpersonal conflict1. Personal differences: incompatible values, needs, and personalities.2. Informational deficiencies arising from misinformation and/or misunderstandings.3. Role incompatibility: competing roles. E.g., sales versus production, line versus staff.4. Environmental stress resulting from organizational environment: austere budgets, scarcity,

uncertainty.

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Five ways to manage conflictStrategies Attributes Applicability

Forcing(Distributive)

Using formal authority, threats, and/or intimidation. Breeds hostility and undermines confidence.

High issue importance, low relationship important, high relative power, med-high time constraints.

Accommodating(Distributive)

Satisfying the other party’s interests while neglecting your own. Win-lose.

Low issue importance, high relationship importance, low relative power, med-high time constraints.

Avoiding(Distributive)

Ignoring conflict = failure to resolve issues; festering ill feeling. Lose-lose.

Low issue importance, low relationship importance, equal relative power, med-high time constraints.

Compromising(Distributive)

Reach quick agreement. Splitting the difference. Win-lose.

Med issue importance, med relationship importance, equal relative power, low time constraints.

Collaborating(Integrative)

Generate mutually agreeable solutions. Win-win.

High issue importance, high relationship importance, low-high relative power, low time constraints.

Negotiation strategya) Distributive bargaining is win-lose. In distributive bargaining you don’t want to give up too

much information, especially about your threat point or the worst offer that you’ll accept. Involves splitting the pie.

b) Integrative bargaining is win-win based on sharing information. Involves expanding the pie, to make both sides better off.

Four phases of collaborative problem solving1. Problem identification.2. Solution generation.3. Action plan formulation and agreement.4. Implement and follow up.

Collaboration problem solving steps1. Establish superordinate goals. Focus on shared interest/goals.2. Separate people from the problem (depersonalize).3. Focus on interest not positions.4. Use options for mutual gain such as brainstorm to shift dynamics from competitive to

collaborative.5. Use objective criteria for evaluating alternatives. Determine what is fair using an objective

standard.

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6. Define success in terms of real gains, not imaginary losses.

Initiator problem identification1. Own problem. “I have a problem”. 2. Describe problem in terms of behaviors, consequences, and feelings. “When you do x, y

results and I feel z.”3. Avoid drawing evaluative conclusions and attributing motives to the respondent.4. Persist until understood. Responders may be rigid.5. Encourage two way discussions. Lengthy monologues encourage defensive reactions and get

the speaker worked up.6. Manage the agenda. Approach multiple problems incrementally. Use the small wins

approach.

Initiator solution generation1. Focus on commonalities as the basis for requesting a change.2. Define success in terms of gains, not losses.

Responder problem identification1. Establish a climate for joint problem solving: show genuine interest and concern.2. Seek additional, clarifying information about the problem.3. Agree with some aspect of the complaint.4. Limit responses to questions.5. Transform general complaints to specific complaints.6. Transform emphasis on motives to emphasis on actions.

Responder solution generation1. Ask for suggestions of acceptable alternatives. Each party believes it is the victim of the

other’s aggression

Mediator problem identification1. Acknowledge problem exists. Take the complaint seriously. Decide whether to have a joint

or separate meeting.2. Maintain a neutral posture. Effective mediation requires impartiality.3. Serve as facilitator, not judge. Focus on problem solving.4. Manage the discussion to ensure fairness.

Mediator solution generation1. Focus on interests, not positions.

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2. Obtain agreement on solution and establish follow up procedures.

Behavioral Guidelines1. Collect information on the sources of conflict.2. Examine relevant situational considerations.3. Take into consideration your personal preferences for using the conflict management

approaches.4. Utilize the collaborative approach unless conditions dictate the use of an alternative

approach.

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Notes - To Ch7

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