Nominalia of the Bulgarian rulers

An essay by Ilia Curto Pelle

Bulgaria is a country with a rich history, spanning over a millennium and a half. However, most Bulgarians are unaware of their origins. To be honest,

the quantity of information involved can be overwhelming, but once someone becomes invested in it, he or she can witness a tale of the rise and fall, steppe

khans and Christian emperors, saints and murderers of the three Bulgarian Empires. As delving deep in the history of Bulgaria would take volumes upon volumes

of work, in this essay I have tried simply to create a list of all Bulgarian rulers we know about by using different sources. So, let’s get to it. Despite there being

many theories for the origin of the Bulgars, the only one that can show a historical document supporting it is the Hunnic one. This document is the Nominalia of

the Bulgarian khans, dating back to the 8th or 9th century, which mentions Avitohol/Attila the Hun as the first Bulgarian khan. However, it is not clear when the

Bulgars first joined the Hunnic Empire. It is for this reason that all the Hunnic rulers we know about will also be included in this list as khans of the Bulgars. The

rulers of the Bulgars and Bulgaria carry the titles of khan, knyaz, emir, elteber, president, and tsar. This list recognizes as rulers those people, who were either

crowned as any of the above, were declared as such by the people, despite not having an official coronation, or had any possession of historical Bulgarian lands

(in modern day Bulgaria, southern Romania, Serbia, Albania, Macedonia, and northern Greece), while being of royal descent or a part of the royal family. This is

the reason why pretenders like Jacob Svetoslav and the archdukes of Austria will not be recognized as Bulgarian rulers, despite claiming the title. Moreover, the

Habsburgs never held any Bulgarian lands for a prolonged period of time. In the absence of a Bulgarian ruler, the list will include those Byzantine emperors and

Ottoman sultans, who had control over all of modern-day Bulgaria. The Russian occupations during the Russo-Turkish wars will also not be included, as they did

not last for a protracted period of time. The only exception to this rule is the Provisional Russian Administration in Bulgaria from 1878 to 1879, when the modern

state came into existence. The order and time each khan or tsar ruled is listed as calculated in the works of the scholars Petar Mutafchiev and Vasil Zlatarski, as

well as many others Bulgarian historians (Hristo Gandev, Vera Mutafchieva, etc.) The source material includes but is not limited to the works of patriarch

Nicephoros, Theophanes the Confessor, John Skylitzes, Evliya Çelebi, John the Exarch, St. Clement of Ohrid, Demetrios Kantakouzenos, and many others. The

rulers of the Volga Bulgars are listed in the Cäğfär Taríxı, which holds interesting information, despite its originality being debatable. So, here is the list of rulers

of the Bulgars, Volga Bulgaria, and Bulgaria from the time of the Huns until today:

Hunnic Chieftains Title Name Rule Notable deeds

King Kama Tarkhan 1st century A legendary chief who led the Huns to first appear near the Caspian Sea, according to Tacitus.

King Vundus 2nd century Allegedly a son of Kama Tarkhan, he consolidated Hunnic rule over the Ukrainian steppes.

King Balamber 370-378 Crushed the kingdom of the Ostrogoths.

King Balthazar 378-390 First conducted raids on the Lower Danube.

King Uldin 390-410 Attacked the Eastern Roman province of Moesia and defeated the Gothic king Radagaisus.

King Donatus 410-412 Donatus, being deceived by oath, was unlawfully put to death.

King Charaton 412-423 Made peace with the Eastern Roman Empire.

Joint Kings Octar and Rugila 423-430 Attacked the Burgundians.

King Rugila 430-434 Accepted Flavius Aetius as his guest and led numerous incursions against both the Western and Eastern Roman Empire.

King Mundzucus 434 The father of Bleda and Attila, he was blamed for the death of Rugila and was killed.

Joint Kings Bleda and Attila 434-445 Attacked the lands of the Persian Empire but were defeated in Armenia. After that they invaded the Eastern Roman Empire, thus forcing the emperor to pay them to leave. In 445 Bleda was killed by his brother.

King Attila the Hun 445-453 Known as the Scourge of God, he ravaged the provinces of the Western Roman Empire, creating a powerful empire, but ultimately was defeated at the battle of Chalons by a united Barbarian-Roman coalition, led by Flavius Aetius. Attila invaded Italy, but was turned back by Pope Leo I. The Hunnic king was later murdered during his wedding night with the Germanic woman Gudrun. After his death, his empire fell apart.

King Ellac 453-454 He tried to rebuild his father’s legacy but was killed at the battle of Nedao.

King Dengizich 454-469 Attacked the Eastern Roman Empire but was killed by the general Anagastes at the battle of Bassianae.

King Ernak 469-490 Made peace with the Byzantine Empire.

King Dzsuras 490-500 Married into the Avar royal family to stop an invasion into his lands.

King Tatras 500-с.515 Led numerous raids against the Byzantine Empire.

King Grod c.515-528 Converted to Christianity and began suppressing the pagan cults. Overthrown by his brother Mugel. During this time the Kutrigur and Utigur Bulgars began splitting under Hunnic rule.

King/Khan Mugel 528-530 Lost the city of Bosporus to the Byzantines. He was succeeded by his brother Chinialon and was the last ruler of the united Bulgars.

Khans of the Kutrigur Bulgars Title Name Rule Notable Deeds

Khan Chinialon 530-551 He was betrayed by the Utigurs while fighting a war with the Byzantine Empire. Ultimately, Chinialon lost the war and was forced to migrate with his people to Thrace, where they became foederati to the Byzantines.

Khan Sandilch 551-558 A veteran of the Vandalic war and the battle of Ad Decimum, he opposed the Byzantine Empire after becoming the leader of the Kutrigurs.

Khan Zabergan 558-586 He invaded Thrace and attacked Constantinople but was repelled by the general Flavius Belisarius at the battle of Melantias. Once again, the Utigurs attacked Zabergan in the rear, forcing him to return to Dacia, where under the rule of emperor Maurice (582-602) the Kutrigurs fell under the control of the Avar Khaganate.

Khans of the Utigur Bulgars Title Name Rule Notable deeds

Khan Sandilch 530-c.560 He was bribed by the Byzantines to betray and attack his former allies the Kutrigur Bulgars. However, his control over the northern Black Sea region began to be challenged by the rising Avar Khaganate.

Khan Anagai c.560-581 In 576 he attacked and captured the fortress of Bosphoros. In 581, Anagai was killed in battle against the armies of the Western Turkish Khaganate and was replaced as a puppet ruler by the Onogondur chief Houdbaad.

Old Great Bulgaria Title Name Rule Notable deeds

Khan Houdbaad 581-c.600 Houdbaad was able to maneuver between the interests of the Western Turkish Khaganate and the Avar Khaganate and in a short time with the aid of the Avar Khagan Bayan II was able to unite both the Kutrigurs and Utigurs under his rule, thereby uniting all the Bulgars. Around 600 he died of a plague while marching with the Avars against the Byzantines.

Unknown Unknown c.600-617 Probably the father of Kubrat and/or a son of Houdbaad, he was either killed or replaced by Organa in 617, who as an uncle of Kubrat served as his regent.

Khan Organa 617-630 Organa allegedly led his nephew Kubrat to Constantinople, where the later became a ward of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (610-641) until he could become khan. It is possible for both to have been baptized. Organa died in 630 and was replaced by Gostun of the Ermi clan.

Regent Gostun 630-632 Gostun served as a regent for 2 years while Kubrat could return from Constantinople to assume full authority.

Khan Kubrat 632-665 Kubrat led a successful rebellion against the Western Turkish Khaganate and created the first Bulgarian state – Old Great Bulgaria. His capital at Phanagoria became the center for trade in the Black Sea. In 635 he signed an alliance with emperor Heraclius and was granted the title of patrician. After his death his 3 (or 5) sons divided the Bulgars and went in different directions. This was the last great division of the Bulgar people.

Khan Batbayan 665-668 The firstborn son of Kubrat, Batbayan stayed in Old Great Bulgaria and protected it from the rising Khazar Khaganate, but after a fierce resistance was forced to submit and pay tribute. With time his descendants mostly either assimilated into the Khaganate or joined the tribes of Batbayan’s brothers – Kotrag and Asparukh.

Khan Alcek/Alciocus c. 635 A descendant of the Bulgars, who settled in Pannonia, or an alleged son of Kubrat, Alcek or Alciocus led a rebellion against the Avar Khagan and was forced in defeat to leave. He sought the protection of the Frankish king Dagobert (629-639) together with his Bulgars but was betrayed and many of his tribesmen were murdered. The survivors were allowed to settle in the exarchate of Ravenna, their descendants being alive in Italy to this very day.

Khan Kuber c.670-c.710 Allegedly a son of Kubrat, Kuber led his Bulgars into modern-day Macedonia, where he attacked Thessaloniki but was repelled. From the inscriptions at the Madara Horseman it can be seen that Kuber and his descendants maintained a close relationship with the Bulgars of Asparukh, who settled the Lower Danube. During the reign of khan Presian I (836-852) the two groups of Bulgars were once again unified under the same ruler.

Volga Bulgaria and the Khanate of Kazan Title Name Rule Notable deeds

Khan Kotrag 668-673 The second son of Kubrat, Kotrag led his Bulgars up the Volga river and created the Khanate of Volga Bulgaria, which initially was a vassal of the Khazar Khaganate.

Elteber Ishkul 673-707 The first son of Kotrag, Ishkul was the first ruler to use the title of elteber or petty-king, which was a title given to the vassals of the Khazar Khagan.

Elteber Irkhan 707-765 The second son of Kotrag, Irkhan was able to erect a capital, which came to be known as Great Bolgar.

Elteber Tuqyi 765-815 The son of Irkhan, Tuqyi’s rule saw the growth of Great Bolgar as a trading center and a population boom in the numbers of the Bulgars.

Elteber Aidar 815-865 The name of the son of Tuqyi is of Arabic origins, which is a testament to the increasing role that Muslim scholars began to play in the life of the Ukrainian and Russian steppes. In 860, Aidar was present at the meeting between St. Cyril and St. Methodius and the Khazar Khagan but chose to strengthen his ties with the Muslim scholars, who were against the two brothers.

Elteber Şilki 865-882 Under the rule of Şilki the influence of the Khazar Khaganate over the Bulgars began to decay. He finished the unification of the Bulgar families under his rule and turned Great Bolgar into an important city, fortified with stone walls.

Elteber Batyr Mö'min 882-895 The first son of Şilki, his rule oversaw a rapid rise in the adherence of Islam throughout the country.

Emir Almış 895-925 While pretending to be loyal to his father-in-law, the Khazar Khagan, in the meantime he sought an alliance against him with the Abbasid caliph Al-Muqtadir. In 922, Volga Bulgaria accepted Islam as its official faith. He adopted the title of emir to suit his new religion.

Emir Mikail bine Cäğfär 925-943 Son of Almış, Mikail fully removed the last vestiges of Khazar influence in the country.

Emir Äxmäd bine Cäğfär 943-950 Second son of Almış.

Emir Abdulla bine Mikail 950-970 The first son of Mikail, Abdulla invested in the growth of religious life in the country. He is most famous for the coins he minted in the cities of Bolgar and Suar.

Emir Talib bine Äxmäd 970-976 He was the first Bulgar ruler to start diplomatic missions to try and convert the Kievan Rus to Islam. He is also the first son of Äxmäd.

Emir Mö'min bine Äxmäd 976-980 During the rule of Äxmäd’s second son, the state continued to prosper.

Emir Abd ar-Rahman bine Mö'min

980-1006 In 988 the emir sent emissaries to Kiev in order to convert the Rus grand prince Vladimir I (980-1015) to Islam, but the later refused, as he did not wish to give up wine, and adopted Christianity instead.

Emir Abu Ishak Ibrahim bine Mohammad

1006-1025 A pious ruler, he failed to recognize the problems in his own family. His death started a dynastic dispute that ended with the rule of Ahad Moskha.

Emir Azhar 1025-1028 The first son of Abu Ishak Ibrahim, Azhar was not popular among the nobles and was overthrown by his brother Ashraf.

Emir Ashraf 1028-1061 The rule of Ashraf was plagued by invasions from both the Rus principalities and the Cumans, who strengthened their position in the Ukrainian steppes.

Emir Azhar 1061 After the death of his brother, Azhar once again came to the throne, but was unpopular and easily deposed.

Emir Ahad Moskha 1061-1076 His rule oversaw a gradual revival of power and stability in Volga Bulgaria.

Emir Adam 1076-1118 Little is known about his rule, but Bolgar once again became a trading hub on the Volga river. Such is the case with the following rulers until Abdulla Çelbir

Emir Shamgun Sham-Sayin 1118-1135 Son of Adam.

Emir Hizam Anbal 1135-1164 Grandson of Adam.

Emir Ulug-Mohammed Otak Çangi

1164-1178 Son of Shamgun and father of Abdulla Çelbir.

Emir Abdulla Çelbir 1178-1225 Abdulla Çelbir centralized the state, reformed the military, expanded Volga Bulgaria’s borders to the Caspian Sea and the Arctic Ocean, pacified the many tribes and religions that composed the state. He waged many wars against the Rus principalities and the Cumans, but his greatest victory was in 1223 against the Mongols at the battle of the Samara bend. Using a faint retreat, Abdulla was able to catch the Mongols of general Subutai’s son Uran unprepared. This battle slowed the Mongol advance into Europe and although Subutai himself was victorious to the South and in 1241 reached the lands of Hungary, Poland, and Bulgaria, this victory essentially saved the northern Rus principalities from total annihilation. In order to more easily combat the Mongols, Abdulla moved his capital from Bolgar to Bilär.

Emir Mir-Ghazi 1225-1229 Mir-Ghazi made peace with the Mongols and tried to stop the Mongol invasion with diplomatic means.

Emir Çelal-er-Din Altinbek 1229 Altinbek was the son of Abdulla Çelbir. He realized that the Mongols could not be stopped diplomatically. However, Ghazi-Baraç Burundai also claimed the throne. This sparked a civil war.

Emir Ghazi-Baraç Burundai 1229-1230 Burundai was not at all popular and soon found himself deposed from Bilär. He ran into the countryside and continued the fight against Altinbek. He allied himself with the Mongols and promised to become their vassal in exchange for control over the emirate.

Emir Çelal-er-Din Altinbek 1230-1236 In 1232 a big Mongol army, commanded by Batu Khan (1227-1255), tried to invade the Volga Bulgar lands, but was again repelled. This angered the Mongol khan, who enlisted the aid of Ögedei Khan (1229-1241). In 1236, the Mongols attacked the Bulgar lands and although the Altinbek held his ground for 20 days, the assault was too powerful. Burundai’s troops joined the Mongols. Altinbek was forced to retreat to Bilär, where he was besieged. When the Mongol final assault came, Altinbek died in battle, protecting his capital. Burundai was reinstated as ruler.

Emir Ghazi-Baraç Burundai 1236-1242 In 1236 Burundai declared himself a vassal of the Mongols. This was the end of the independence of Volga Bulgaria. For the next 5 years Burundai pacified the country, which was rising up against him. During the Mongol invasion around 80% of the population of Volga Bulgaria was either killed, enslaved, or displaced. Burundai himself was again overthrown in a coup by the new emir, Hisam.

Emir Hisam 1242-1262 Hisam continued to resist the Mongols, fighting a type of guerrilla warfare against the invaders. However, by 1278 all of Volga Bulgaria was occupied by the Mongols, who divided the emirate into many small principalities under the Khanate of the Golden Horde. We know only the names of the following rulers from the Cäğfär Taríxı, but nothing more, except that they were vassals to the Mongol until the creation of the Khanate of Kazan by Ulugh Muhammad.

Khan Tuhçi-Ismael 1262-1267 Grandson of Abdulla Çelbir.

Khan Galinbek 1267-1293 Son of Burundai.

Khan Mohammed-Allam 1293-1307 Son of Tuhçi-Ismael.

Khan Qasim Bulaq 1307-1323 Son of Galinbek.

Khan Buluyum-Ordu Muhallem

1323-1340 Grandson of Mohammed-Allam.

Khan Mir-Mahmud 1340-1359 Son of Qasim Bulaq.

Khan Azan Hasan 1359-1380 Son of Mir-Mahmud.

Khan Biyi-Omar 1380-1422 Son of Azan Hasan. During the Mongol lordship over Volga Bulgaria the original Bulgars mixed heavily with the Kipchaks and Mongols that settled their lands.

Khan Galibei 1422-1438 Son of Biyi-Omar. During Azan’s and Omar’s rules the former territory of Volga Bulgaria regained a certain degree of autonomy from the disintegrating Golden Horde.

Khan Ulugh Muhammad 1438-1446 Twice the khan of the Golden Horde, in 1436 Ulugh Muhammad was overthrown and forced to flee to Crimea, but after a quarrel with the Crimeans he captured Kazan in 1438, making it his capital. After founding the Khanate of Khazan, Muhammad invaded Russia, captured Nizhny Novgorod in 1439 and burned the outskirts of Moscow. He marched on Murom and defeated the Moscow prince Vasily II (1425-1433, 1435-1446, and 1447-1462), capturing, ransoming, and forcing him to pay tribute.

Khan Mäxmüd 1445-1466 Mäxmüd killed his father to take the throne and supported Vasily II against Dmitry Shemyaka (1446-1447) in the Moscow Civil War. He later besieged Moscow and created the Qasim Khanate to act as a buffer between himself and Muscovy.

Khan Xälil 1466-1467 The firstborn son of Mäxmüd, little is known about his reign.

Khan Ibrahim 1467-1479 Ibrahim waged two wars on Muscovy, but generally did not interfere in Russian affairs. This allowed Ivan III the Great (1462-1505) to expand his power.

Khan Ilham Ghali 1479-1484 The firstborn son of Ibrahim, his rule marked the start of the dynastic disputes, which would plague the Khanate of Kazan until its destruction. He was supported by the eastern half of the country. In 1482 the Muscovites marched on Kazan, but, as they had a cannon, Ghali asked for peace. In 1484 a second war resulted in the deposition of Ghali and his replacement with Möxämmädämin.

Khan Möxämmädämin 1484-1485 The second son of Ibrahim, Möxämmädämin was still 10-years old when he was proclaimed khan. In 1485 he was ousted by Ilham Ghali, who was supported by the Nogay Horde. The infant ruler found refuge in Russia, where he was greeted warmly by Ivan III, as Ivan was allied to the husband of Möxämmädämin’s mother – the Crimean khan Mengli I Giray. Ivan III gave Möxämmädämin the city of Kashira and supported him against Ghali.

Khan Ilham Ghali 1485-1487 In 1487, the army of Ivan III besieged Kazan, which ultimately fell. Ghali was exiled to Vologda, where he soon died.

Khan Möxämmädämin 1487-1495 Möxämmädämin was in essence a puppet king of Ivan III, which can be seen by the title Duke of Bulgaria that Ivan III started using. All his decisions and correspondence were closely monitored by the Russian prince. In 1495, the former allies of Ghali, the Nogay Horde, decided to remove Möxämmädämin.

Khan Mamuq 1495-1496 Mamuq was also khan of the Siberian Khanate. In 1495 he successfully captured Kazan and was put on the throne, but he could not pacify the local nobles, who refused to allow Mamuq to centralize power. Afraid of an impending Muscovite attack, Mamuq retreated to his domains, but died on the way home.

Khan Ghabdellatif 1496-1502 Ghabdellatif was the youngest son of Ibrahim. As Möxämmädämin was perceived as a puppet, the Kazan nobles satisfied themselves with the weaker Ghabdellatif. Ivan III approved of the change and withdrew from the affairs of Kazan. In 1499, the Siberian dynasty tried to recapture Kazan, but failed. As Ghabdellatif was trying to conduct a more independent foreign policy, he began to receive scrutiny from Moscow. In 1502 he was ousted and replaced by Möxämmädämin.

Khan Möxämmädämin 1502-1519 Möxämmädämin had spent the time consolidating his powerbase, being granted the cities of Serpukhov and Khotun. He continued to strictly adhere to the desires of Moscow. As the house of Ulugh Muhammad had died from infighting and as Möxämmädämin died childless, the throne passed to the khan of the Qasim Khanate, Shahghali.

Khan Shahghali 1519-1521 Shahghali was a vassal of Moscow, which made him extremely unpopular. He was soon imprisoned, sent back to Moscow, and replaced by Sahib I Giray, brother of the Crimean khan Mehmed I Giray (1515-1523).

Khan Sahib I Giray 1521-1525 Sahib and Mehmed knew that Moscow would not take kindly to their vassal being overthrown. The two brothers attacked Muscovy, but the war ended in 1525 with a Muscovite advance towards Kazan, which forced Sahib I to flee to Crimea. He was replaced by Safa Giray, his nephew.

Khan Safa Giray 1525-1532 The siege of Kazan in 1525 failed. However, the tide of war stayed on the Russian side and in 1532 Kazan was captured and Safa was replaced by Canghali, a Muscovite puppet.

Khan Canghali 1532-1535 The younger brother of Shahghali and the khan of the Qasim Khanate, Canghali was gullible and was manipulated by Möxämmädämin’s widow Gawharshat and by Bulat Şirin. He eventually angered the nobles and was deposed in 1535.

Khan Safa Giray 1535-1546 The anti-Russian faction invited Safa Giray to again become khan. Border skirmishes began around Nizhny Novgorod. The conflict moved back and forth, with Safa Giray twice burning Murom and two Muscovite armies raiding the lands around Kazan. In 1546 he was deposed by a pro-Russian coup and escaped to the Nogay Horde.

Khan Shahghali 1546 Although at first Shahghali was installed, soon he was arrested together with his retinue. However, at a party Shahghali got everybody drunk and ran away.

Khan Safa Giray 1546-1549 The pro-Russian leaders fled Kazan. Safa Giray had enlisted the aid of the Nogay Horde and began to fight back against the Muscovites. He died in 1549 and was followed by his son, Utameshgaray.

Khan Utameshgaray 1549-1551 As Utameshgaray was only 2-years old, his mother was installed as regent. Ivan IV the Terrible (1547-1584), who now proclaimed himself Tsar of All Russias, besieged Kazan in 1550, but was forced to retreat. The pro-Russian faction reinstalled Shahghali for the third time.

Khan Shahghali 1551-1552 This time Shahghali began his rule with a mass slaughter of his opponents, but that only worsened his position. In 1552 a Russian embassy asked Shahghali to let Russian troops inside the city, but after his refusal they asked for his abdication. He fled to Kasimov, giving the throne to the anti-Russian faction and Yadegar Mokhammad, the son of Astrakhani khan Qasim II (1504-1532).

Khan Yadegar Mokhammad

1552 Yadegar led his troops against the Russians but was defeated and forced back to his capital Kazan. On October 2nd 1552 Kazan fell to the invading Russian armies. Yadegar Mokhammad was imprisoned. While guerilla warfare did continue until 1556, the khanate of Kazan was destroyed and with it the last state of the Volga Bulgars, who since then became a part of the Tsardom of Russia, the Russian Empire, the USSR, and the Russian Federation. Today their descendants are part of the Chuvash and Tartar groups in the Russian republics of Tatarstan, Chuvashia, and Bashkortosan, as well the Saratov, Ulyanovski, Samara, and Orenburg oblasti on the Volga river.

First Bulgarian Empire Title Name Rule Notable Deeds

Khan Asparukh 668-701 The third son of Kubrat, Asparukh led his part of the Bulgars to settle in the Lower Danube area, where they successfully repelled the Khazars. In 680 he defeated the Byzantine emperor Constantine IV (668-685) at the battle of Ongala, crossing the Danube and allying himself with the local alliance of the 7 Slavic tribes and the Severi. In 681 the khan signed a peace treaty with the Empire, creating the progenitor of the modern Bulgarian state.

Khan Tervel the Savior of Europe

701-718 After Asparukh died in battle against the Khazars, his son Tervel came to power. Tervel was recognized as kaisar (Caesar) by the Byzantine emperor Jusinian II (685-695 and 705-711) after the latter was reinstituted as ruler with Bulgarian aid. He expanded Bulgaria southwards, acquiring territory south of the Haemus mountain. In 708, Tervel defeated Justinian II in the battle of Anchialus, later signing a peace with the emperor Theodosius III (715-717) in 716. When in 717 the Arabs laid siege to Constantinople, the new emperor Leo III Isauros (717-741) asked Tervel for help. It is for his involvement in the defeat of the Arab army that khan Tervel came to be recognized, together with Leo III and Charles Martel, as the Savior of Europe.

Khan Kormesiy 718-721 Kormesiy kept the peace with the Byzantine Empire.

Khan Sevar 721-739 Sevar was the last ruler of the Dulo clan, which had been leading the Bulgars since the rule of Attila. He was overthrown for unknown reasons by Kormisosh.

Khan Kormisosh 739-756 Kormisosh was a member of the Vokil clan. When he sent men to Constantinople to gather the yearly tribute, emperor Constantine V (741-775) refused. In 756 Kormisosh was defeated in battle and ousted from the throne.

Khan Vinekh 756-760 Vinekh was a member of the Ukil clan. In 756, he was defeated by Constantine V in the battle of Marcellae and forced to cede lands to the Byzantines. In 759 Constantine V again invaded Bulgaria, but this time was defeated at the battle of Veregava. After this victory Vinekh proposed peace to Constantine V, which angered the boyars, who murdered him along with his whole clan.

Khan Telets 760-764 As a member of the pro-war party, Telets of the Ugain clan attacked the Byzantines, but was betrayed by his Slavic allies at the battle of Anchialus in 763. Although Constantine V chose not to risk crossing the mountain passes and retreated, the Bulgarians blamed Telets for the defeat and removed him from power.

Khan Sabin 764-766 Sabin was a member of the Vokil clan. He was the son-in-law of Kormisosh and wanted peace with the Byzantines. When the negotiations were discovered, the Bulgarians removed him from power and forced him to escape to Constantinople.

Khan Umor 766 Umor of the Vokil clan ruled for only 40 days, after which he was replaced by Toktu.

Khan Toktu 766-767 Toktu was a member of the Ugain clan and of the pro-war party. After the clans that wanted peace kicked him out of the capital, he tried to escape north of the Danube together with his brother Bayan, but they were both murdered.

Khan Pagan 767-768 Pagan was a member of the Chakarar clan. Pagan tried to make peace with Constantine V. He succeeded in doing so, but Constantine was faking. The emperor was able to capture the chieftain of the Slavic Severi tribe, which was guarding the mountain passes. Despite successfully crossing the Haemus mountain, Constantine encountered stiff resistance and was forced to go back empty-handed. Pagan was blamed for the Byzantine march and was overthrown.

Khan Telerig 768-777 Khan Telerig tried to overcome the Byzantine influence in his country. In order to do so, the khan sent a message to Constantine V, begging him to disclose the identities of his spies in Bulgaria, so that he might use them to flee to Constantinople. However, in 774 Telerig slaughtered all Byzantine spies. Ironically, in 777 he was forced to flee to Constantinople, where he got baptized and became a close advisor of the Byzantine emperor Leo IV (775-780).

Khan Kardam 777-803 Khan Kardam stabilized the state after the crisis of the middle of the 8th century. Kardam destroyed the last vestiges of Byzantine influence in Bulgaria. In 792 he defeated the Byzantine emperor Constantine VI (780-797) at the Battle of Marcellae and thus stopped any further Byzantine incursions into Bulgaria.

Khan Krum the Terrible 803-814 A brilliant commander, Krum expanded the borders of Bulgaria by capturing the eastern half of the Avar Khaganate and by leading a number of successful campaigns against the Byzantines. In 809 the city of Serdica (Sofia) was captured and in 811, despite losing his capital of Pliska, khan Krum led a successful ambush at the Varbitsa pass. The emperor Nicephoros I (803-811) was killed in battle. Khan Krum took his skull, encrusted it with silver, and drank from it during festivities. In 813, he laid siege to Constantinople but during negotiations was unlawfully attacked and injured. The Bulgarians killed him, so that his spiritual energy would not be lost, but would transfer to his son – Omurtag. Krum also created the first laws of the Bulgars and Slavs and began the centralization of the state. Krum was the founder of a new dynasty, which would rule Bulgaria for the next 2 centuries.

Khan Subigi Omurtag the Builder

814-831 Khan Omurtag signed a peace treaty with the Byzantines in 815. His rule was marked by numerous building projects. He created a number of new fortresses, rebuilt the capital of Pliska in stone, and fortified the northeastern border. He was the first ruler, who began persecuting Christians for their faith, but held cordial relations with the Byzantines. The khan created the komitat system, by which the provincial governors (komiti) would be appointed by the great khan (khan subigi). In 827, he defeated the army of Ludwig the German (840-876) at the battle of Drava over a border dispute. Omurtag had 3 sons – Enravota, Zvinitsa, and Malamir, all of whom had Slavic names, which is a testimony to the beginning unification between the Bulgars and Slavs. Two of them were Christians and thus the third – Malamir, became khan.

Khan Malamir 831-836 As Malamir was underaged, initially the kavhan Isbul was his regent. In 836, after a Byzantine incursion, he led an army that succeeded in capturing the city of Philippopolis. His rule was a time of brutal persecution over the Christians, with Malamir ordering the murder of his brother Enravota, who became the first Bulgarian martyr.

Khan Presian I 836-852 Khan Presian, I succeeded in defeating the Byzantines at the battle of Philippi in 837 and began capturing lands in Macedonia, uniting with the descendants of Kuber’s Bolgars. During his rule the first war between the Bulgarians and Serbs was waged between 839 and 842. He stopped the persecution of Christians.

Khan/Knyaz Boris-Michael I 852-889 A horrible commander and a brilliant diplomat, khan Boris I is remembered as the man, who was first baptized in 863 and who accepted Orthodox Christianity as Bulgaria’s official religion. He also successfully maneuvered between the interests of the Roman Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople to create the first autocephalic (self-governing) church out of the Pentarchy (the 5 churches of Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria). In 886, Boris accepted the students of St. St. Cyril and Methodius in Bulgaria, when they were fleeing from persecution in Great Moravia. St. Clement, St. Naum, and Angelarius brought the Cyrillic alphabet, which soon became the official alphabet of Bulgaria. In 889, he abdicated and retired to a monastery.

Knyaz Vladimir-Rasate 889-893 Vladimir-Rasate was born pagan and still felt a close connection to the Tengri faith of his predecessors. His rule saw the destruction of churches, built by his father, the murder of priests and scholars, and the reinstitution of pagan cults. In 893, he was deposed and blinded by his father, who called the Council of Pliska and Preslav, which chose his third son, Simeon, who was born in 863, as a ruler. Also, the capital was moved to Preslav and the Cyrillic alphabet was officially adopted.

Knyaz/Tsar of Bulgarians and Romans

Simeon I the Great 893-927 Simeon initially studied in Constantinople to become a priest, but the Council of Preslav put a crown on his head. He would bring Bulgaria to its largest territorial extent. In 894, Simeon defeated the Magyars, forcing them to settle in the Pannonian basin. In 896, he proceeded to destroy the Byzantine army at the battle of Boulgarophygon. In 913, it is possible the Bulgarian prince was crowned as tsar of Bulgarians and Romans, but Zoe, the mother of emperor Constantine VII (913-959), opposed him and refused to recognize his title. After numerous victories, including the battle of Aheloy in 917 and the subjugation of the Serbs in 924, Bulgaria became the biggest cultural and political power in Southeastern Europe, stretching from the Middle Danube and the Carpathian Mountains to the Peloponnesian peninsula and from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. However, his constant wars exhausted the country and would result in many problems under his descendants. His rule is often called the Golden Age of Bulgarian culture – the capital of Preslav became the biggest center of learning for the Slavic world and countless works of literature and art were produced.

Tsar Peter I the Holy 927-970 From the start Peter I showed himself a different man to his father. In 927, he signed a peace treaty with the Byzantine empire, marrying the daughter of emperor Roman I Lekapenos (920-944), while being officially recognized as tsar (emperor) and his archbishop as a patriarch. Peter was a devout man and contributed to the religious life in his country, but ultimately faced revolts from his two brothers, the rise of the Bogomilist heresy, which preached opposition to the state and church, as well as outside invasions from the Magyars, Byzantines, and the Rus. In 968 and 969, the Rus grand prince Svetoslav (963-972) invaded Bulgaria, bribed by the Byzantines. The Bulgarian emperor received a heart attack and was forced to retire to a monastery, where he died in 970.

Tsar Boris II 970-977 Boris II was a hostage in Constantinople and was proclaimed as tsar by the Byzantine emperor. In 971, the Byzantines began an invasion of Bulgaria, which was occupied by the Rus. However, when the Rus were expelled, emperor John I (969-976) refused to return those lands to Boris II, who was publicly stripped of his royal dignity in front of the crowds of Constantinople. However, resistance against the Byzantines continued in the western

part of Bulgaria, led by the 4 brothers, known as the Komitopouloi – Aron, Samuel, David, and Moses. In 977, Boris II fled, but was killed at the Bulgarian-Byzantine border by mistake.

Tsar Roman 977-997 The brother of Boris II, Roman was recognized by Samuel and Aron as tsar. However, he had been castrated, which meant that all real power was held by the two generals. Samuel killed Aron when the later tried to conspire with the Byzantines. After a crushing victory at the battle of the pass at Trajan’s Doors, Preslav was recovered. However, Roman was later captured and died in a Byzantine prison.

Tsar Samuel 997-1014 After Roman left no heir, Samuel claimed the title of tsar. He moved the capital to Ohrid in modern-day Macedonia. Despite a bitter struggle with the Byzantine Empire, lasting almost 40 years, the battle of Klyuch village in 1014 ended with the capture of 20 000 Bulgarians, who were all blinded by Byzantine emperor Basil II, who came to be known as “The Bulgar-Slayer”. Every 100 had a man with a single eye to bring the blind army back to Samuel. When the tsar saw the remnants of his army, he received a heart attack.

Tsar Gavril Radomir 1014-1015 Gavril Radomir tried to mount a resistance against the Byzantines, but was killed by his cousin, Aron’s son, John Vladislav.

Tsar John Vladislav 1015-1018 John Vladislav tried to defend the last remnants of the Bulgarian state by fortifying the Bitola fortress and laying siege to Durres in modern-day Albania but was branded as a kinslayer and was deserted by a big part of his vassals. In 1018, he fell at the siege of Durres and Basil II captured Ohrid.

Tsar Presian II 1018 The son of John Vladislav, he refused to surrender and tried to hold up in the Albanian mountains but was ultimately defeated by Basil II and exiled to Armenia.

Byzantine Occupation Title Name Rule Notable Deeds

Emperor Basil II the Bulgar-Slayer

1018-1025 Basil II was successful in recreating the Danubian border of Justinian’s empire. The Serbs were defeated and Croatia was forced to pay tribute. Basil II was an excellent statesman, as he kept the autonomy of the Ohrid archbishopric, while also giving many former Bulgarian leaders court titles, positions in provincial administration, and high commands in the army. This way he sought to integrate the Bulgarians into Byzantine society. He kept the natural Bulgarian taxes. The replacement of natural taxes with monetary ones was the cause of much unrest amongst the Bulgarians, who did not have a well-developed financial system. This was a big reason for all future rebellions.

Emperor Constantine VIII the Purple-born

1025-1028 Constantine VIII was very different to his brother. He was extremely cruel and fond of pleasures. Constantine had no male heir and so forced the aristocrat Romanos Argyros to divorce his wife and marry Zoe, his daughter.

Emperor Romanos III Argyros 1028-1034 Romanos III was a noble and so reversed the Macedonian policy of taxing the nobles, which had been used by the Macedonians to control them and force them to participate in the army. This undermined both the manpower pool and the economy, which would have fatal consequences for the Byzantine Empire. An example of the crisis in the Byzantine army was Romanos’s humiliating defeat at the hands of the emir of Aleppo. He was involved in many conspiracies concerning Theodora, Zoe’s sister. Zoe and Romanos became ever more alienated

and soon Romanos was murdered on the orders of Zoe, allegedly drowned in a pool of water. He was replaced by Zoe’s new lover and husband, Michael IV the Paphlagonian.

Emperor Michael IV the Paphlagonian

1034-1040 As Michael was of humble origins, he was not well educated. Michael was afraid that Zoe would try to remove him and so confined her to the women’s quarters, where she was perpetually monitored. He left the reins of power to his brother John, who did much to revive the Empire’s financial and military capacity, but his reforms caused unrest. In 1040, two revolts erupted in Bulgaria.

Tsar Tihomir 1040 Tihomir was a military governor of the Bulgarian theme and was sent by the strategos of Dyrrhachium to defeat the rebellion of Peter Delyan, but instead was proclaimed tsar and joined Peter in his rebellion. As Peter II saw the existence of two tsars as problematic, Tihomir was put to death.

Tsar Peter II Delyan 1040-1041 Peter II was the son of Gavril Radomir. In 1040, he led a rebellion against the Byzantine Empire. The rebellion soon took hold of the former lands of Samuel in Skopje, Belgrade, and Naissus. Peter laid siege to Thessaloniki, where Michael IV was stationed, and was able to defeat the emperor in battle. The latter left Thessaloniki to Michael Ivač, who was a son of a renowned general of tsar Samuel. Ivač gave the bulk of the royal treasury to Peter II, but the city remained in Byzantine hands. Soon Peter II took hold of a large part of Northern Greece. However, soon another grandson of Samuel, Alusian, son of John Vladislav and brother of Presian II, joined the fight.

Tsar Alusian 1041 Alusian had allegedly fallen into disgrace at Constantinople but was sent by the Byzantines to undermine Peter II’s position. He faked joining his cousin but betrayed and blinded him. Alusian was proclaimed tsar, but soon his true motives were discovered and he fled to the Byzantine court, where his titles were restored. Peter II faced Michael IV at the battle of Ostrovo. The Byzantine army was commanded by the future Norwegian king Harald Hardrada (1046-1066), who was then a member of the elite Varangian Guard of the emperor. Peter II was captured and executed. In December 1041, Michael IV fell ill and the title of Byzantine emperor passed to his nephew, Michael V.

Emperor Michael V the Caulker

1041-1042 Michael V wished to rule alone and so banished his uncle John to a monastery and reversed all of his reforms. After Zoe tried to assassinate him, he banished her, but after announcing his decision, Michael was the one who was deposed in a popular revolt. He fled to a monastery but was blinded and castrated.

Empress Theodora 1042-1050 After the deposition of Michael V, the people and the Senate wanted the two legitimate heirs of the Macedonian dynasty, Theodora and Zoe, to rule together. Theodora was dragged out of the monastery against her will. She ordered the blinding of Michael V. Theodora was a stronger ruler and administrator than Zoe. Soon the court split in two behind the two empresses. This forced Zoe, who was extremely jealous of Theodora’s success, to marry again.

Empress Zoe 1042-1050 Zoe’s choice fell on her former lover Constantine IX. She was more gullible than her sister, but she was beautiful and knew how to use her beauty. After her marriage with Constantine IX the two sisters were forced into the background, with the true power being held by Constantine. Zoe died in 1050 and Theodora retired to a monastery, leaving Constantine IX as sole emperor.

Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos

1042-1055 Constantine IX removed all of Michael V’s supporters from court. He had to face a revolt from George Maniakes, general of Italy, who declared himself emperor, as well as internal revolts in 1044, when the populace became

afraid that he would kill the two sisters to marry his lover. The two crises were easily resolved. Monomachos fended off a Rus invasion with Greek fire and married his daughter to prince Vsevolod I (1078-1093) of Kiev. Constantine’s capture of Armenia in 1045 put the Empire into contact with the Seljuk Turks. By persecuting the Armenian Church, Constantine IX weakened his eastern flank, which would lead to the defeat at Manzikert in 1071. The internal revolts and the Great Schism in 1054 led to his rule ending in failure, which would have severe repercussions not only for the Empire, but for all of Anatolia. When he died, Theodora became empress again.

Empress Theodora 1055-1056 Theodora reset the purges against her enemies. She replaced able commanders, such as Isaac I Komnenos, with her own favorites. With her death ended the great Macedonian dynasty, which had brought the Byzantine Empire back to greatness. Michael VI, a lesser noble, was chosen as emperor.

Emperor Michael VI the Old 1056-1057 Michael VI was not a popular man. His fatal mistake was that he alienated the military and the populace, which overthrew him and replaced him with the famed general Isaac I Komnenos.

Emperor Isaac I Komnenos 1057-1059 Isaac I had to act fast to solidify his position. He removed the rebellious nobles from Constantinople. Komnenos cut the pensions of court officials and demanded the income of some churches and monasteries, which put him into conflict with the Patriarch, who was exiled for his protests. In 1059, he fell seriously ill and was persuaded to give the crown to Constantine X Doukas. Isaac retired to a monastery, where he later died.

Emperor Constantine X Doukas

1059-1067 Constantine X started placing members of his family on key positions of power. He severely weakened the military by disbanding the 50 000-strong Armenian militia and by cancelling all of Isaac I’s reforms. Soon Constantine became extremely unpopular with both the army and the populace. He lost Belgrade to the Hungarians and Armenia to the Seljuk sultan Alp Arslan. From 1060 he ruled jointly with his son, Konstantios, who remained junior emperor under Romanos IV and Michael VII.

Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes

1068-1071 Romanos IV was being convicted of a plot to overthrow Constantine X when Constantine’s wife chose to marry him and give him the title of emperor for the good of the country. He was declared co-emperor with her son, Michael VII Doukas. Romanos IV started a military campaign to throw the Turks out of Anatolia. However, in 1071 at the battle of Manzikert he was defeated and captured by the Seljuk sultan Alp Arslan (1063-1072). This was the first major Byzantine defeat against the Turks in the east. All of Eastern Anatolia was now firmly under the control of the Muslims, with attacks intensifying towards Asia Minor.

Emperor Michael VII Doukas 1067-1072 Michael VII was surrounded by enemies. In Italy, Robert Giuscard had captured all Byzantine possessions. Hungary had risen and had laid claim to the area around Belgrade. After Manzikert the situation in the East was horrible. The Pechenegs raided south of the Danube and, in 1071, a revolt under the aristocrat from Skopje Georgi Voyteh erupted.

Tsar Peter III (Constantine Bodin)

1072 As Voyteh was from a kavhan family, he could not bear the crown. So, he proposed the crown to Constantine Bodin, the son of prince Michael of Duklja (1050-1081) and a descendant of the Komitopouloi. In 1072, Bodin was crowned under the name Peter III. The rebels took Skopje and Naissus, but Voyteh was besieged at Skopje and forced to surrender. Later, he proposed to Peter III to organize an attack on the unsuspecting Byzantines, but this plot failed. The two were captured. Voyteh died on the road to Constantinople, while Bodin was released and later became king of Dioclea.

Emperor Michael VII Doukas 1072-1078 Michael VII began an intense minting of coins, which caused a huge devaluation. He tried to combat his unpopularity by declaring his son Constantine co-ruler. In 1078, revolts broke out in Thrace and Anatolia. Ultimately, Michael VII was forced to abdicate in favor of the Anatolian rebel Nicephoros III Botaneiates. Constantine was not recognized as co-ruler, which caused a Norman invasion of Greece. However, Constantine would become junior emperor to Alexios I from 1081 to 1087, when he was replaced by Alexios’s son John.

Emperor Konstantios Doukas 1078 Konstantios led a rebellion against Nicephoros III, but quickly lost support and was given over to his opponent.

Emperor Nicephoros III Botaneiates

1078-1081 Nicephoros III had to contend with opponents on multiple fronts. The Normans invaded Greece, the Armenians rose up, two Paulician leaders were in open rebellion, Nikephoros Bryennios had fortified Thrace against him, Nikephoros Melissenos had proclaimed himself emperor in Anatolia, and Konstantios Doukas had laid claim to the throne. While Nicephoros III initially had the aid of the Seljuk Turks, he eventually became over reliant on his brilliant general, Alexios Komnenos. Losing popularity, in 1081 Botaneiates was forced to abdicate in favor of Alexios, who founded the Komnenos dynasty, which would start a reconquest of the Balkans and Anatolia.

Emperor Alexios I Komnenos the Great

1081-1118 Alexios I Komnenos is one of the greatest rulers the Byzantine Empire has ever had. To mention all his achievements would take up a whole book. He reconquered a large part of the Balkans and Asia Minor from the Turks, Hungarians, rebels, and Normans, reformed the army and the financial system. Alexios built many new fortresses in order to protect more easily against the aggressive Turks, asked the Pope for aid against the Muslims and thus was directly responsible for the organization of the First Crusade. He supported the Crusade by forcing its leaders to become his vassals, though this would only nominally be the case. Through his brilliant reforms and military victories, Alexios was able to save the Byzantine Empire from total collapse and again turn it into an important factor in international affairs.

Emperor John II Komnenos the Good

1118-1143 John II continued his father’s reforms and expanded them into religious life. The Komnenoi were great patrons of the Church and their age came to be known as the Komnenian Restoration. His main goal was to improve relations with the West and the Crusader states. This was beneficent for culture and art but alienated his people. He continued the reconquest of Anatolia against the Sultanate of Rum. For the first time since the Macedonian Renaissance, the Byzantines were on the offensive and soon began expanding towards Armenia and Syria.

Emperor Manuel I Komnenos 1143-1180 Manuel I presided over the greatest extent of the Byzantine Empire under the Komnenoi, but at a hefty cost. He exhausted the empire’s military and financial potential by waging unsuccessful wars against the Kingdom of Sicily, the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt, and the Sultanate of Rum. Due to his tactical errors, despite the territorial growth, the Byzantine Empire was weaker at the end of his ruler than at its start. The biggest blow came in 1176 with the battle of Myriokephalon, which saw the end of Byzantine expansion. From 1176 until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 the Byzantine Empire would never again take the offensive against the Turks. Manuel I had neglected his northern border and Cuman raids intensified in the former Bulgarian lands. The peasants could not count on the emperor to protect them and resorted to their own defense. His pro-Catholic policy alienated his subjects and caused an outcry from the Byzantine Church.

Emperor Alexios II Komnenos

1180-1183 As Alexios II was still a child, his mother acted as his regent. Soon mother and son came to blows. The situation was exploited by the first cousin of Alexios II, Andronikos I Komnenos. He removed both mother and son from power and organized a massacre of the Catholic population of Constantinople, which put an end to the cordial relations between Rome and Constantinople.

Emperor Andronikos I Komenos

1183-1185 Andronikos I found himself in a precarious position. In 1183, the Hungarians invaded the Byzantine Empire, captured Belgrade and the surrounding area, Branichevo, and gave the area of Naissus to Serbia. Moreover, in 1185 the Normans invaded Greece. Andronikos I was a cruel leader and soon began fearing the eventual loss of his power. He tried to murder the whole aristocracy. However, in 1185 a riot in Constantinople deposed him in an especially brutal fashion and replaced with Isaac II Angelos.

Emperor Isaac II Angelos 1185 Isaac II stabilized the country and successfully repelled the attacks of the Normans. He married a Hungarian princess to settle his issues with the Hungarian king but imposed a hefty tax on the Bulgarian population. When the two brothers Theodore and Belgun went to meet him and ask him for proniai (special types of land, which were granted in exchange for military service), but were refused, they started a rebellion.

Second Bulgarian Empire Title Name Rule Notable Deeds

Tsar Peter IV (Theodore Peter)

1185-1197 On St. Demetrios’s day 1185 it was discovered that the holy icon of St. Demetrios had moved to Tarnovo, which became the new capital. The Bulgarian population crowned the older brother Theodore, who adopted the name of the holy tsar Peter, thus becoming Peter IV. The two brothers were able to free Preslav and Peter IV moved there in order to create the administration of the new state. In the meantime, Asen took care of the military efforts.

Tsar Asen I (Belgun) 1190-1196 After crushing victories at Lovech and the pass of Trevna, emperor Isaac II (1185-1195 and 1203-1204) was ousted from power. His brother, the new emperor Alexios III Angelos (1195-1203), decided to deal with the two brothers. As he was unable to defeat them in battle, because Bulgaria had recovered much of the land lost in 1000-1018, he chose to use the boyars, who were discontent with the rule of the two brothers. Asen was killed by his kinsman Ivanko in 1196.

Tsar Ivanko 1196 For a short while, Ivanko sat on the throne in Tarnovo, but was ousted by Peter IV. He escaped to Constantinople and married a Byzantine princess. His dowry consisted of Philippopolis and the surrounding area.

Tsar of Bulgarians and Vlachs

John I the Good (Kaloyan)

1197-1207 In 1197 Peter IV was also murdered by rebellious boyars. The third brother, John the Good (Kaloyan) took the crown and began to deal with the discontent boyars. He formed an anti-Byzantine coalition and was victorious, even conquering Varna and Philippopolis in 1200-1201. Kaloyan signed a peace treaty with the Byzantines but was not recognized as a legitimate ruler. That is why he followed the example of Boris I and turned to the Pope, who granted him the titles he desired in exchange for Kaloyan accepting Papal supremacy. Kaloyan defeated the armies of the Latin Empire, which had captured Constantinople in 1204, at Adrianople in 1205, capturing the first Latin emperor Baudouin of Flanders (1204-1205). This turned Bulgaria into an international power. However, in 1207 Kaloyan was murdered by his wife, brother-in-law, and nephew Boril.

Tsar of Bulgarians and Vlachs

Boril 1207-1218 Boril was the son of John’s sister. He murdered Kaloyan and took power in Tarnovo, while the rightful heir John II Asen, son of Asen, had to flee to Galicia. In 1211, Boril organized an ecclesiastical council against the Bogomilists, which led many Bogomilists to leave Bulgaria towards Italy, Bosnia, and France. He suffered many defeats, which forced the aristocracy to start supporting the rightful heir.

Tsar of Bulgarians and Greeks

John II Asen 1218-1241 In 1218, Boril was overthrown and John II Asen came to power. He started balancing between the powers in the Balkans, marrying 4 times for political reasons. In 1230, he defeated the army of the Epirote emperor Theodore Komnenos (1215-1230) at Klokotnitza. He let all the defeated Epirote army to go home freely, for which he is remembered as a wise and good tsar. In 1235, at an ecumenical council in the city of Lampsakos, John II renounced the rule of the Pope, restored the Bulgarian patriarchy, and allied himself with the Nicaean emperor. Under his rule Bulgaria again became a power, which stretched from the Adriatic to the Black sea and from the Aegean Sea to the Carpathian Mountains.

Tsar Kaliman I Asen 1241-1246 The firstborn son of John II and the Arpad princess Anna-Maria, Kaliman was still an infant and his mother acted as regent. He was overthrown in 1246 by John II Asen’s last wife, Irene Komnenos, and her son Michael II.

Tsar Michael II 1246-1256 Michael II was also too young to ascend to the throne and so his mother acted as regent. He won victories against the Serbs and Hungarians, but in 1255 was forced to sign the peace of Rheginum, which ceded many lands to the Byzantines. This caused a rebellion that ended with Michael II’s murder.

Tsar Kaliman II Asen 1256-1257 After Kaliman II was able to overthrow his cousin, Michael II, he was attacked by Michael’s father-in-law, Rostislav Mihailovich of Galicia. Kaliman II fled the capital, while Mitso became tsar.

Tsar Mitso Asen 1257 The aristocracy chose Mitso as their ruler, but a civil war had already begun between Rostislav, Kaliman II, Mitso, and Constantine Tikh, the grandson of the Serbian grand Župan Stefan Nemanja and son of a minor noble. The common people supported Constantine, which forced Mitso to retreat to Preslav.

Tsar Constantine I Tikh-Asen

1257-1277 After ascending to the throne, Constantine I married Irene, the daughter of Nicaean emperor Theodore II Laskaris and granddaughter of John II Asen, thereby adding the Asen family name to his own. After Michael VIII Palaiologos restored the Byzantine Empire in 1261, Consantine I allied with the Mongols against the Byzantines, but the latter managed to turn the allies against one another. The raids of the Mongols were heavy on the common folk, which withdrew their support for Constantine I. This caused the uprising of Ivailo, a pig-farmer, who killed Constantine in battle and assumed the crown in Tarnovo. Constantine is most important for constructing the Boyana church, an excellent example of the proto-Renaissance art in Bulgaria.

Tsar Ivailo the Lettuce 1277-1279 Ivailo was a pig-farmer, but a brilliant commander. After assuming the throne and marrying the widowed Maria Palaiologos, he was able to stop both the Byzantine and Mongol armies, but while on an expedition against the Mongols was betrayed by the aristocracy, who opened the gates of Tarnovo to Mitso’s son and a protégé of emperor Michael VIII (1261-1282), John Asen III.

Tsar John III Asen 1279-1280 John III took immediate measures, defeating Ivailo and forcing him to escape to the Mongol chief Nogai, who was happy to cut his head off and give it to Michael VIII. However, John III was not popular and in 1280 was overthrown by the boyar George Terter.

Tsar George I Terter 1280-1292 George I was a minor noble, but he was able to stabilize the country and stop any further Byzantine coups. However, the influence of the Mongols grew and in 1290 George I was forced to become a vassal of Nogai. He gave his daughter’s hand to Nogai’s son Chaka. Nevertheless, in 1292 George I was forced to escape to Constantinople.

Tsar Smilets 1292-1298 The reign of Smilets was the height of Mongol control over Bulgaria. Ever since the death of John II, the once-great kingdom had begun to fragment into small states, vying for dominance. Smilets had power over no more than 50 miles from his capital. The rest was controlled either by separatist boyars, or by Nogai’s soldiers.

Tsar John IV Smilets 1298-1299 The son of Smilets, John IV was underaged. However, Nogai was killed by the rightful khan Toqta (1280-1302) and Chaka ran to Bulgaria together with his hostage, the son of George I – Theodore Svetoslav.

Tsar Chaka 1299-1300 Chaka assumed full control and proclaimed himself tsar. The aristocracy did not take kindly to a foreign ruler, neither did the khan of the Golden Horde Toqta. Realizing the situation, Theodore Svetoslav killed Chaka, took the throne and presented Toqta with Chaka’s head. In gratitude the khan not only released Theodore of his vassal position but granted him Wallachia and Moldova as territory.

Tsar Theodore Svetoslav 1300-1321 Theodore Svetoslav was able to eliminate the final vestiges of Mongol power in Bulgaria and began reunifying the divided state. His rule stabilized the country and allowed the tsar to once again go on the offensive against the Byzantines, recapturing many lands south of the Haemus mountain.

Tsar George II Terter 1321-1323 The son of Theodore Svetoslav, he led a successful campaign against the Byzantine Empire, but his death while marching led his army to disarray. The Byzantine emperor Andronikos II then proceeded to retake all the lands, captured by Theodore Svetoslav, back.

Tsar Michael III Shishman

1323-1330 The despot of Vidin was elected as tsar, as George II had no children. He was the founder of the last Bulgarian dynasty, the Shishmans. Michael III made use of the Byzantine civil war between Andronikos II and his grandson Andronikos III to recapture all lost territory. He even married Andronikos III’s sister and, when the latter won the civil war, he won himself a powerful ally. He started marching against the rising power of Serbia but was killed in the battle of Velbazhd after foolishly accepting a truce and letting his soldiers gather supplies. After the Serbian reinforcements arrived, they attacked the Bulgarian camp.

Tsar John Stephen 1330-1331 As Michael III’s first wife was a Nemanja, the aristocracy rushed to crown her son, John Stephen, as ruler. However, he was solely recognized as a compromise until the Serbian threat went away. In 1331 Stephen Uros IV killed his father. This dynastic crisis was the moment the Bulgarians were waiting for. They removed John Stephen and crowned John Alexander as their new tsar.

Tsar John Alexander 1331-1371 John Alexander rushed to make peace with the Serbs and turned his attention to Andronikos III, who had betrayed his alliance and had occupied Philippopolis and the surrounding area. The two armies clashed at Rusokastro, with the Bulgarians emerging victorious. During his rule John Alexander was able to balance between the Serbs and the two participants in the Second Byzantine Civil War – John V Palaiologos and John VI Kantakouzenos. His rule coincided with the Second Golden Age of Bulgarian culture, as the Late Tarnovo School produced many notable writers, who influenced not only Bulgarian, but all of Slavic literature. However, his main mistake was dividing his country in 3 on his deathbed. The brothers Dobrotitsa, Theodore, and Balik created the autonomous Despotate of Dobrudzha, while the two sons of John Alexander – John Shisman and John Sratsimir, created 2 competing empires – the Tarnovo Empire and the Vidin Empire.

Tsar John Shishman 1371-1395 The fragmented Bulgarian states became easy pickings for the rising Ottoman Empire, which systematically began attacking Bulgarian territory. Despite a victory at Plochnik in 1387, the Balkan peoples were unable to stop the Ottomans. In 1371 and 1389 in the battles of Chernomen and Kosovo field the Turks were victorious.

Soon Serbia was subjugated and forced to become an Ottoman vassal, while the Bulgarian capital of Tarnovo was besieged in 1393. Despite the brave resistance of the patriarch Evtimius, the city fell. John Shisman had fled the city and continued resistance until 1395, when after a defeat at Nikopolis he was beheaded.

Tsar John Sratsimir 1371-1396 John Sratsimir tried to balance between the Hungarian kingdom of Sigismund of Luxembourg and the Ottomans. When Sigismund led a crusade in 1396 against the Turks, John Sratsimir joined his side, but after the defeat at Nikopolis, Vidin fell to the Ottomans and the Second Bulgarian Emprie was no more. His son, Constantine II, fled to the Hungarian court and continued the fight.

Tsar Constantine II 1396-1422 In 1404 (or 1408) Constantine II, together with the Vlach voivode Mircea the Elder, the Hungarian king Sigismund, and Frujin, the son of John Shisman, started an invasion of the Ottoman lands in response to the defeat of Bayezid I at Ankara in 1402 and the civil war that followed. It is unclear when and how the rebellion was put down, but in 1422 Constantine II died and with him died the last chance of the Bulgarians freeing themselves from Ottoman rule. This rule would continue for the next 5 centuries.

Ottoman rule Title Name Rule Notable Deeds

Sultan Murad II the Heavenly

1422-1444 Murad II conquered some of the Turkic beyliks in Anatolia. In 1424 he defeated the Byzantines and forced them to return the territories, which they captured during the civil war. In 1427 Serbia became a buffer state between Sigismund’s Hungary and Murad II. In 1430 Thessaloniki was captured. As in 1437 Sigismund died, Murad II increased the intensity of his attacks. By 1439 Serbia was occupied and its leader, George Branković, ran to Hungary. In the meantime, king Vladislav III of Poland was crowned as king of Hungary. Pope Eugene IV called a crusade against the Ottomans in 1443. Vladislav III, George Branković, the voivode of Wallachia Mircea II, the Bulgarian prince Frujin, and the voivode of Transylvania Janos Hunyadi joined the crusade. The crusaders captured Niş. After the battle Skanderbeg deserted the Ottomans and began a rebellion in Albania, which would last for 3 decades. In the beginning of 1444 a peace treaty was signed between the crusaders and the Turks. Murad II abdicated to his son Mehmed II.

Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror

1444-1446 In the start of 1444 at the battle of Torvioll Skanderbeg defeated the Ottomans. This defeat led to the continuation of the crusade. As Mehmed was only 12, he appointed his father as supreme general. Vladislav moved east towards Varna, supported by the Bulgarian population, but was defeated and killed at the battle of Varna. John Hunyadi survived the battle and continued to organize the resistance against the Ottomans. Skanderbeg defeated three Ottoman armies in the mountains of Albania. Murad took over again as sultan.

Sultan Murad II the Heavenly

1446-1451 Murad II attacked Morea in 1446, forcing the future emperor Constantine XI to become his vassal. In 1448 at Svetigrad he was able to win a minor victory over Skanderbeg but was forced to retreat to Edirne. Hunyadi started a new crusade in 1448. As Branković was an Ottoman vassal, he refused to join Hunyadi, which caused the latter to attack Serbia. Hunyadi tried to join forces with Skanderbeg, but in 1448 at the second battle of Kosovo field was defeated by Murad’s army. Scanderbeg continued to defeat army after army, but Hunyadi had to stop his raids for the time being. In 1451, Murad II died.

Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror

1451-1481 Mehmed II’s first goal was to finish off the remnants of the Byzantine Empire, now limited to the city of Constantinople. The emperor Constantine XI prepared the city defenses, but his cries for help from the West were ignored. After a protracted siege, the Ottomans broke through the walls and Constantine XI died protecting his capital. This was the end of the Roman Empire. Mehmed II moved his capital to Constantinople, turning the Hagia Sophia into a mosque and proclaiming himself emperor. He saw himself as a continuator of the Roman Empire under Turkish and Muslim rule, not as its destroyer. In 1454 the sultan attacked Serbia but was repelled by John Hunyadi at the siege of Belgrade. Later Hunyadi died of a plague, which allowed Mehmed to capture Serbia, Trebizond, Morea, and Bosnia. Mehmed attacked the voivode of Wallachia Vlad III Dracula, who resisted bravely against the Ottomans, but was ultimately removed from the throne. In 1473 he defeated the rising Aq Quyunlu at Otlukbeli, solidifying his control over Anatolia. In 1468 Skanderbeg died and Albania was finally subjugated. The Ottomans defeated the Moldavian prince Stephen the Great at the battle of Valea Alba. In 1480, Mehmed II tried to attack Italy, capturing Otranto, but due to a shortage of food was forced to retreat. In 1481, he died and was followed by his son Bayezid II.

Sultan Bayezid II the Saint 1481-1512 Bayezid II had to confront many revolts in his Anatolian provinces. In 1492, he accepted the fleeing Jews from Spain into his domain, as well as the Grenadian fugitives. In 1499, Bayezid finished the conquest of the Balkans by capturing Montenegro and Bosnia. In 1512, a succession crisis erupted between his sons Selim and Ahmet. As Ahmet was Bayezid’s favorite, Selim declared himself in open rebellion. He was defeated by his father, but ultimately succeeded in forcing Bayezid to abdicate.

Sultan Selim I the Strong 1512-1520 Selim I dealt swiftly with all eventual pretenders to the throne. A big power was rising in the East to challenge Ottoman control over Anatolia. The Safavid dynasty had taken over Persia and had converted to Shia Islam. This undermined the Ottoman position and forced the two into war. Selim defeated Shah Ismail in the battle of Chaldiran in 1514. The capital Tabriz was captured and Shia expansion was halted. Then Selim turned his attention to the south and the Mamluks. By 1517 all of the Mamluk lands in Syria, the Levant, and Egypt were under Ottoman control. The last Abbasid caliph, Al-Mutawakkil III, was forced to abdicate and proclaim Selim I caliph. In this way Selim I was able to be proclaimed the leader of all Islam and his descendants would carry this title up until the end of the Ottoman Empire in the 20th century. He died in 1520 and was succeeded by his son, Suleiman I.

Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent

1520-1566 Suleiman I the Magnificent carried this title for a reason. His rule marked the peak of Ottoman power in Europe and the Middle East. He instituted many administrative reforms, the most important of which is the Kanunname (code of law), which was the first set of secular Ottoman laws to be an alternative to the religious Sharia law. Suleiman captured Belgrade, destroyed Hungary and conquered it after the battle of Mohacs in 1526. He captured the island of Rhodes from the Knights of St. John in 1522. The path to central Europe lay open. Suleiman besieged Vienna, but was forced to retreat, in 1529. Suleiman solidified his control over Moldova and Wallachia, which became his vassals, as well as the Crimean Khanate. He waged three wars against the Safavids, which ended in a stalemate, but was able to capture all of Tripolitania, Tunisia, and Algeria, and expanded Ottoman control towards Abyssinia and the Persian Gulf. In 1565 he besieged Malta but was repelled by the Knights of St. John. However, Suleiman signed the first capitulation with France, which gave French traders huge privileges.

Sultan Selim II the Blond 1566-1574 Selim II was not as interested in governing as his father. He was the first sultan to delegate his powers to the Divan (state council), which was then ruled by the Great Vizier Mehmed Sokollu. The sultan signed peace with the Holy Roman Empire but was defeated while trying to unite the Volga and Don rivers through a canal by Ivan IV the Terrible. It was under Selim II’s rule that in 1571 the whole Ottoman fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Lepanto. This was the first major defeat of the Ottomans, which broke the psychologic fear of Turkish invincibility. He captured Cyprus in 1571 and expanded into Hejaz and Yemen.

Sultan Murad III 1574-1595 Murad III brought the Ottoman Empire to its greatest territorial extent. Although the fleet was rebuilt after the battle of Lepanto, this caused a huge financial stress on the economy. Despite defeating the Safavids and gaining lands in Persia, he was embroiled in palace intrigues between the harem and Sokollu. Corruption became a chronic problem. The Empire may have been the largest it had been, but the first causes of its future collapse had begun to appear. The janissaries showed the first signs of their future undermining role in the stability of the empire. Murad III died in 1595 and was replaced by Mehmed III.

Sultan Mehmed III the Just 1595-1598 Mehmed III was an idle ruler and delegated much of his power to his mother, the valide sultan Safiye. The Long War (1593-1606) with the Austrian Empire marked his reign and although, at first, he made some important gains, by 1597 the tide had turned in Austria’s favor. This caused the Bulgarians Theodore Balin, Dionisius Rali, and the Sorkoçević brothers to move. In 1598, the First Tarnovo Revolt broke against the Ottoman rule.

Tsar Shisman III 1598 The First Tarnovo Revolt broke out in the cities of Tarnovo and Nikopolis. Shisman III, an alleged descendant of the Bulgarian royal family, was proclaimed tsar, but the revolt was easily stomped out and its organizers either fled or were killed.

Sultan Mehmed III the Just 1598-1603 Mehmed III continued losing ground. Moreover, in 1600 the Jelali revolts broke out in Anatolia. In 1603, Mehmed III died of severe stress.

Sultan Ahmed I the Fortunate

1603-1617 Ahmed I was a great builder. He constructed the Blue Mosque in Istanbul but was quite unfortunate in his wars. In 1606 he was forced to sign the peace of Zsitvatorok, which abolished the annual tribute, paid by the Austrians. Although large swathes of land were not yet lost, this tarnished Ottoman prestige. Moreover, Shah Abbas the Great ruled over the Safavids. He was able to defeat Ahmed I and take back Georgia, Azerbaijan, and many territories, lost to Suleiman I. Under his rule the regime of the capitulations was expanded, with new treaties being signed with the Dutch Republic. These treaties would result in the transformation of the Ottoman Empire from a global superpower to a semi-colony of the Europeans in the 19th century.

Sultan Mustafa I the Mad 1617-1618 Ahmed I abolished the tradition of fratricide, which after his death led to a succession crisis. Mustafa I, Ahmed’s brother, took the throne. Essentially, despite his mental state, Mustafa instituted a new principle of inheritance – seniority instead of primogeniture, which would last until the end of the Empire. He was ultimately a pawn in the hands of the different cliques in his palace and was overthrown by his nephew, Ahmed’s son, Osman.

Sultan Osman II the Martyr

1618-1622 Osman II fancied himself a great sultan and, after making peace with the Persians, invaded the lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but was defeated. Returning to Constantinople in shame, he blamed the Janissaries for his defeat. This angered the Janissaries, who for the first time acted disloyally to an Ottoman sultan, protecting their own interest and not that of Osman. Osman II was removed, killed by the Janissaries, and Mustafa was reinstated.

Sultan Mustafa I the Mad 1622-1623 Mustafa began his reign by murdering all those, who participated in the murder of his nephew. However, his mental instability deepened and he was seen searching for his nephew, thinking that he was not dead. Mustafa was still a pawn in the hands of the harem and of the officials. However, the supporters of Osman II were not satisfied and desired to remove Mustafa from the throne. He abdicated in favor of his nephew, the brother of Osman, Murad IV.

Sultan Murad IV the Warrior

1623-1640 For a large part of his rule, Murad IV was essentially a puppet in his mother’s hands. The Safavids capitalized on Ottoman weakness and invaded Iraq. Anatolia was in revolt. The Janissaries continued to assert their power. When Murad took the reins of power, he decided to become an absolute monarch to deal with all these threats. First, Murad created a strict code of law, banned alcohol and tobacco, and personally led his army against the Safavids, capturing Baghdad in 1638 and forcing the Safavids to sign a peace treaty. He was succeeded by his brother Ibrahim I.

Sultan Ibrahim I the Mad 1640-1648 Ibrahim was of dubious intellectual capabilities. He was the only survivor of the Ottoman line from Murad IV’s purges and so was reluctant to take power. He started the Long War with Venice over Crete, which lasted until 1669. He became a plaything for his harem favorites, who used the gullible Ibrahim to advance themselves and their families. Ultimately, in 1648 he was overthrown by a Janissary coup and murdered.

Sultan Mehmed IV the Hunter

1648-1687 Mehmed IV’s rule was one of a general revival of Ottoman power. He was able to defeat the Venetians and capture Crete. He then proceeded to once again subjugate Transylvania and Southern Ukraine. But his most important act was the start of the Great Turkish War, which started with the Siege of Vienna in 1683. Just when the city was about to fall, a Polish-Lithuanian relief force under John III Sobieski was able to break the siege. Then the war dragged on in Hungary. The Second Battle of Mohacs in 1687 turned the tide of the war decisively in Austria’s favor. Two rebellions occurred during this time – the Second Tarnovo Rebellion of 1686 and the Chiprovtsi Rebellion of 1688, both of which failed. However, the Empire was in crisis. He was deposed by the Janissaries in 1867 for the defeats, but was kept alive.

Sultan Suleiman II the Warrior

1687-1689 Suleiman II decided to continue the war but suffered even more setbacks. In 1688, Belgrade fell to the armies of the Holy League and in 1689 a rebellion started in Macedonia, led by a man named Karposh.

Tsar Karposh 1689 Karposh was initially a voivode of a band of hajduti (local anti-Ottoman fighters), who led a rebellion in 1689 in Macedonia. He captured Skopje and proclaimed himself tsar of Bulgaria, but when the Austrians were forced to retreat to Belgrade, Karposh was left alone to face the Turkish armies. He died in battle against the Ottomans.

Sultan Suleiman II the Warrior

1689-1691 Suleiman II regrouped his forces and in 1690 recaptured Belgrade. Unfortunately, the Russians joined the Holy League and the Crimean Khanate was forced to defend its borders. In 1691, Suleiman died and was followed by his brother Ahmed II.

Sultan Ahmed II the Warrior Prince

1691-1695 Under Ahmed II’s reign the war with the Holy League reached a standstill, with the Danube becoming a de facto border and neither side being able to successfully force it and regain the initiative.

Sultan Mustafa II the Warrior

1695-1703 The son of Mehmed IV, Mustafa II won several victories against the Venetians, Russians, and Austrians, but the gridlock could not be broken. In 1699 he was forced to sign the Treaty of Karlowitz, which started the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Hungary was lost and given to Austria. With this peace treaty the Christian powers, mainly

Austria and Russia, went on the offensive against the Ottomans. In 1703 during the Edirne event Mustafa was deposed and replaced with Ahmed III.

Sultan Ahmed III the Warrior

1703-1730 Ahmed III tried to rectify the losses of Mustafa II. He recaptured Morea from Venice, Azov from Russia, parts of Persia, and was able to rebalance the frontier with Austria with the Treaty of Passarowitz of 1718. He faced Peter the Great and defeated him in the so called Pruth River Campaign. The financial system flourished under his rule. Ahmed left the Empire much stronger than before. His reforms were not unopposed and the Janissaries, who saw a threat to their position, demanded his abdication.

Sultan Mahmud I the Hunchback

1730-1754 Ahmed gave the title of sultan to his nephew, Mahmud I. Mahmud had to adhere to every demand of the mutineers until he was able to get rid of them in 1731. Mahmud delegated much of his authority to the great vizier, who waged wars against Russia, Austria, and Persia, while he was composing poetry.

Sultan Osman III the Devout

1754-1757 Osman III is most notable for his firman of 1757 that preserved the Status Quo of various Holy Land cites for Jews, Christians, and Muslims.

Sultan Mustafa III the First Innovator

1757-1774 Mustafa III was especially interested in governing well. He reformed the financial system, established relations with Frederick the Great of Prussia, which allowed him to hire officers from Berlin and to reform his army in a European manner. However, he went to war with Catherine the Great’s Russia, which resulted in a devastating defeat for the Ottomans, who lost big parts of the Caucasus, Crimea, and Romania. In 1762 one of the most important works of Bulgarian Renaissance literature, „Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya”, was completed by the monk Paisius of Hilendar.

Sultan Abdülhamid I the Servant of Allah

1774-1789 Abdülhamid was a pacifist but was forced to resume the war with Russia. The many defeats of the Turks led to the treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, which essentially proclaimed Russia the protector of the Orthodox peoples in the Ottoman Empire, which gave Russia leverage over the Ottomans’ internal policy. Crimea was fully lost to Russia. Abdülhamid tried to renovate the army and navy, but in 1787 dragged the Ottoman Empire into war with Russia and Austria.

Sultan Selim III the Composer

1789-1807 Selim III wanted to quickly reform the state. In 1792 he signed the Peace of Iaşi, which in many ways confirmed the treaty of Küçük Kaynarca. Selim abolished the military control over fiefs, which had been the basis of Ottoman strength and weakness throughout the centuries, in effect removing the spahi cavalry from existence. The sultan also instituted monetary and educational reforms. He created the first modern unit, the nizam-i-jedid, in 1797. With them Selim tried to remove the ayans and kardzhalii bandits, who had turned into semi-autonomous rulers in the Empire’s Balkan provinces. The most powerful of them was the ruler of Vidin, Osman Pazvantoğlu and the former Janissary commanders of Belgrade. After defeating Napoleon in his Egyptian expedition, the Turks almost fully lost control over Egypt, which became semi-autonomous under its Mamluk leaders Ibrahim Bey and Murad Bey. In 1806 the first book in Modern Bulgarian, called “Nedelnik”, was printed by Sophronius of Vratsa. As Selim III tried to expand the control and power of his nizam-i-jedid, the ayans and Janissaries united against him. The Russo-Turkish war of 1806-1812 weakened his position and he was overthrown and murdered.

Sultan Mustafa IV 1807-1808 Mustafa could not control the Janissaries that put him into power. However, Mustafa Bayrakdar, who was a supporter of Selim, was released from captivity and moved against Mustafa. Selim was killed, but Mustafa’s

other brother, Mahmud II, was able to hide from the Janissaries’ purge. In 1808, he was able to ascend to the throne with Bayrakdar’s help.

Sultan Mahmud II the Reformer

1808-1839 Mahmud II first had to solve the difficult situation inside his country and then proceed to deal with all of the external threats. In 1812 he was defeated by the Russians and forced to sign the Treaty of Bucharest, which gave Bessarabia to the Russians, as well as increasing their power in Wallachia and Moldavia. Mahmud III proceeded to kill all the Janissaries in 1826. This put an end to the most destabilizing force in the Ottoman Empire. Once that danger was removed, Mahmud began mass reforms. He modernized the legal code, removed officially the military fiefs, modernized the army and education, and also began the so called Tanzimat – the era of reforms in the Ottoman Empire. However, the sultan was defeated twice in the Russo-Turkish war of 1828-1829, which restored Greece as an independent country. Moreover, he was twice defeated by the Egyptian rebels, who de facto became an independent kingdom. The capitulation regime also turned the Ottoman Empire into “the Sick Man of Europe”, as the once-great Empire only retained parts of the modern-day Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Armenia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia, while Tunisia, Algeria, Romania, and Moldavia were considered vassals, although they acted as independent rulers. In 1824 in Vratsa the Bulgarians began their first fight against the Patriarchy of Constantinople. In 1835 the first organized Bulgarian revolt, Valcho’s conspiration, was organized. Also, in 1835 the first Bulgarian school was founded in Gabrovo.

Sultan Abdülmecid I the Strong Reformer

1839-1861 Abdülmecid reshaped the Ottoman Empire. In 1839 with his ascension he created the Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane, which was expanded with the Hatt-ı Hümayun after the Crimean War of 1853-1856. It proclaimed all religions equal and stopped the discrimination against the other peoples within the Empire. Abdülmecid’s reforms led to him becoming known as “the Ottoman Peter the Great”. His reforms allowed the Bulgarian Renaissance to flourish. During his rule the first Bulgarian form school in 1846 and the first Bulgarian lyceum in 1859 were created. During his rule the priests Neofit Bozveli and Ilarion Makariopolski began a campaign to replace the Greek priests and bishops with Bulgarians. Also, in 1841-1843 the Braila insurrections played a huge part in changing the Bulgarian revolutionary movement from a line of unplanned rebellions to organized revolutions. During the Crimean War of 1853-1856, which ended in nominal victory for the Ottomans, Georgi Sava Rakovski got his first taste of combat, which he would later use. In 1860 Ilarion Makariopolski declared the Bulgarian Church separated from the Patriarch of Constantinople’s rule. However, the rule of the sultan ended with the independence of Serbia and a generally volatile situation, which would explode under Abdülaziz.

Sultan Abdülaziz the Unfortunate

1861-1876 Abdülaziz ruled during a difficult time for the Ottoman Empire. He continued the reforms of his predecessor, established a civil code, and bettered relations with the west. In 1861 and 1867 Georgi Sava Rakovski organized the First and Second Bulgarian Legions in Serbia, which aimed to free Bulgaria from Ottoman rule. In 1867 and 1868 many small armies, such as those of Hadzhi Dimitar and Stefan Karadzha, were able to invade Bulgaria and weaken Ottoman control. This forced Abdülaziz in 1870 to declare the Bulgarian Church an independent exarchate, with its first exarch becoming Antim I in 1872. Bulgarian desire for freedom increased exponentially due to the ideas of the Enlightenment. In 1869 and 1870 the Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee was established in Bucharest, while Vasil Levski created the Internal Revolutionary Organization. In 1872 the two organizations merged and prepared the Bulgarians for rebellion. Despite Levski’s death in 1873, the revolt was inevitable. In 1875 the Ottoman Empire declared bankruptcy, beginning the Great Eastern Crisis. This was the

time to act. On April 20the 1876 in the city of Koprivshtitza the April Revolution began. The rebellion was drowned in blood. The brutality of its suppression shocked Europe and allowed the Russians to act. Abdülaziz was removed from power and committed suicide.

Sultan Murad V 1876 Murad V was a liberal and began preparing the country for a constitution. However, he was removed, because he was deemed mentally ill, and was replaced by his reactionary brother, Abdülhamid.

Sultan Abdülhamid II the Sublime Khan

1876-1878 Abdülhamid tried to evade war with Russia or disintegration of his country and proclaimed a constitution. However, everyone was aware that this constitution would be a disaster and, as the general opinion of Europe was supportive of a Russo-Turkish war, the Russians came to terms with the British and Austrians to not create a powerful Slavic State in the Balkans. In 1877, Russia declared war. The most important battles were at Pleven and Shipka. The siege of Pleven was the most important tactical battle of the war, which was won in December 1877, but it was in big part thanks to the battle of Shipka, where 7500 Bulgarians and Russians fended off the 27 000-strong army of Suleiman Pasha, which was trying to break the siege of Pleven. For 5 days the outnumbered warriors fought the Turks, even resorting to throwing rocks, timbers, and their companions’ bodies at the enemies to fend them off. This is one of the greatest battles of Bulgarian history, which allowed the Russians to capture Pleven and move south of the Haemus mountain. In January 19th 1878 an armstice was signed at Edirne. The war had ended and with it the Ottoman rule over Bulgaria.

Third Bulgarian Empire Title Name Rule Notable Deeds

Imperial Commissar

Alexander Dondukov

1878-1879 The Treaty of San Stefano was signed on March 3rd 1878. However, the Great Powers were unwilling to allow the creation of a powerful Slavic state in the Balkans. Thus, at the Council of Berlin Bulgaria was divided in 3 – Macedonia remained in Ottoman hands, East Rumelia became an autonomous region of the Empire, while the Princedom of Bulgaria was created as a vassal of the Ottomans. The Russians created a Provisional Administration, which laid the foundation of the army, the banking system, and the local authority of the new state, while scheduling elections for a Constitutional Assembly.

Knyaz Alexander I Battenberg

1879-1886 The Constitutional Assembly signed the democratic Tarnovo constitution on April 16th 1879, and on the 17th they chose the noble Alexander I Battenberg as knyaz. Battenberg was the nephew of the Russian tsar, also being related to most European royal families. He was unsatisfied with the powers the constitution had specified for him and decided to veto it. From 1881 to 1883 Alexander ruled by the so called “regime of empowerments”, which gave him almost absolute power. However, he became alienated from the political class and the Russian officers, who were ruling the country. When the knyaz was forced to relinquish his empowerment, the Russians were outraged, as he kicked the Russian generals out of Bulgaria. On September 6th 1885 in a brave move East Rumelia and the Princedom of Bulgaria were unified by Battenberg and his supporters. This caused an outrage in Europe, but Great Britain supported Bulgaria. The Serbians declared war, but in less than a month were defeated at the battle of Slivnitza and forced to sign a white peace. On March 24th 1886 the Unification was

recognized internationally. However, a coup d’état by generals, loyal to the Russians, forced the knyaz to abdicate on August 9th 1886.

Regency Stefan Stambolov, gen. Sava Mutkurov, Georgi Zhivkov

1886-1887 The crisis that followed the coup led to the rise of Stefan Stambolov, who was a veteran of the revolutionary movement. He was able to deal with the coup, sentence to death the pro-Russian generals and call a Great national assembly. As Battenberg refused to accept the crown again due to Russian pressure, Stambolov severed diplomatic ties with Russia and instead persuaded the assembly to vote for a new knyaz. The only candidate was Ferdinand I of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, a relative of the British, Belgian, and Portuguese royal families. Due to his strong character and actions to turn Bulgaria into a power in the Balkans, Stambolov was nicknamed “the Bulgarian Bismarck”.

Knyaz/Tsar Ferdinand I of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

1887-1918 On July 7th 1886 Ferdinand became knyaz of Bulgaria. After careful maneuvering to stabilize his position on the throne, Ferdinand began to steer the country on the way to prosperity by selecting capable men as his prime ministers. On September 22nd 1908 together with the prime minister Alexander Malinov Ferdinand declared Bulgaria an independent Tsardom, thereby breaking his vassalage to the Ottomans and fully restoring the Third Bulgarian Empire. Ferdinand I and the Balkan Alliance won an incredible victory in the First Balkan War, with the Ottomans being almost fully driven out of Europe. However, the desire of Serbia and Greece to divide Macedonia between themselves caused the Second Balkan War, which ended in disaster for Bulgaria. In WW1 Bulgaria fought against its former allies by joining the Central Powers, but by 1918, despite winning numerous victories, the army was exhausted, the economy was in shambles, and Ferdinand was forced to surrender and abdicate in favor of his son, Boris III.

Tsar Boris III 1918-1943 Boris III oversaw the reconstruction of the country after WW1, but until the start of the 30s Bulgaria was plagued by internal strife between agrarians, democrats, and communists. This forced the army to act and on May 19th 1934 the government of prime minister Nikola Mushanov was overthrown. By carefully maneuvering between the interests of the army and the political elite, Boris III was able to install an authoritarian regime, which was able to keep the internal peace in the country on the eve of WW2. In 1940, Southern Dobrudzha was taken back from Romania. In 1941, surrounded by the Axis, Bulgaria had no choice but to join Hitler. However, Boris III refused to surrender Bulgarian Jews to the Nazis and did not want to join the war against the USSR. For this reason, in 1943 he was poisoned by Hitler.

Tsar Simeon II 1943-1946 Simeon II was still a boy when his father was murdered and so a regency was established. However, the war was going ill for the Axis. On September 9th 1944 the communists led a coup that overthrew the regency and created a republic. In 1946 after a referendum the tsar was removed from power and exiled to Egypt. He stayed there until 1975, when he moved to Spain. His sons are all of Spanish citizenship, with one, Kyril, even graduating from Princeton. In Bulgaria the communists took care of their opposition. Over 100 000 Bulgarians were murdered in the so-called People’s Tribunal. A puppet regime of the USSR was established and communist rule lasted until 1991.

People’s Republic of Bulgaria Title Name Rule Notable Deeds

President of the Interim presidium of the Republic

Vasil Kolarov 1946-1947 Vasil Kolarov, an ex-leader of the Comintern, oversaw the transition of the country from a republic to a people’s republic. In 1947 after the other political powers were decimated and a constitutional assembly was called that proclaimed the People’s Republic of Bulgaria. The First Secretary of the Bulgarian Communist Party became the head of the executive branch, with all legislature and judicial power coming from him.

First Secretary of the Bulgarian Communist Party

Georgi Dimitrov 1947-1949 Georgi Dimitrov was a long-time leader of the Bulgarian Communist Party. He started a forced collectivization of the economy. Dimitrov fully aligned his politics with Stalin’s desires, but his close cooperation with Yugoslav dictator Tito and the latter’s opposition to Stalin led to his demise. In 1949 he was killed in a sanatorium near Moscow. His body was mummified and a mausoleum was built to him in Sofia.

First secretary of the Bulgarian Communist Party

Valko Chervenkov

1949-1954 Valko Chervenkov instituted a cult of personality and followed Stalin’s example completely. However, Stalin’s death in 1953 and Khrushchev’s policy of destalinization led to his downfall. In 1954 he was replaced by Todor Zhivkov, who would lead Bulgaria until the end of the communist regime.

First secretary of the Bulgarian Communist Party/ President of the State Council

Todor Zhivkov 1954-1989 Todor Zhivkov was a man of dubious intellectual capacity and of equally dubious contributions to the party. However, many people underestimated him. He proved himself a wise politician, who improved the economy, stopped the mass repressions and murders, and even implemented some democratic laws. Western products, such as Pepsi, began to be sold in Bulgaria. However, the economic inability of socialism to compete with capitalism and Gorbachev’s “Perestroika” forced Zhivkov to resign as leader.

First secretary of the Bulgarian Communist Party/ President of the State Council

Petar Mladenov 1989-1990 Petar Mladenov was a man, who wanted to reform communism, but not allow democracy in his country. When protesters wanted the Communist Party to relinquish power, he said that it would be better to “send in the tanks”. This caused an outcry among the Bulgarian intellectual and political elite, which forced Mladenov to resign.

Republic of Bulgaria President of the Republic Petar

Mladenov 1990 Despite his promises to reform the country, which included the creation of a “round table” of all political

powers, the people wanted Mladenov to resign, as they felt a communist government would never implement any decisive reforms.

President of the Republic Stanko Todorov

1990 Stanko Todorov served as an interim president for 11 days.

President of the Republic Nikolai Todorov

1990 Nikola Todorov served as an interim president of the Republic for 14 days.

President of the Republic/ President

Zhelyu Zlehev 1990-1997 Zhelyu Zhelev was the leader of the Union of the Democratic Powers, which called for rapid reforms. This is why his election as President of the Republic served to placate the people. In 1991 the current democratic constitution was adopted and free elections were held. The Union of Democratic Powers won

a majority, but throughout the 1990s Bulgaria was faced with an economic crisis, a rise in organized crime, and political turmoil. However, the governments of the Union of Democratic Powers and the Bulgarian Socialist Party (the former communists) began to align themselves with the West. Zhelev was a strong president, who even criticized his own party, when it was necessary.

President Petar Stoyanov 1997-2002 Petar Stoyanov of the United Democratic Powers (a new alliance of the Union of Democratic Powers and other democratic parties) became president at a difficult time for Bulgaria. The country fell into hyperinflation and the economy was in shambles. However, the new government of prime minister Ivan Kostov was able to overcome the crisis and set the country on the path of euro integration.

President Georgi Parvanov

2002-2012 In 2001 Simeon II of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha returned to Bulgaria, creating the National Movement “Simeon II” party and winning the elections for prime minister. He created a coalition with the Bulgarian Socialist Party, whose candidate Georgi Parvanov won the 2002 presidential elections. In 2004 Bulgaria joined NATO, and in 2007 the government of Sergei Stanishev of the Bulgarian Socialist Party, which ruled together with Simeon II’s party and the Turkish Movement for Rights and Freedoms, was responsible for Bulgaria’s admission to the European Union. However, in 2007 a new party, GERB, led by Boiko Borisov won the parliamentary elections, which led to a pro-right shift of the political balance. Boiko Borisov continued to cement his power through many projects with European funding, developing the infrastructure of the country. He was an ardent supporter of pro-Russian economic policies.

President Rosen Plevneliev

2012-2017 In 2012 the candidate of GERB Rosen Plevneliev won the presidential elections. Plevneliev was a humble man, who was not an acute politician. He supported Boiko Borisov in all of his actions, projects, and laws. His rule strengthened Bulgarian cooperation with NATO.

President Rumen Radev 2017- In 2017 the candidate of the Bulgarian Socialist Party, former general Rumen Radev, won the elections for president. From January to July 2018 under his rule and that of prime minister Boiko Borisov Bulgaria accepted the presidency of the Council of the European Union.