Nicola Troup

Nicola Troup Student ID: 7043284 1st May 2009

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Chapter 1 – Introduction

‘Green issues and marketing can work against each other. One wants you to

consume less, the other more. One rejects consumerism, the other fuels it. But they aren’t

always opposed. Marketing can help ‘sell’ new lifestyle ideas. It’s a much-needed

function today, when we all need to act fast to mitigate the effects of climate change’

(Grant, 2007, p.1).

Green marketing is the promotion of environmentally preferable products using a variety of

marketing methods to encourage not only the purchase of Green products but also lifestyle

changes. In today’s consumer driven, throw-away society Green marketing is considered to be an

oxymoron, where the terms Green and marketing intrinsically contradict each other ‘since Green

thinking involves reducing the very consumption which marketing aims to stimulate’ (Peattie,

1992, p.85). Schlegelmilch, (1991, p.4) accuses marketing for being ‘responsible for a whole

variety of sins, including ruining the environment’ which can be attributed to fuelling

unsustainable consumption (see also Grant, 2007; Peattie, 1999; Peattie, 1992). Peattie (1992,

p.85), highlights that ‘it is easy to assume that marketers and Greens are on a collision course.’

However, Grant (2007, p.1) points out that ‘they aren’t always opposed,’ praising marketing for

the ability to ‘help ‘sell’ new lifestyle ideas’ and change consumption habits. Therefore, if one

concluded that Green marketing was appropriate for addressing global warming, then why is it

not more celebrated? Unbridled excitement for Green marketing in the 1980’s lead to a

phenomenon now known as the ‘green consumer bandwagon’ where ‘brands where falling over

each other to declare their green credentials’ (Grant, 2007, p.25). However, as Makower (2006)

identified ‘many of those early products were outright failures: biodegradable trash bags that

degraded a little too quickly; recycled paper products with the softness of sandpaper; greener

cleaners that couldn't do their job.’ The result of such failures meant consumers became negative

and extremely cautious about Green products and Green marketing (Grant, 2007). From this

experience I would argue that we cannot afford another Green marketing era failure as it is

apparent now more than ever that Green issues and marketing need to work together. Now that

Green considerations are seen as being at the forefront of many governmental and organisational


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decisions and policies; ignoring climate change is increasingly unacceptable. Green marketing is

not as documented as conventional marketing and therefore I found literature and theories

addressing Green marketing strategies limited. Grant (2007) argues, due to issues driving Green

marketing, such as climate change, being more abstract than that of conventional marketing,

much ambiguity results and he advocated caution in Green marketing efforts. Additionally, due

to consumers now being better informed (Berry and McEachern 2005), penetrating the market

with inappropriate or ineffective Green marketing methods can result in reputation damaging

effects. Grant (2007, p.21) argues that Green marketing is ‘in real danger of being one of those

things everyone agrees is a good idea, but no one quite knows how to do.’ This can lead to

uninformed company strategies which can then result in ‘unstrategic attempts’ to integrate Green

ideas into every marketing channel (Grant, 2007, p.21). For all of these reasons Green marketing

remains challenging and largely undocumented so as to advise companies on what strategies to

take. Companies, recognising the importance of Green marketing, now often seek the help of

external environmental advertising agencies to assure they are approaching Green issues and

marketing correctly (Schlegelmilch, 1991). This leads me to conclude that the Green marketing

arena, although complex, has a wealth of opportunities for businesses, consumers and the

environment where solutions are needed more than ever to provide marketers with the tools for

change.

This essay aims to build on the limited advice for companies in relation to Green marketing

communication strategies and explore how consumers view them. This will include comparing

their opinions and perceptions to a range of companies’ Green marketing communication

strategies. This study is of a comparative nature to facilitate meaningful interpretation of

differing Green marketing communication strategies in relation to my analysis of consumer

opinions. Using three strategies that have been acquired from the literature I will find three

companies who I interpret to exhibit these strategies. Firstly, to ground my study an extensive

literature review will follow to establish the leading theories and frameworks surrounding Green

marketing. Grant’s (2007) work will be used extensively as it has been found to have a wealth of

practical yet in depth frameworks and theories surrounding Green marketing that was not found

elsewhere in my search of the literature. Secondly, the methodology section will outline the

nature and means of this study for rich qualitative results using an interpretivist methodology.


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This study will be based on online methods and will use company website analysis and

netnography techniques to acquire the relevant research data. The results and analysis will then

be displayed in order to give insight into the findings of the relation between the company

website analysis and consumer netnography. Comparisons between the three companies will be

made to develop a detailed discussion of the prominent findings. This will then allow for

discussion of the effects different Green marketing communication strategies have on

consumers’ opinions and perceptions. Finally, a conclusion will summarise the key findings of

this study and the implications it has for marketing practice in order to review the understanding

gained from the research data. Suggestions and advice for future research to develop the findings

of this study will also be included in the conclusion.


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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

An academic understanding of the theories and relevant concepts and arguments surrounding

Green marketing is essential prior to forming a Green marketing study and examining the results

of chapter four. This review will evaluate and establish the major findings of Green marketing

literature with particular attention paid to theories on Green marketing communication strategies.

Firstly, Green marketing will be assessed in terms of what being Green means and why its

growth is so pervasive. Secondly, strategies, frameworks and methods significant to the

marketing of environmentally preferable products will be discussed. Thirdly, an examination of

the challenges and problems surrounding Green marketing will follow. Finally, the issues

addressed in the literature review will be summarised, and to conclude, the research objectives

will be established for this study.

2.2 The Growth of Green Marketing

Peattie (1992, p.26) describes the growth of Green marketing as ‘Green strands being woven into

the fabric of society and business.’ However, the meaning of Green is often lost in the

commercial and social hype. Authors such as Grant (2007) and Kilbourne (1998), identify this

problem as hampering the very purpose of Green products – to preserve the environment, not as

something simply in vogue. Green is not a trend; it is something which must be a permanent and

normal part of our lives if it is to succeed (Grant, 2007). This section examines what is ‘Green’

and why it is a concern today.


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2.2.1 What is Green?

‘Green’ is the new black, it’s ‘in’ (Grant, 2007, p.59) and is being treated like a fashion where

everything is slowly having a ‘Green twist’ (Grant, 2007, p.160). However, as Grant (2007, p.61)

highlights ‘what I mean by Green is Greener than the substitutes and competitors rather than

measured against any absolute ideal.’ This is also to be the way in which the term ‘Green’ is to

be used for this study. A major misconception of Green marketing identified by Peattie (1992,

p.88) is that going Green is about being totally sustainable immediately with an all or nothing

approach. It takes time to develop Green corporate approaches and cannot simply be conveyed

through what Grant (2007) refers to as image marketing (see section 2.3.1.1).

To make the distinction between honest and superficial Green claims Kilbourne (1998, p. 642)

promotes the adoption of Dobson's (1990) strategy of ‘differentiating between green with a little

"g" signifying managerial approaches and truly Green with a large "G" that considers the larger

issue of sustainability.’ For the purposes of this dissertation ‘Green’ will be used to signify the

latter all encompassing view.

2.2.2 Why are we Becoming Greener?

Beck’s (2005) works on ‘Risk Society’ provides a rationale for why Green concerns are

permeating society and business. Beck (1992) defines ‘Risk Society’ as a state arising from

modern society’s organised response to dealing with dangers and anxieties that are brought on by

modernization itself. Assuming global warming is anthropocentric (caused by humans), Green

issues fall under being brought on by society. Such hazards as Beck (1992) mentions are

identified by Peattie (2002, p.129), where ‘the potential vulnerability of the environment, and

human life within it, was highlighted by a series of incidents and discoveries such as the

discovery of the Antarctic hole in the ozone layer in 1985 and the Exxon-Valdez oil spill in

1989.’ The result of this as Giddens (1999, p.3) identifies is that society in now ‘increasingly

preoccupied with the future, which generates the notion of risk.’ Notably, life is probably

experienced as less risky than in traditional societies, but because present day risks are the result

of human choices, they are political in a way more ‘natural’ risks were not. Ottman (1993, p.30)

recognizes this growth of concern stating, ‘Green consumers are motivated by a desire to control


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a world they see as increasingly risky’ by exhibiting Green actions and making an effort to buy

Green products.

2.3 Green Marketing Communication Strategies and Methods

From extensive reading of the literature, what immediately presents itself is writers such as

Grant, (2007); Peattie, (2002); Kilbourne, (1998); Ginsberg and Bloom, (2004); and Ottman et

al, (2006), broadly see two distinct approaches that seek to link marketing and environmentalism.

These approaches include firstly what Grant (2007) and others see as a truly holistic approach to

Green marketing where operations are being orientated towards a Green initiative as well as

communication methods. The second approach highlighted in the literature is a superficial,

greenwashing approach which has been dominating markets for years, and involves mostly overt

traditional product communication for monetary reasons rather than environmental reasons

(Grant, 2007). For a flowchart representation of the concepts and theories addressed in this

section and how they relate to one another for the purpose of this study please see appendix 16.

2.3.1 Grant’s Green Marketing Grid

Grant (2007, p.59) recognises that Green marketing and its methods do not have one universal

definition or consensus, and therefore calls Green marketing a ‘blanket term’ and suggests there

are 9 different types of methods. Figure 1 shows Grant’s (2007, p.69) ‘Green Marketing Grid,’ a

‘structured 3X3 analytic approach to what Green marketing is for.’ Grant (2007, p.60) claims

this framework ‘helps us see the possibilities and the diversity within Green marketing.’ He adds

that no approach in the grid is suggested to be better, only that one may be better suited to a

certain product, company or brand (also supported by Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004 p.80).


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There are ‘three broad types of Green marketing objectives,’ (A, B, C in figure 1) all of which

have different outcomes. ‘Green’ (A) activities address commercial outcomes by setting new

standards and responsible products, services, brands and companies. ‘Greener’ (B) objectives

tackle commercial and Green outcomes such as fostering Green consumer practices and sharing

Green responsibility with customers. ‘Greenest’ (C) includes commercial, Green and cultural

outcomes, which involves revolutionising consumption and shaping a new culture of

responsibility through innovation (all Grant, 2007, p.61-65).

Grant (2007) also identifies three levels at which Green marketing can operate, public, social and

personal (shown as 1, 2, 3 in figure 1). Grant (2007, p.65) explains that ‘Public’ consists of

company stories, campaigns and future plans. ‘Social’ includes ‘the idea of associating a product

with social meanings, to help reinforce a consumer’s identity’ and foster a community(Grant,

2007, p.67). Lastly, ‘Personal’ contains the adaptation of products and habits towards a Green

objective.

Set an Example (A1)

1. Public Company &

Markets

2. Social Brands & Belonging

3. Personal Products &

Habits

A. Green B. Greener C. Greenest

Develop the Market (B1)

Credible Partners (A2)

Tribal Brands (B2)

New Business Concepts (C1)

Trojan Horse Ideas (C2)

Market a Benefit (A3)

Change Usage (B3)

Challenge Consuming

(C3)

Setting new Standards

Sharing Responsibility

Supporting Innovation

Figure 1 - Green Marketing Grid (Grant, 2007, p.69)


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Where marketing objectives and marketing levels meet are the ways in which one can carry out

Green marketing indicated as A1 (Green and public). For the purpose of this literature review

A1, A2, A3 and B1 will be examined as these four approaches have been highlighted as most

relevant to the commercial nature of this study.

2.3.1.1 A - Green

Grant (2007, p.62) uses A, Green, to bring together all companies who are promoting Green

products and describes the process as ‘marketing as usual’ where the marketing budget is still

spent on awareness, education and perceived product superiority. However, as Grant (2007,

p.79-80) and Stoll (2002) highlight that the use of image marketing is not transferable to Green

marketing as this method ‘is selective and tends to exaggerate by using creative devices.’ Grant

(2007) compares image marketing’s unsuitability to Green issues with stretching the truth about

medicines, further stressing how much marketers have to take into consideration when selling

Green products. There must be an actual change in the organisation’s products if they are to truly

set new standards and reap the benefits, both commercially and environmentally. Otherwise

companies will be at the mercy of consumers accusing them of greenwashing, the Greening of

non-green products for commercial benefits (Grant, 2007; Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004; and

Peattie, 1992).

Grant (2007, p.76) highlights that it is important in advertising communications that companies

see Green as a company principle and not as a product proposition. By companies setting

themselves ‘new standards’ to go beyond the market norm they can excite and engage

consumers’ Green side. These new standards should be easy to follow and distinguish such as

using only free-range meats, recyclable packaging or renewable energy sources. However, as

Grant (2007, p.77) supports, it is not just what companies communicate through ‘nicely worded’

campaigns and statements, but it is what they do and how they can be held accountable through

policies and principles. This idea advocates that companies should be holistic in their approaches

as to sell the whole company and not just one product, as supported by Peattie (1992). However,

a study by Ackerstein and Lemon (1999) into the receptiveness of Green labels and brands (such

as The Body Shop) verses Green line product extensions (such as Boots’ ‘Naturals’ range) sheds


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light on this proposition by Grant (2007) and Peattie (1992). Ackerstein and Lemon (1999) noted

remarkably consistent findings which suggest that consumers are fundamentally divided. They

found that Green consumers preferred Green labels over line extensions with the opposite being

true for less Green consumers. This demonstrates an important aspect of how different Green

marketing strategies are received across different consumer groups. Therefore, companies must

first know their Green consumer type before acting on Green initiatives.

2.3.1.2 A1 – Set an Example

Within Grant’s (2007, p.93) A1 framework he suggests that there are three broad views as to the

communication of CSR commitments, or Green marketing strategies, which as he argues ‘align

with distinct country cultures.’ For the purpose of this study, due to Grant’s (2007) lack of a

word to term these differing approaches, I have given the strategies he has suggested suitable

names which can be seen in bold below or in appendix 15.

• ‘If you’ve got it, flaunt it’ – an overt Green marketing communication strategy

(American)

• ‘It’s important people see you are doing your bit’ – an intermediate Green marketing

communication strategy (British)

• ‘Do the work and keep quiet about it’ – a covert Green marketing communication

strategy (Scandinavian) (All Grant, 2007, p.93).

This clear direction of Green marketing characteristics provides a useful basis for comparing

these three approaches in terms of consumer receptiveness. Within these strategies above, Grant

(2007, p.71) highlights two ways in which companies can communicate their new standards,

through ‘Framing’ or ‘Pointing.’ Grant (2007) describes framing as talking about one’s

operations and the new principles they are guided by, for example Marks & Spencer’s Plan A.

He then breaks down framing to be either around a progressive policy such as Marks &

Spencer’s, or an opposing frame such as being against genetically modified foods. Whereas,

‘pointing’ is the communication of specific actions such as ‘hero products’ or new procedures

(Grant, 2007, p.71).


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Grant (2007, p.101) is clear that he favours the covert, ‘modesty is the best policy’ approach

where they do not declare ‘virtue’ (p.79). This strategy is strongly linked to IKEA’s methods

according to Grant’s (2007) argument. Although Grant (2007) sets out these three broad

strategies and indicates his personal preference, there appears to be no comment on how each of

these strategies interact with consumers and how they are received in terms of company and

environmental objectives. However, Grant’s (2007) framework provides a clear direction and

point of reference when determining and analysing companies’ adopted strategies.

2.3.1.3 A2 – Credible Partners

Grant’s (2007, p.109) A2 box of his Green marketing grid, ‘Credible Partners,’ helps me to see

further how he believes successful Green marketing can be carried out. Credible partners can

come in the form of ‘eco-labels’ such as organic or carbon neutral or ‘cause related’ such as

carbon offsetting (Grant, 2007, p.110). Here ‘you are not claiming Green credentials (virtue),

you are standing next to others who support yours’ (Grant, 2007, p.110). By associating your

company with partners that have an ‘appealing, credible and widely’ accepted Green image it is a

successful way of Greening your brand without being accused of greenwashing (Grant, 2007,

p.110). Both strategies essentially link companies seeking to improve their Green image, with

one that is already established. Ottman et al (2006, p.40) and Wasik (1996) also recommend

acquiring ‘product endorsements or eco-certifications from trustworthy third parties’ to increase

credibility. Green partnership is supported by Peattie (1992) and Wasik (1996) as a method of

creating good Green public relations and credibility.

2.3.1.4 A3 – Market a Benefit

Grant (2007, p.123) advocates a traditional marketing concept in A3 of his Green marketing grid

(‘Market a Benefit’), the Unique Selling Proposition (USP). This concept is highly appropriate

and necessary for Green advertising if the product ‘actually is different and better’ (Grant, 2007,

p.123). Grant (2007, p.53) states that Green products should also be known for their other

attributes if they are to sell and be, ‘inviting’ and ‘a positive choice.’ Grant (2007, p.131)

explains that because people are not always motivated by Green concerns they need other


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propositions which must be marketed successfully. Ottman et al (2006, p.27) describes

‘Consumer Value Positioning’ to be ‘the marketing of successfully established Green products to

showcase non-green consumer values.’ In order to do this, Green products require the promotion

of other benefits such as being cheaper because ‘the environment almost never wins’ in product

attribute trade-offs (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004, p79, also supported by Grant, 2007; Ottman,

2000; and Banerjee, 1999). Grant (2007, p.125) synthesizes this stating that “Green’ itself is not

actually a functional product benefit. It does nothing for me directly, unless you count saving the

planet that I am standing on.’ This notion is far too complex and distant for consumers to take in,

or for marketers to convey effectively therefore Green products must still address the USP.

Grant (2007, p.126) divides the ‘Market a Benefit’ approach into two opposing methods, the

‘less approach’ and the ‘more approach’ where he argues most product benefits can be associated

with one or the other. For example, cheaper product attributes are associated with the less

approach. Whereas higher quality product attributes are associated with the more approach.

The ‘less approach’ involves budget and low cost propositions where fewer frills (such as less

packaging) result in the Green product being better value for money and lower manufacturing

costs (Grant, 2007, p.126). Grant (2007, p.126) highlights ‘this pitch can reach beyond dark

Greens and appeal to common sense,’ thus opening up the scope for sales. This advertising

method of conveying Green product advantages such as lower cost (as seen in energy efficient

light bulbs) is cited as ‘rational appeals’ by Peattie (1992, p.201). Examples of this approach

include major supermarkets such as Tesco and ASDA who reduce the packaging of vegetables.

This approach is characterised by Grant (2007, p.2) as a ‘beautiful coincidence’ where marketing

methods are beneficial for the environment and for businesses.

The ‘more approach’ calls for niche and premium propositions which are built on high-value

(Grant, 2007, p.124), symbolism and status (Ottman et al, 2006). By adding more value and

luxury, the marketer is able to command premium prices with a more glamorous Green image.

These added elements could be high quality organic ingredients, or all natural cosmetics. One

example as cited by Grant (2007) is Green & Black’s, a premium quality chocolate company

who aim to incorporate eco values into luxurious chocolate.


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2.3.1.5 B - Greener

Grant (2007, p.134) explains B, ‘Greener,’ to be moving beyond commercial objectives to

involve consumers more in the process of being Green. An excellent example of this, as cited by

Grant (2007), is Ariel’s ‘Turn to 30°C’ campaign which promotes their product as being Green

by saving energy (and money) through using colder water yet still achieving the same cleaning

result. Through this, Ariel involved consumers to help the environment and promote their Green

identity. Grant (2007) explains that this excited consumers by sharing enthusiasm for the

environment and motivating them by ‘involving them in a public scheme, community or activity’

(p.63) with ‘commercial results being a by-product’ (p.134). This community notion helps to

combat the feeling of not being able to make an environmental difference by one person’s

behaviour alone. This is a common concern of peoples’ resulting in them possibly not changing

their behavior because of feelings of apathy (Kuhn, 2005). Grant’s (2007) grid B solutions also

address the problem of the lack of focus on post purchase consumption which makes up for a

large proportion of environmental consumption (Peattie, 1999).

2.3.1.6 B1 - Develop the Market

Grant (2007, p.138) describes developing the market as partnering with consumers to generate

more mainstream demand for Green products and companies. He advocates that this is ‘a natural

way’ of developing the Green market ‘without running the dangers of greenwash’ as one is only

‘passing on good information and encouraging informed choices’ to improve Green and

commercial objectives (Grant, 2007, p.138). This method lets people know that companies and

consumers are going Green together and ‘is a key sentiment for Green marketing’ (Grant, 2007,

p.141). Grant (2007, p.139) highlights that ‘companies are in a unique position to bring the

public around to a sustainable outlook and way of life,’ a point also stressed by Zinkhan and

Carlson (1995, p.2), as companies are able ‘to lead a society toward a more ideal world.’ Grant

(2007) reveals two approaches of developing the market, the education approach and the

evangelise approach.

The education approach simply concerns educational marketing, or building ‘knowledge rather

than image’ (Grant, 2007, p.141). Educating consumers about becoming Greener can, as Grant


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(2007) has indicated, develop the market for Green products and services. Examples of such

campaigns include Marks & Spencer’s ‘Look Behind The Label’ which encouraged consumers

to make more informed product choices based on a variety of factors such as organic and locally

sourced produce. However, in the literature there is a conflict as to whether or not an increase in

environmental knowledge has an effect on environmental behaviour (Dembkowski and Hanmer-

Lloyd, 1994). Writers such as Maloney et al (1975) and Borden and Schettino (1979) suggest

there is not a positive relationship between an increase in environmental knowledge and

environmental purchases. Whereas, Grant (2007); Peattie (1992) and Ottman (2002) imply a

strong relationship between an increase in knowledge and environmental behaviour. Studies such

as Roper’s Green Gauge (cited in Ottman, 2002) show that 56 percent of Americans would do

more for the environment if they had sufficient knowledge to do so, indicating there is a positive

relationship between environmental education and action. However, Peattie (1992, p.144) warns

that companies educating consumers about Green issues could ‘increase consumer interest in an

environmental issue to the point where they try to conserve rather than consume and seek out the

Greenest product regardless of brand.’

Evangelising is the process of explaining ones beliefs and news about a particular aspect, (such

as The Body Shop’s ‘beauty without cruelty’ values) in order to convince someone to adopt or

accept them. Grant (2007, p.72) explains this approach to be ‘challenging the status quo through

emotive framing of the issues’ describing them as political campaigns to ‘shape the public

agenda and move consumer demand in that direction’. Grant (2007, p.148-149) highlights that

Green political campaigning is about convincing consumers that the radical position is normal

‘in order to get mainstream people involved.’ This approach is not just about commercial

outcomes and rather presses for change from society, industries and the government.

2.3.2 Ginsberg & Bloom’s Green Marketing Communication Strategies

Similar to Grant’s (2007) A1 theory, Ginsberg and Bloom, (2004) provide a discussion of

different types of Green marketing communication strategies which can be seen in figure 2.


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Figure 2 – Green Marketing Communication Strategies (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004, p.81)

Ginsberg and Bloom, (2004) highlight 4 types of Green marketing strategies (Lean, Defensive,

Shaded and Extreme Green) which strengthens Grant’s (2007, p.93) ‘three broad views as to the

communication of CSR commitments.’ Ginsberg and Bloom’s (2004) diagrammatical

presentation and detailed description provide a strong framework for distinguishing different

company strategies. While it is felt that these strategies are very useful, they are not as distinctive

and separate in the way that Grant’s (2007) suggestion of three strategies is. I feel that any one

company could fit into one of Grant’s (2007) typologies and then subsequently into one or two of

Ginsberg and Bloom’s (2004) strategies as explored below.

2.3.2.1 Lean Green

A Lean Green strategy can be related to Grant’s (2007, p.93) covert, Scandinavian Green

marketing strategy. Ginsberg and Bloom (2004, p.81) describe a Lean Green strategy as trying

‘to be good corporate citizens, but are not focused on publicizing or marketing their Green

initiatives.’ They then go further to note that Lean Green companies are more interested in

reducing production and product costs through ‘pro-environmental activities, thereby creating a

lower-cost competitive advantage, not a Green one’ (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004, p.81). This idea

is also in line with Grant’s (2007, p.126) ‘less approach’ and Peattie’s (1992, p.201) ‘rational

appeals.’


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2.3.2.2 Defensive Green

Grant’s (2007, p.93) depiction of typical British Green marketing strategy can be seen in

Ginsberg and Bloom’s (2004, p.82) Defensive Green, where these companies see Green

marketing ‘as a precautionary measure, a response to a crisis or a response to a competitor's

actions.’ These types of companies are concerned with their brand image and see Green

consumers as ‘profitable constituencies they cannot afford to alienate.’ The foundation of their

Green marketing advertising is built on gaining a ‘competitive advantage on the basis of

Greenness’ (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004, p.82).

2.3.2.3 Shaded Green

Shaded Greens can again be linked to Grant’s (2007, p.93) covert depiction of Green marketing

strategy. Ginsberg and Bloom (2004, p.82) state that these companies view Green as a long-term

‘opportunity to develop innovative needs’ resulting in the possibility for a competitive

advantage. However, they choose not to ‘differentiate themselves on Greenness’ and instead

advertise their other ‘tangible benefits,’ leaving Green benefits as secondary (Ginsberg and

Bloom, 2004, p.82) a technique praised by many (see Grant, 2007; Ottman et al, 2006; and

Ottman, 2000).

2.3.2.3 Extreme Green

Finally, Extreme Green companies are shaped around ‘holistic philosophies and values’

(Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004, p.83) which ‘permeate their operations’ (Grant, 2007, p.83) with

their business being fully integrated with environmental issues and advertise heavily as so.

Ginsberg and Bloom (2004, p.83) further identify this style arguing that Green concerns are

usually ‘a major driving force’ behind Extreme Green companies from the start and that they

often serve niche markets. This type of Green marketing strategy aligns with Grant’s (2007)

overt strategy.


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2.3.3 Corporate Construction of Consumer Responsibility

Caruana and Crane (2008) provide an insightful article evaluating the role of corporate

involvement in shaping consumer responsibility. They argue that a ‘corporation’s discourse helps

move the passive yet concerned citizen into an active and responsible consumer’ (Caruana and

Crane, 2008, p.10) by constructing products (in this case responsible tourism) as environmentally

friendly. This discussion provides a valuable examination of how corporations construct Green

products and encourage consumers to purchase them by stimulating their responsible conscience.

Caruana and Crane (2008) identify three methods to be used in conjunction to engage consumers

in environmentally friendly purchases.

Firstly, managing categories involves aligning purchases and products to create responsible and

irresponsible consumer types. By creating these ‘binary distinctions’ this view categorizes

purchases as being morally good or bad, resulting in consumers desiring to act in the ‘correct’

way (Caruana and Crane, 2008, p.17). This can be linked to Grant’s (2007) ideas of evangelism,

where morals and values are presented so as to persuade a consumer to act in line with them.

Secondly, veiling tensions consists of essentially hiding or ‘veiling’ the contradictions that may

exist in the ‘responsible’ product categories (Caruana and Crane, 2008, p.17). In terms of

responsible tourism, the truly responsible thing to do would be to not to go on holiday at all, or

concerning the consumption of products, to instead conserve (a dilemma identified by Peattie,

1992). Caruana and Crane (2008) suggest overcoming this by managing the categories

effectively as previously discussed by ‘pointing’ (Grant, 2007, p.71) to the products responsible

attributes whilst ‘drawing a ‘moral curtain’ around others’ (Davis and Crane, 2003, cited in

Caruana and Crane, 2008, p18).

Finally, institutionalizing responsible choices involves establishing responsible products as

normal. Grant (2007, p.56) supports this argument stating that the key to Green marketing lies in

‘making Green stuff seem normal.’ Caruana and Crane (2008, p.19) describe this final process as

‘a major corollary of the proposed transition from concerned citizen to responsible consumer’

where corporations have constructed an institutionalisation of responsible consumer choices.


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2.4 Challenges and problems of Green marketing

Green marketing utilises some commercial marketing techniques such as image promotion and

product management to achieve company and environmental goals. However, there are

complications unique to Green marketing due to its more controversial and abstract nature. Many

authors such as Peattie and Crane (2005) identify with the difficult process of Green marketing

adoption, arguing that problems, such as the ones discussed below, prevent the progression

towards a more sustainable environment. Grant (2007, p.29) recognises the challenges of Green

marketing, claiming that they stem from ‘our lifestyles needing to change beyond recognition.’

This section identifies some of the practical problems in Green marketing and the possible

effects they could have on stakeholders.

2.4.1 Green Advertising Problems

One would assume that advertising plays a fundamental role in Green marketing due to the

growing attention given to Green issues discussed in section 2.2.1. However, this is not the case

with writers such as Iver and Banerjee (1993 p.494) describing the ‘dire lack of credibility in

Green advertising’ as shocking. Grant (2007) also recognised this problem and, as highlighted in

section 2.3.1, has suggested many alternatives to promoting companies Green image.

Shrum et al (1995); Zinkhan and Carlson (1995); and Schlegelmilch (1991) highlight the

skeptical and distrustful nature of consumers in regards to Green advertising. Wasik (1996, p.9)

argues ‘consumers, who have become numbed by Green product claims, ecologo programs, and

environmental group agendas, are less receptive to Green messages.’ A survey done by Abt

Associates (1990, cited in Iver and Banerjee, 1993, p.494) reported that ‘the least credible source

of information was an advertisement placed by a major company.’ With this survey’s results

clearly showing advertising’s lack of credible presence in the Green marketing arena, it has

caused marketers to turn to environmental advertising agencies and consultancies to help their

promotion performance and credibility (Schlegelmilch, 1991). Compounding this lack of

credibility in Green advertising, Davis (1992, p.81) highlights the often apparent lack of ethical

considerations integrated into them. He describes Green advertising claims as ‘confused,

misleading or outright illegal,’ an argument also supported by Wasik (1996); and Grant (2007).


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Davis (1992) contends that the ironic lack of ethics in Green marketing may result in long-term

harm, which is evident in the skepticism still found in Green consumers today (Grant, 2007).

2.4.2 Greenwashing

Grant (2007, p.85) comically describes the greenwashing problem as putting a lettuce in the

window of a butcher’s shop and declaring that you are now ‘turning vegetarian!’ He holds that

snappy and simplistic Green advertising slogans are not appropriate as consumers are more

sceptical about advertising (see section 2.4.1) which can actually compound the greenwashing

effect. The key to avoiding this is to have credible claims with actual Green product attributes

(Grant, 2007; Peattie, 1992; Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004; and Ottman et al, 2006). Laufer (2003)

argues that greenwashing, as well as being inherently unethical, erodes all that honest Green

marketing stands for such as genuinely improving Green consumption and awareness. Grant

(2007) also highlights that people accuse companies of greenwashing faster and more

passionately than they protest the environmental shortcomings of a company which does not

‘claim virtue.’

2.4.3 Claiming Virtue

Grant (2007, p.79-81) discusses the danger of ‘claiming virtue’ through Green image marketing

and describes virtue as ‘something that cannot be claimed, let alone proclaimed.’ Similarly

integrity is highlighted by Grant (2007) as an important factor of successful Green marketing. He

contends that strategies associated with what he refers to as ‘Green image marketing’ often do

not specifically consider honesty (Grant, 2007, p.81). Grant (2007, p.81) states that ‘a virtuous

image of any sort can lead to a crucifixion, should you ever be found less than perfect.’ This

outcome can be seen in many examples such as BP’s ‘Beyond Petroleum’ campaign which was

heavily criticized as they are actually many years away from being so (Grant, 2007, p.85).


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2.5 Chapter Summary and Research Objectives

A review of the literature has highlighted a number of Green marketing strategies and its

complexities in regards to promoting environmentally preferable products to consumers. Green

concerns have been growing exponentially to the point where it surrounds our daily lives due to

the damage brought on by modernisation. As has been found, Green marketing is not as simple

as conventional marketing as one is trying to convince a wide audience of Green company

credentials, efforts and products. In order to reach the public a range of different Green

marketing strategies can be adopted to influence their purchases or behaviours. Grant’s (2007)

Green marketing grid has been highlighted as a comprehensive and well supported framework of

Green marketing methods and will be used extensively in this study. The Green marketing

communication methods illustrated in Grant’s (2007) Green marketing grid are setting an

example, credible partners, marketing a benefit and developing the market. Grant (2007) does

highlight more approaches, however, for the commercial nature of this study only these four

have been analysed. Grant (2007) highlighted three types of strategies which I have named

covert, overt and intermediate (see appendix 15). Notably, all communication methods

mentioned can follow one of these types of strategies as highlighted by Grant (2007) (see

appendix 16).

Reflecting upon the issues raised in this literature review, it was apparent that no insight was

given into the understanding of the effects different Green marketing communication strategies

have on consumers’ perceptions and opinions. Hence my three research objectives are listed

below where the next chapter will cover the methodology of the following investigation. The

aims of this study are:

1. To explore a range of Green marketing communication strategies related to Grant’s

(2007) suggestions (overt, intermediate and covert, see appendix 15).

2. To examine and compare how different Green marketing communication strategies effect

the opinions consumers have on the Green communications of a company.

3. To evaluate consumer perceptions of the Green efforts exhibited by the three distinct

Green marketing communication strategies.


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Chapter 3 – Research Methods 3.1 Introduction

From the three research objectives identified in section 2.5, appropriate research methods must

be applied to fully satisfy the aims of this study. A detailed outline of methodological positions

related to this study will follow to identify the research assumptions and subject orientation. A

critical analysis justifying the use of particular methods to be used in this study will proceed

whilst referencing to previous studies to strengthen the research method rationale. The

foundation of this research will be based on a multiple comparative case study of IKEA, The

Body Shop (TBS) and Tesco in order to identify and explore a range of Green marketing

communication strategies. The effect on consumers these strategies have will be examined and

compared using discourse and semiotics analysis of the relevant companies’ websites and a

netnography search of consumers’ opinions and perceptions of the companies’ Green marketing

communications. Finally this section will conclude to summarise the methods to be employed in

the results and analysis chapter.

3.2 Research Methodology

Identifying the core assumptions underlying research is essential as subject orientation shapes

ones ontological and epistemological position (Marsh & Furlong, 2002) which informs the

research methods used. The ideas and topics involved in this study suggests an interpretivist

position which subscribes ‘to the view that the world does not exist independently of our

knowledge of it' (Grix, 2004, p.84). The need and development of Green marketing and Green

products has arisen socially due to over consumption and pollution resulting from our lifestyles.

The concerns over Green marketing are products of self sabotaging high standards of living, thus

fitting with an interpretivist view that the world is socially constructed. To further this, Green

marketing issues (such as promotional techniques) have consumer concerns associated with them

(such as Green advertisement credibility) which are socially created.


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Interpretivists believe in subjectivity and gaining an understanding of social phenomena, rather

than objectivity and seeking explanations as with positivism (Grix, 2004, p.83). Due to

subjectivity being core to this study, I will use first person throughout to further highlight that

interpretations of the data are my own.

The complexities associated with Green marketing, as discussed in chapter two, means that

explanations alone are not feasible or suitable, and rather an understanding as to how different

Green marketing strategies have different effects on consumers’ perceptions and opinions is

more apt. Qualitative methods, which are to be employed in this study, are strongly associated

with interpretivism which allows for results which are sensitive to social issues and

interpretations from the social world.

3.3 Multiple Comparative Case Study

The main choice of method for my study is a multiple comparative case study. As Yin (1993,

p.1) supports case studies to be an appropriate choice of method ‘when the phenomenon under

study is not readily distinguishable from its context,’ I have found that this makes my

investigation of Green marketing particularly suitable to case study analysis. This study will use

organisational case studies to examine Green marketing which is an approach that is also

supported by Yin (2003) and can be seen in studies such as Ingenbleek et al (2007) and

Tannenbaum and Woods (1992). Yin (2003, p.11) identifies that the large amount of rich data

from case studies can result in ‘massive, unreadable documents.’ However, due to the limited

nature of this study and concise documentation this problem can be minimised. A multiple

comparative case study is a suitable method for exploration of different Green marketing

communication strategies due to the results from such studies being ‘often considered more

compelling and more robust’ (Herriott and Firestone, 1983, cited in Yin, 2003, p.46). This

method can be seen in larger studies such as Cramer et al’s (2006) 18 company comparative

study of corporate social responsibility. Due to time constraints, my study aims to only compare

three companies’ Green marketing communication strategies. This will be done in a systematic

way to address the contrasting method and thus effects of differing Green marketing

communication strategies on consumers’ opinions. The justification of the chosen company case


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studies will follow where the methods chosen to study each of the three companies are discussed

in section 3.4 and 3.5.

3.3.1 Justification of Chosen Cases

The three companies chosen to compare Green marketing communication strategies are IKEA,

TBS and Tesco. These have been selected as Grant’s (2007, p.93) A1 grid ‘Set an Example’

distinguishes between three types of Green marketing communication approaches. These have

been termed, overt, covert and intermediate and can be viewed in appendix 15. These companies

have been chosen for the purposes of this study from preliminary research carried out on each of

the companies’ websites to determine the openness of their Green marketing communications,

and thus their strategy type.

• Overt Green marketing communication strategy – Tesco .

From preliminary research Tesco communicate their Green marketing campaigns

explicitly through their ‘Greener Living’ website (www.tesco.com/greenerliving) which

ranges from advertising their Green products to tips on Greener gifts. I believe that

Tesco’s large focus on Green marketing in their extensive devoted website makes them a

suitable candidate for an overt Green marketing communication strategy case.

• Intermediate Green marketing communication strategy – TBS. .

TBS’s founder, Anita Roddick, had an emotional connection with environmental issues

which is exhibited in TBS’s corporate values. They are world renowned for having

environmental values and have strong Green marketing campaigns such as ‘Protect Our

Planet’ (http://www.thebodyshop.com/_en/_ww/values-campaigns/protect-planet.aspx?).

However, although their Green concerns are established, I initially perceive them to differ

from an overt Green marketing strategy because their Green efforts seem to be less

obviously connected to commercial concerns. Therefore, I believe TBS is suitable

candidate for the intermediate Green marketing communication strategy case.

• Covert Green marketing communication strategy – IKEA .

IKEA is a Swedish company, which Grant (2007) cites as being modest in their Green

marketing communications. In addition to this, from initial research of IKEA’s website

(www.IKEA.com) it was not easy to find out about their Green efforts, which makes

IKEA particularly suitable for the covert Green marketing strategy case study.


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3.4 Website Analysis

Company website analysis of IKEA (www.IKEA.com/gb/en/), TBS (www.thebodyshop.co.uk/)

and Tesco (www.tesco.com/) will form the basis for a detailed analysis of their Green marketing

communications. A similar sort of method was used by Caruana and Crane (2008) in their

research of how responsible consumption is constructed, thus justifying the application of this

method. Also, Yin (2003, p.86) endorses this method as being ‘stable’ as it ‘can be reviewed

repeatedly’ noting that it is ‘unobtrusive’. The analysis of company websites aims to explore

each website systematically before moving onto the next so as not to impair findings. The

research will begin by opening the home page and noting the findings and progression of pages

entered from then on. I foresee no problem in accessing the information from the company

website as this study only aims to evaluate what is readily available to the public. However, as

highlighted by Yin (2003, p.86) there is an opportunity for reporting an ‘unknown bias of the

author.’ In this case it is important not to analyse the websites with a preexisting opinion of the

company to be investigated. Any Green marketing communications found have to be appreciated

and documented in order to achieve representational and ethical results.

3.5 Netnography

The second element of this study is also conducted online and uses netnography to explore

consumers’ publicly existing perceptions and opinions about the companies of investigation.

Kozinets (1997; 2002; 2006), a strong advocate of netnography, describes netnography to be ‘a

new qualitative research methodology that adapts ethnographic research techniques to study the

cultures and communities that are emerging through computer-mediated communications’ or the

internet (Kozinets, 2002, p.62). Netnography is a suitable method for this piece of research as it

involves observing people on the internet unobtrusively and provides ‘window into naturally

occurring behavior’ (Kozinets, 2002, p. 62) that other marketing research tools do not lend

themselves to (Sandlin, 2007). Kozinets (2006, p.281) supports netnography methods to be

‘faster, simpler, and much less expensive than traditional ethnography. It can allow almost up-to-


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the minute assessments of consumers' collective pulse.’ Further reason for choosing netnography

is because it has particular strength in the ‘revelatory depth of… online communications’

whereby ‘interesting and useful conclusions might be drawn from a relatively small number of

messages’ (Kozinets, 2006, p.64). Therefore, this method is suitable to the time constraints of

this study. Kozinets (2002, p.63) highlights that ‘in the identification of relevant communities,

online search engines will prove invaluable’ and in line with Kozinet’s (2002) recommendations

www.groups.google.com will be the search engine used for the netnography element of this

study. For concentrating the search results, the company name (i.e. Tesco) plus Green will be

entered into the search function to garner relevant postings (e.g. Tesco + Green). In order to

generate a manageable and sufficient amount of data, in accordance with Kozinets (2002, p.64),

data collection for this study will continue ‘as long as new insights on important topical areas are

still being generated.’

The full results of the netnography are displayed in appendix 45-47 and the accompany CD. The

results relevant to the analysis of the research objectives will be included in chapter four as

quotes. These quotes will be referenced using the user’s forum name, year of posting and website

code. A website coding system has been used to protect the identity of participants as later

discussed and can be viewed in appendix 21-44.

Ethical considerations are necessary due to the involvement of participants for the netnography

element of this study. Hudson et al (2004) reveal that users often do not want to participant in

such studies. However, this research involves the observation of publicly available information.

Kozinets (2002, p.65) quotes Rafaeli’s (cited in Sudweeks and Rafaeli 1995) conclusion from a

private versus public information debate ‘stating that informed consent was implicit in the act of

posting a message to a public area.’ In harmony with Kozinets (2002, p.65) suggestions this

study has taken ‘certain precautions’ to ‘provide anonymity’ to users by concealing their real

identities. Although user’s discussion names have been used to give depth to the study, the user

names do not appear to reflect their real names (e.g. Godoftheforest). Additionally, the websites

from which their comments were taken from will not be revealed. In line with Rafaeli’s (cited in

Sudweeks and Rafaeli 1995 in Kozinets, 2002, p.65) review, users will not be informed of the

research observation so as to not interfere with the natural flow of conversations. It must be

noted that this approach is contested with King (1996) arguing that users may not be aware of the


25

public nature of their online communications, making informed consent from users advisable.

3.6 Analysis Methods

The two analysis method to be use for the website analysis and netnography are discourse

analysis and semiotic analysis which are discussed and outlined below. These two methods have

been found to support the aims of my study in producing the most valuable and relevant

qualitative results.

3.6.1 Discourse Analysis

Potter (2000, p.105) is a prominent discourse analyst who argues that this method explores the

‘why’ and ‘how’ of descriptions which is suitable to the interpretivist orientation in this study.

Taylor (2001, cited in O’Sullivan, 2007, p.297) highlights that discourse analysis is marked by

its ‘close study of language in use,’ therefore, the analysis of the results from both the website

analysis and netnography will consist of exploring the way in which things are written, described

and use of grammar. Discourse analysis will be used to identify things such as language of the

websites to determine its type of communications, marketing appeals and desired image. For

netnography, discourse analysis will be used to analyse such things as grammar and use of words

to determine users’ opinions and perceptions of the relevant company’s Green communication

efforts. By doing this I will be maximizing on how language actively creates a deeper meaning to

the issues behind what is written and intended to be read (O’Sullivan, 2007). Building on the

importance of using language analysis for this study, O’Sullivan (2007, p.297) points out

‘without language there can be no meaning and we cannot apprehend reality.’ Discourse analysis

is an accepted method, and has been used in such recent marketing studies as Caruana et al’s

(2008) study of consumer independence using critical discourse analysis, providing further

justification of this method for this study.

3.6.2 Semiotic Analysis

For this study I have also considered the use of semiotic analysis, the analysis of signs, symbols

and text, which has been praised by Potter (2000) and Fairclough (2001, cited in O’Sullivan,


26

2007) for its meaningful analysis. Semiotics is the cultural and linguistic study of signs and

symbols, the meanings they hold and the communication intentions and significance they have

on the viewer (Chandler, 2002). This study demands the use of semiotic analysis because of the

symbolism used in the website analysis, such as the use of culturally environmental colours

(green) to signify an environmental focus. Additionally the netnography results require some

semiotic analysis concerning the emoticons some users may use to evoke their feelings which is

relevant to the objectives of this research. By using semiotic analysis where appropriate a deeper

meaning behind the signs and symbols of the research can be gained, thus benefitting my

discussions.

3.7 Summary

The orientation of this study has been identified as interpretivist where a strong emphasis is

placed on how the world is socially constructed and is associated with qualitative research. This

position is suitable to the complex social nature of Green marketing and will provide a basis for

in depth qualitative analysis of the results. The primary chosen method of this study is a multiple

comparison company case study to provide an understanding of consumers’ opinions and

perceptions of three different Green marketing communication strategies. The three companies I

have chosen for investigation are IKEA, who I have initially identified as having a covert

strategy, TBS, with an intermediate strategy, and Tesco with an overt Green marketing

communication strategy. The case study analysis will involve two online methods, company

website analysis and netnography of newsgroups and forums. Throughout this chapter these

methods have been justified with supporting literature and previous studies which have

strengthened my choices. These methods will be analysed using the language based discourse

analysis and semiotic analysis, the study of signs and symbol. It is the hope that from these

methods, an in depth evaluation of Green marketing communication strategies will form the

basis of a comprehensive study of their effects on consumers’ opinions and perceptions.


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Chapter 4 – Results and Analysis

4.1 Introduction

This chapter commences the research element of this study. Through a company website analysis

of Tesco’s, TBS’s and IKEA’s Green marketing communications, a case study has been

constructed to highlight each company’s Green marketing communication strategy. Factors

included in the website analysis will be how open their Green marketing communications are

made, the type of information they offer, the type of Green marketing methods they employ from

Grant’s (2007) Green marketing grid, and the overall look and feel of their online strategy. Then

a netnography of each of the companies will continue in order to search newsgroups, forums and

discussions for consumers’ opinions and perceptions related to the companies’ Green marketing

communication strategy. The netnography will look at how consumers’ explain their opinions

and feelings by use of language, grammar and emoticons. Through the combination of these two

methods I believe that it should allow for meaningful analysis throughout.

4.2 Website Analysis

4.2.1 Tesco Website Analysis

Upon opening Tesco’s website (www.tesco.com on 25th January, 2009) no immediate Green

marketing communications were found and instead a commercial feel existed (see appendix 3).

Tesco was initially thought to be an overt Green marketing communication strategy company.

However, I have found that Tesco and their ‘Greener living’ website is more akin to the

intermediate strategy due to their more toned down marketing methods than found in the

preliminary research. When scrolling down on Tesco’s home page, a link was found to their

‘Greener living’ website which is highlighted with a red circle in appendix 3. Tesco’s ‘Greener

living’ logo (see appendix 1) is striking because, as opposed to their normal colour scheme of red

and blue (see appendix 2), ‘Tesco’ is in green. This highlights the difference in brand image

where ‘Greener living’ Tesco appears to be a separate entity with its own home page, thus


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illustrating the resources devoted to providing such Green service. By using the colour green,

Tesco signifies the complete change in appearance where this page appears to concentrate on

Green goals rather than commercial goals. Additionally, their motto, ‘Greener living,’ refers to

going beyond just purchases, suggesting a more holistic strategy. The emphasis of ‘living’ in

italics also places importance on this aspect. Tesco’s ‘Greener living’ logo also makes use of a

leaf incorporated into the ‘G’ (as shown in appendix 1). This connotes a feeling of nature and

that Tesco is working in harmony with the environment.

The ‘Greener living’ home page (see appendix 5) displays items such as recycling, Green home

products, a government link to CO2 calculator and a home insulation service. A common theme

on the home page is education about Green issues and ideas, with solutions being rooted in

Tesco products. Education as a method of communication can be seen in Grant’s (2007, p141)

B1 Green marketing grid framework – ‘Develop the Market.’ See appendix 48 for an excerpt of

such evidence in Tesco’s website analysis.

The first item on their navigational tool bar is, ‘What we are doing,’ which conveys their

commitments and current goals. The first subject on this page is the recycling of Christmas

cards. Here Tesco has teamed up with The Woodland Trust to offer such recycling facilities.

Grant (2007, p.109) identifies this method as A2 of his Green marketing grid -‘Credible

Partners,’ and is used throughout Tesco’s ‘Greener living’ website.

This first page also offers information about Tesco’s reductions in carrier bags and the variety of

reusable bags they offer. In addition to this they link some of their reusable bags to Marie Curie

Cancer Care through a 50p donation per bag bought (www.tesco.com/greenerliving/

what_we_are_doing/cath_kidston_bags.page?). Here Tesco can be seen as trying to use more

reasons than the environment to encourage shoppers to not use their free carrier bags which can

be linked to the literature supporting the showcasing of non-green benefits alongside Green ones

(Grant, 2007; Ottman et al, 2006; Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004; and Banerjee, 1999). Additionally,

Tesco are changing the offer of their carrier bags so that customers have to ask for them at check

outs to try and change the throw away culture. They have also gone to lengths to thank customers

for their help to ‘halve the number of carrier bags’ given out (www.tesco.com/

greenerliving/what_we_are_doing/carrier_bags/default.page?). From my analysis, by including

the customer on this sort of personal level Tesco hopes that customers will cooperate more with


29

their Green efforts which is in line with Grant’s (2007) idea of sharing Green responsibility with

customers and minimises feelings of apathy as recognised by Kuhn (2005).

Tesco has a unique rewards point scheme connected to their ‘Clubcard’ membership. These

‘Green Clubcard points’ (www.tesco.com/greenerliving/what_we_are_doing/green_clubcard

_points/default.page?) can be gained through recycling mobile phones and ink cartridges and re-

using shopping bags. This type of reward scheme method is to encourage more Green behaviour

from customers and has not been highlighted in the literature.

Tesco also showcases their ‘Green successes’ in their ‘what we are doing’ page

(www.tesco.com/greenerliving/what_we_are_doing/greener_packaging/default.page?) through

their ‘Greener packaging’ initiative. Grant (2007, p71) highlights this type of Green marketing

communication to be ‘framing,’ where Tesco are talking about their operations and principles in

a progressive policy. This allows consumers to see what Tesco are doing. Additionally, Tesco

have tied in this approach with ‘Pointing’ to ‘hero products’ (Grant, 2007, p.71). Here they have

used their own branded product to display how they have saved tonnes of waste on packaging

(see appendix 4), connecting them to Greener operations. Tesco have also used the Government

agency WRAP (Waste & Resources Action Programme) and DEFRA (Department for

Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) to make their efforts more credible. Another way in which

Tesco is using credible sources (Grant, 2007) is in their trialing of carbon labeling with the

‘Carbon Trust’ (www.tesco.com/greenerliving/what_we_are_doing/carbon_labelling.page?).

Their attempts to make Green progress, such as their carbon labeling efforts, aim at putting them

at the forefront of environmental supermarkets and to set new standards for all (Grant, 2007).

The final item on Tesco’s ‘What are we doing’ page is their 2008 ‘Big Tick Award’ for an

example of excellence in environmental leadership. As they have highlighted this award quite

prominently, my analysis suggests this is an attempt to further prove their Green efforts to

visitors through third party recognition (Ottman et al, 2006)

The second group of items on Tesco’s ‘Greener living’ home page navigation bar is ‘What you

can do’ and contains the following pages; ‘At home’, ‘Your Garden’, ‘Getting Around’, ‘Family’

and ‘Products’. Each of these pages contains ‘Articles’, ‘Ask an Expert’, ‘How we are Helping’,

‘Products’, ‘Forums’ and ‘Your Stories’ and appeared to be aimed at educating and helping


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visitors to be Greener people and consumers. Forums (forums.tesco.com) make up a large

section of the ‘Greener living’ website possibly in the aim to form more of a community feeling.

Discussion topics include being Green at home, work, school, in the garden, whilst traveling,

with your children and conserving, reducing and recycling. This forms an extensive network

with thousands of posts and hundreds of discussions.

Finally, Tesco’s ‘Greener living’ website devotes an entire section of the navigation bar to a

‘Green Glossary’ (www.tesco.com/greenerliving/green_glossary.page?) to help educate visitors

about ‘Eco jargon.’

Concerning Grant’s (2007) Green marketing grid, Tesco’s ‘Greener living’ seems to be

orientated towards a ‘less approach’ (Grant, 2007, p.126) where I interpret their focus to be on

being Green and affordable. Examples such as saving ‘carbon and money’ and ‘save energy,

reduce waste’ (www.tesco.com/greenerliving/products/green_home/default.page? indicate a less

approach to me with an emphasis on a more ‘rational appeal’ which non-green shoppers can also

understand (Peattie, 1992, p.201).

4.2.2 The Body Shop Website Analysis

On The Body Shop’s (TBS) home page (www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/index.aspx on 27th

January 2009) (see appendix 6) I immediately noticed the green design and natural feel with the

use of dew dropped leaves. Instantly a link was found to view their Green marketing which is

highlighted with a red circle in appendix 6. The link is entitled ‘values and campaigns’

(www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/index.aspx) which connotes a deeper level of Green concern

and gives me the opinion that this is at the heart of the organisation. The ease of finding Green

marketing literature on TBS’s website indicates to me that this is more of an overt Green

marketing communication strategy than an intermediate strategy as originally was assumed from

the preliminary research. Unlike Tesco, the Green element of TBS seems to be at one with the

commercial side due to its consistency in layout (compare appendix 6 and 7).

On their ‘values and campaigns’ (www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/values-campaigns/

index.aspx) page I immediately noticed the poetic nature of the language used which can be seen


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in their motivational introduction below. This type of language appears to be aimed at engaging

customers in TBS’s values as the basis for buying their products:

“The way we do business, the way we make products, the way we source

ingredients, and the way we use our voice; we're different because of our Values.”

Due to TBS’s range of values (from animal protection to domestic violence) this study will only

focus on their environment related values which is symbolised by their ‘Protect Our Planet’ logo

(see appendix 8). Within this logo the use of the word ‘Our’ helps involve visitors more

emotionally as it helps them to realise the planet as theirs to protect. From my analysis TBS’s

inspirational language (an example of which can be seen in appendix 49) is an attempt to uplift

visitors and motivate them into action and to convince people that what TBS are doing is ‘the

only way’ as opposed to being ‘fashionable’ (www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/values-

campaigns/index.aspx).

In line with Grant’s (2007, p.72) argument, I have also interpreted TBS’s communications as a

clear example of ‘evangelism’ due to their extensive use of company campaigns to highlight the

issues their products support. It is my view that TBS’s communications are similar to Peattie’s

(1992, p.201) ‘emotional appeal’, where they have used imagery of the planet and its animals to

convey an emotive plea (see appendix 9). I also saw TBS as attemping to include shoppers in

their Green campaigns by encouraging them to buy their ‘Green is not a colour it’s a state of

mind’ bag for life (see appendix 10) (www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/catalog

/list.aspx?CategoryCode=C_ShopByLine_SupportOurCampaigns&ParentCatCode=C_ShopByLi

ne). It appears to me that TBS aim to create a true and holistic community of Green people and

not just shoppers.

I’ve found Grant’s (2007, p.71) ‘Framing’ technique in TBS’s website where they explicitly

highlight their ‘Environmental Principles’ in a formal downloadable document

(www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/services/pdfs/AboutUs/Environmentalprinciples.pdf?). This

formal document connotes to visitors the seriousness that is taken with their principles and this is

escalated by their voluntary ‘bi-annual Values Reports’ (www.thebodyshop.co.uk/

_en/_gb/values-campaigns/index.aspx). Additionally, it was found that TBS also make use of

‘Pointing’ (Grant, 2007, p.71) where their ethically sourced ‘Community Trade organic olive oil’


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(one of the ingredients of some of their products) (www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/values-

campaigns/protect-planet.aspx) is highlighted as a ‘hero product’ (Grant, 2007, p71).

From my evaluation, overall TBS appears to be concerned with ‘cause related’ (Grant, 2007,

p.110) values and campaigns rather than directly linking their products to Green issues as with

Tesco. The vibe I get from TBS is that they do not need to closely link their products to Green

issues because they want Green causes to be the foundation of their commercial business goals

and thus their reputation would inevitably be transferred to their products. I interpret TBS as

taking a ‘more approach’ (Grant, 2007, p.124) in their Green communications where they

suggest that you are getting more natural, effective and caring products with a small price

premium.

4.2.3 IKEA Website Analysis

Upon opening IKEA’s home page (www.ikea.com/gb/en/ on 29th January 2009) there was no

obvious Green marketing communications, even on scrolling down. This immediately indicates

to me that, as Grant (2007) argued, IKEA adopts a covert Green marketing communication

strategy. An unobvious link was found to ‘About IKEA’ which is circled in red on appendix 11.

This link took me to their ‘About IKEA’ page (www.ikea.com/ms/en_

GB/about_ikea_new/about/index.html) where again no Green marketing communications were

immediately found. When scrolling down a link to ‘Our responsibility’ (see appendix 12) was

associated to environmental issues stating:

“Low prices are the cornerstone of the IKEA vision and our business idea - but not

at any price. At IKEA, we believe that taking responsibility for people and the

environment is a prerequisite for doing good business.” (www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB

/about_ikea_new/about/index.html)

This paragraph illustrates that as anticipated, Green issues are not the selling point of IKEA

products and rather the fulfilled responsibility naturally comes with their products. This also

highlights to me that IKEA employ a ‘less approach’ similar to Tesco where they are focused on

keeping costs low as well as being Green (Grant, 2007, p.126). It is evident to me that IKEA


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takes environmental factors seriously with the amount of company material (codes of conduct,

environmental policies, environmental responsibility reports, facts and figures and environmental

brochures) readily available for visitors to view (www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB

/about_ikea_new/about/read_our_materials/index.html). This is what Grant (2007, p.71) argues

to be ‘framing.’ IKEA also appear show transparency in presenting their principles and

operations which reveals to me that, although they are quiet about their Green marketing

communications, information about their Green credentials and efforts are available for those

who look for it.

On IKEA’s ‘Our Responsibilities’ page (www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea_new/our_

responsibility/index.html), two environmental pages are highlighted; Climate Change and WWF

Partnerships. I found the Climate Change page (www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea

_new/our_responsibility/climate_change/index.html) to contain a mixture of ‘framing’ and

‘pointing’ (Grant, 2007, p.71). According to my analysis, headings such as ‘IKEA goes

Renewable’ fall under ‘framing’ communications (Grant, 2007, p.71). Language used such as

‘we will’ and ‘we are,’ connotes a sense of proactive progression and honesty in addressing

climate change. I read IKEA’s use of words as committing them to their procedures and thus

having a positive effect on visitors’ perceptions. IKEA were also found to employ ‘pointing’

techniques (Grant, 2007, p.71) when they communicated that they will phase out the selling of

incandescent light bulbs in 2009 and instead offer compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFL).

Additionally, IKEA offer recycling services for CFLs, wherever they were bought, which further

highlights to me their holistic nature. IKEA then go on to ‘frame’ (Grant, 2007, p.71) two of

their procedures concerning the transport of their products and people (both employees and

customers). They highlight that all of their products are flat packed to carry more items in each

lorry load, resulting ‘in fewer journeys which equates to less fuel consumption and fewer

emissions’ (www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea_new/our_responsibility/climate_change/

index.html). This also saves IKEA money on transportation which Grant (2007, p.2) highlights

as a ‘beautiful coincidence’ where procedures are right for the environment and for business.

This ‘rational’ (Peattie, 1992, p.201) policy is easy for customers to understand due to its

economical sense and I view their explanations as a valuable indication to consumers of their

overall honestly. Secondly, IKEA discuss their efforts to try and get customers and co-workers to

use public transport through locating their stores next to such services as buses and trains or


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providing a free bus service in some cities. This appeal coincides with Grant’s (2007) idea that

companies should share Green responsibility with customers. I believe such practical and honest

efforts are favoured by visitors because IKEA give you the ‘possibility’

(www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea_new/our_responsibility/climate_change/index.html) to

act Greener in ways that go beyond buying their products and recycling. However, I find that

IKEA’s transport efforts may be ineffective due to the logistics involved for customers to use

public transport once they have bought large items from IKEA.

IKEA highlight their extensive conservation partnership with WWF (World Wildlife Fund) to

‘promote responsible forestry, better cotton cultivation, and to address climate change’

(www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea_new/our_responsibility/partnerships/wwf.html). This

page is a combination of ‘framing and pointing’ all in the name of the ‘eco-label’ WWF (Grant,

2007, p.71 and p.110 respectively). Concerning their forestry projects IKEA highlight the

international range of projects they have helped in from 2005 to 2008 with WWF and Forest

Stewardship Council (FSC) which can be found at appendix 50.

IKEA’s partnership with two well respected environmental agencies, WWF and FSC, brings

more credibility to their actions, products and Green marketing communications (Grant, 2007).

Additionally, throughout this section of their website IKEA have many links to downloadable

information on PDF format where visitors are able to view such communications if they wish to

(an example is shown in appendix 13 of www.mypaper.se/show/ikea/show.asp?

pid=345224322265443). This highlights to me the extent of their concern for environmental

causes due to the resources available and also brings to light the covert Green marketing

communication strategy IKEA have. IKEA employ a modest yet long-term approach where their

marketing is more focused on tangible benefits at a lower-cost competitive advantage rather than

a Green advantage. However, IKEA still try to be ‘a good corporate citizen’ (Ginsberg and

Bloom, 2004, p.81) all of which is highly evident in their modest Green marketing

communications and information.


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4.2.4 Website analysis Summary

After analysing the three company websites, I have highlighted that there are a number of

differences in communication strategies employed across companies. These differences have

been summarised in a table of company methods according to Grant’s (2007, p.69) Green

marketing grid in appendix 14. Tesco was found to have an intermediate Green marketing

communication strategy and employed many methods on an extensive devoted website. TBS was

found to have an overt Green marketing communication strategy with more cause-related,

evangelistic methods. Finally, IKEA was, as anticipated, found to have a covert Green marketing

communication strategy with many downloadable documents available for visitors. This

discourse and semiotic analysis of the company websites provides a foundation for comparing

one another’s strategy in relation to the opinion held by users on the internet which is to follow.

4.3 Netnography Search Results

This section is complied of the results and analysis of the findings from the Green

www.groups.google.com netnography search of Tesco, TBS and IKEA. From the results a

number of interpreted key themes have been highlighted below. Within these themes relevant

quotes from forum and newsgroup users have been analysed by way of their language, possible

tones, meanings, emoticons and the implications of these concerning the Green marketing

communication strategy of the company in question.

4.3.1 Tesco Newsgroup Search Results

4.3.1.1 Introduction

This sections contains the collated data from searching ‘Tesco + Green’ in newsgroups and

forums on www.groups.google.com. The data was collected from 8 different discussions where

this was later interpreted and organised into the 5 themes explored below. There was a large

amount of data found, however, I believe the excerpts shown in the below discussions provide


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representative results spanning important themes concerning Tesco’s Green marketing

communication strategy and the perceptions held by online consumers. The 5 themes highlighted

from the data are summarised below:

• Green Clubcard point

• Questioned Motives

• Online Delivery Comments

• Greenwashing

• Good Opinions about Tesco

A detailed examination and showcasing of the results found will follow and provide insight into

the language and emoticons used through discourse and semiotic analysis.

4.3.1.2 Green Clubcard points

Tesco’s unique Clubcard system was a major point of discussion in the netnography findings and

mixed reactions have been found varying between excitement and dissapointment. Several

people identified Clubcard points were awarded for recycling and reusing bags, an example of

which can be seen below.

‘ I noticed the green points promotion the other day. All very tree huggy and warm.’ (Tim

Hall, 2006, Website 5a)

Tim Hall (2006) displayed knowledge of the Green Clubcard points Tesco offers where he

indicated that he ‘noticed’ the ‘promotion’ which signifies to me that he was receptive to Tesco’s

Green marketing communications. However, he did not indicate that he engaged in the Green

Clubcard system which suggests to me that Tesco’s promotion might not have succeeded in

changing his actions. He then goes on to state that he thought this promotion was ‘all very tree

huggy and warm.’ This comment was negative and sarcastic as ‘tree huggers’ is a ‘derogatory

term for environmentalists’ (wordnetweb.princeton.edu). Tim Hall’s (2006) disapproving

description connotes a negative perception to the promotion, signifying acknowledgement of a

sudden change in image.


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‘Tesco have now discontinued awarding points as people were abusing the service by

cutting plastics into several pieces to gain more points (I think it was a point per 4

items)’ (Rockinrocky_robin, 2008, Website 8a)

Rockinrocky_robin (2008) revealed a new aspect of discussion, being the reason for Tesco

discontinuing the Green points scheme for recycling. This development shed light on comments

found in other forums such as GillP’s (2008) below:

‘ I'm not quite sure whether Tesco are being petty, or whether it's the people who

(allegedly) cut their recycling up into bits !

However, I've queued often enough at the recycling dump and I have never seen anyone

feeding bits of anything into the machine! You can't cut up glass for a start, tins would be

a right job even with a hacksaw and I really can't imagine many people going to the

effort of cutting up milk bottles etc.

Could the real reason be anything to do with a (tiny little, comparatively speaking) dent

in Tesco's multi-million (or is it billion ?) profits ??’ (GillP, 2008, Website 1a)

GillP (2008) highlights issues of trusting motives through her use of language. Firstly she

describes Tesco as being ‘petty’ for discontinuing the Green points recycling reward scheme,

indicating her disapproval of its withdrawal. She then goes on to indicate that the people who

cutting up recycling are ‘allegedly’ doing so. This highlights her distrust in the reasons Tesco

gave for the discontinuation of a service she used regularly. GillP (2008) justifies this claim by

stating her experience in the recycling service and argues that ‘I have never seen anyone feeding

bits of anything into the machine!’ The use of bold font for the word ‘never’ connotes her

seriousness and emotion felt over this issue. GillP (2008) then reveals that she thinks the ‘real

reason’ Tesco have discontinued the service is because of ‘a (tiny little comparatively speaking)

dent in Tesco's multi-million (or is it billion ?) profits.’ Here GillP (2008) ensues that Tesco have

discontinued the recycling points service because of a ‘tiny’ ‘dent’ in profit margins. This is an

interesting development as, from Tesco’s website analysis, a monetary image appears to be the

type of image they are trying to avoid with their ‘Greener living’ promotion. GillP’s (2008) profit

driven view is not unique in my findings, as seen below.


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‘The Clubcard points that they used to awarded for using their recycling facilities were

simply to get you through the front door of the store.’ (SeeYa, 2008, Website 8a)

SeeYa (2008) displays a less emotional opinion which is that Tesco only awarded Green points

for recycling as a goal to get consumers to spend in their store, again a profit driven motive.

However, I believe that this sort of opinion could be held due to Tesco’s education often being

supported by purchasing one of their products, as seen in the website analysis section.

‘ I was most disappointed to discover, when I visited my local recycling centre today, that

Tesco are no longer giving Green Clubcard points for every 4 items. Not exactly

encouraging people to recycle is it? By taking my waste to Tesco, I felt I was getting

some reward for helping the environment.’ (Lbow, 2008, Website 1a)

Here, Lbow (2008) displays their disappointment in the discontinuation of Green Clubcard

points for recycling, highlighting that the new system now gives one point for every two

aluminum cans. Lbow (2008) then goes on to declare that the new system is ‘not exactly

encouraging,’ which is not Tesco’s aim from my website analysis. This shows me that there is a

possible inconsistency in the message objective and opinions held by the public. However, Lbow

(2008) brings to light exactly what the Green Clubcard points intended to do, ‘I felt like I was

getting some reward for helping the environment.’

‘Do any of you think that recycling is reward in itself? Tesco being generous enough to

offer reward at all’ (Bon, 2008, Website 1a)

Bon (2008) comes to Tesco’s defense and highlights that recycling is rewarding which indicates

to me that they are a more advanced recycler and Green shopper. From my analysis of Tesco’s

website, this is the type of consumer Tesco would hope to educate their current consumers to be.

Bon (2008) argues that Tesco is ‘generous enough to offer reward’ for recycling, illustrating a

high opinion held of Tesco’s promotion in this area.

‘ I really liked that Tesco gave points for recycling, a little bonue and encouragment for

doing the recyling. I will continue to recycle but will save time and petrol by going to the


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local giant bins rather than going all the way to the Hatfield Tesco :o)’ (Mitonski, 2008,

Website 1a)

Finally, Mitonski (2008) highlights a positive opinion to Tesco’s change in Green Clubcard

points where even now that the point scheme has changed they will ‘continue to recycle’ but do

so elsewhere. The use of an emoticon also indicates to me that they are happy with this outcome.

Here Tesco appears to have achieved its goal of getting customers to change their lifestyle habits

by initially offering a reward for recycling.

4.3.1.3 Questioned Motives

Tesco’s motives were questioned in three discussions where the notion was that people are

untrusting and believe Tesco to be primarily profit driven. The following quotes demonstrate this

finding:

‘ I am not sure about Tesco's motives for this change. The reason for this change is not

being honestly explained and the reasons given do not make sense. I was told that the

points system was changed to improve the quality of the recycling.. I thought Tesco

wanted to encourage people to recycle and have made a big thing of supporting a

greener way of life. What they now REALLY want from the recycling machines is

aluminum cans.’ (Chelteda, 2008, Website 1a)

Chelteda (2008) is referring to the change in Green Clubcard points for recycling. Despite

contacting Tesco she is ‘not sure about Tesco’s motives’, claiming that the change ‘in not being

honestly explained.’ Unhappy about the lack of justifiable reasons Chelteda (2008) states that she

thought Tesco wanted people to recycle due to their ‘big thing of supporting a greener was of

life.’ On a positive note Chelteda (2008) recognised the purpose of Tesco’s ‘Greener Living.’

However, Chelteda (2008) then expressed that what they ‘REALLY want’ is to be selective in

their Green initiatives.

‘ It could be a PR exercise to see what it effect is has on sales at one store before rolling it

out nationwide.


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As it stands, two things will encourage supermarkets to go down that route.

In no particular order:

• The energy saving measures will save money and have a reasonable return on capital

invested.

• The public perception of what they are doing will increase their sales.

Supermarkets are businesses. That's their raison d'être. Altruism isn't.’ (Besoeker, 2009,

Website 4a)

Besoeker (2009) is commenting on the recent Green stores Tesco has opened such as their Wick

branch in Scotland which boasts wind turbines among other carbon saving options. He argues

that these Green stores are ‘a PR (public relations) exercise’ driven by the ‘effects’ it has on

sales. Besoeker (2009) then goes on to suggest two reasons Tesco would become more

environmentally friendly, to save money and to increase sales. Besoeker (2009) sums up that

supermarket’s reason ‘to be’ is to make money not to help humanity. This is a negative view on

Tesco’s Green marketing endeavors, however, there is no mention of their efforts not being

effective.

‘The only reason I can find is that Tesco are trying to cash in on this renewable and

green energy source. It just highlights the lengths Tesco will go to to make a profit, pure

greed!’ (Jay Neal, 2008, 6a)

Jay Neal (2008) also displays Besoeker’s (2009) opinion in another discussion. The above quote

has been taken from a forum entitled ‘Tesco Boycott’ and is part of a long angry outburst over

Tesco’s Green marketing communications where this shortened quote summarises the argument.

Jay Neal’s (2008) comment is highly negative and again suggests that Tesco is profit driven. Jay

Neal (2008) then goes on to describe Tesco’s efforts as ‘pure greed!’ I interpret the emotion felt

in this statement as anger and disgust from the language used. Comments such as these highlight

that despite Tesco’s Green efforts, it is evident that the notion of ‘supermarkets are a business

only,’ as highlighted by Besoeker (2009), is still prevalent.


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4.3.1.4 Online delivery Comments

Tesco’s online delivery was a heated topic in one newsgroup that was entitled ‘Tesco online - not

very green!’ This conversation contained many posts and the following excerpts highlight the

issues brought out. Generally it was found that Tesco’s home delivery service was not

environmentally friendly on two levels, the number of plastic bags used for delivered goods and

the unnecessary miles traveled from dispatched store.

‘ If you buy groceries online they swamp you with unwanted plastic bags. My last order

came in 27 bags with an average of 3.5 items in each. Absolutely ridiculous.’ (Helenbee,

2007, Website 3a)

‘ I was pleased to see this time that there were fewer bags than before though. I do

remember one occasion when a small pack of paracetamol was all by itself in a plastic

bag!’ (Nireus, 2007, Website 3a)

Helenbee (2007) and Nireus (2007) both highlight that their experiences of home delivery were

unsatisfactory due to the amount of plastic bags recieved. Helenbee (2007) even calculated the

average number of items in each bag, upon which she remarked was ‘absolutely ridiculous.’ This

demonstrates the lengths to which consumer will go to evaluate companies’ Green credentials.

Nireus’s (2007) later comment highlighted that they saw an improvement in the service where

‘fewer bags’ were given out. However, Nireus (2007) revealed an experience where they found a

‘small pack of paracetamol’ in a bag of its own. I believe that it is these occurrences that

counteract what advertising Tesco might do to improve their Green image.

‘ I subsequently discovered that my order was actually despatched from another store 12

miles away and not the one 4 miles from my house. How "green" is that?!’ (Gretal, 2007,

Website 3a)

Gretal’s (2007) experience showed me that the logistical nature of Tesco’s online delivery is not

consistent with their Green marketing communications where an extra 8 food miles were

unnecessarily added on to her delivery. Gretal (2007) then remarked ‘how “green” is that?!’ as

an appropriate conclusion considering their resources devoted to educating consumers about

Greener shopping and transportation as seen in my website analysis. The use of commas around


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the word “green” highlights a distrustful feeling towards their promotions. This section has

shown that although Tesco aim to be Green, it is actions and experiences such as the above

which hamper their efforts. In a consumer society where people are far more informed due to the

internet (Pitt et al, 2002), any bad comments such as these can really hurt their reputation and the

extent to which customers trust them.

4.3.1.5 Greenwashing

In my findings Tesco was accused of greenwashing in two separate forums and casts a negative

image on them and their communications. A greenwashing reputation is not a desired image for

any company as it portrays them as being commercially driven simply using the environment to

gain sales.

‘Yet another greenwash example, from a company that pretends to be green while

ramping up the air miles, food miles and CO2 emissions. "Chief Exec. of Tesco, Terry

Leahy, today evaded various campaigners at Manchester's Whitworth Art Gallery who

were anxious to discuss his company's recent £25 mil. investment in Manchester

University's "Sustainable Consumption" Institute, yet another Tesco greenwash."’ (Doug

2008, Website 2a)

Doug (2008) instigated a long discussion that stemmed from this comment. Here he uses a quote

from a news report to justify ‘another greenwash example.’ Doug’s (2008) language suggests an

ongoing negative attitude towards Tesco’s activities with, ‘yet another,’ suggesting he has found

other examples of greenwashing in Tesco’s communications. He claims that Tesco ‘pretends to

be green while ramping up the air miles, food miles and CO2 emissions.’ The word ‘pretends’

holds strong accusations and associates them with being dishonest and not serious about climate

change. Here Doug (2008) seems to be suggesting that Tesco’s motives lie in using the

environment to have good public relations, increased sales and profits.

‘Tesco are not above a good dose of Greenwash.’ (Wobs, 2009, Website 4a)

Wobs (2009) short comment does not accuse Tesco of greenwashing. However, it is still

damaging in the way that it indicates that Wobs (2009) would not be surprised to learn that


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Tesco greenwash. I find that considering how recent this comment is (January, 2009), it

highlights that despite Tesco’s large resources devoted to Green marketing, that they are still

marred by the same opinions that existing about companies in the 1980’s (Grant, 2007).

4.3.1.6 Good Opinions about Tesco

Lastly, a range of good opinions about Tesco and their efforts were found which provides me

with another dimension of analysis amongst the many negative opinions found in Tesco’s

netnography search.

‘But they are being greener than they were.’ (Dogpoop, 2008, Website 2a)

‘Tesco are trying!’ (Tregony, 2007, Website3a)

Here both Dogpoop (2008) and Tregony (2007) are trying to defend negative comments made

about Tesco. However, from analysing their language, it indicates to me that they accept Tesco

are not completely Green but are ‘greener’ and ‘are trying.’ I see it as important that Tesco has

the support of people like Dogpoop (2008) and Tregony (2007) to recognise and defend the

efforts that they are making to be Green.

‘Who said the recession was going to put an end to green projects? Self dimming lights

and CO2 driven fridges are just 2 of its innovative fixtures Tesco launches 'greenest

store' - Business - News - Manchester Evening News.’ (FascinatingRhythm, 2009,

Website 4a)

‘ I personally think they did great, but I hope they are working on all of the other TESCO

stores. I'd love to go and see what it is like.’ (godoftheforest, 2009, Website 4a)

‘Tesco have opened a store nearby and it has a green roof and sustainable building

materials; people are talking about it and traveling distance to see the store.’ (Wilki,

2008, Website 7a)

All of the above comments are concerning the work that Tesco has done to point (Grant, 2007) to

their operations in building more Green stores. What is highlighted from the above comments is


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the sense of excitement users share. FascinatingRhythm (2009) illustrates that even though we’re

in the midst of an economic downturn, Tesco are still making the effort to launch their Green

stores such as the one in Wick. Godoftheforest (2009), in the same forum, then goes on to share

their opinion of Tesco’s Green stores stating that they think it is ‘great’ and that they’d ‘love to

go and see what it is like.’ Here I see that Tesco have been successful in educating their

consumers about the efforts they are making concerning their stores and it is causing excitement

as is seen. Wilki (2008) escalates this by affirming the previous users’ opinions in another forum.

From my website analysis I assume that these types of discussions are what Tesco would hope

for and that in customers sharing excitement about Tesco’s endeavors it helps to spread their

message further and try and help to change people’s attitudes.

4.3.1.6 Summary

Tesco’s search provided a large amount of data across 8 discussions with 5 key themes being

interpreted from the netnography data. In addition to this, although exhibiting an intermediate

Green marketing communication strategy, Tesco provided a substantial amount of information

and resources available to online visitors. The effect of this could be interpreted as resulting in

high numbers of online discussions being had about a range of their Green credentials. I believe

the range of 5 interpreted themes has been sufficient in drawing attention to the opinions held by

consumers in relation to Tesco’s Green marketing communication efforts. Weighing up the

opinions held it has been found that negative ones are more prevalent than positive opinions.

This signifies the struggle that Tesco must endure to convince customers and change their

opinions of Tesco’s Green marketing communications and motives. Unfortunately Tesco appear

to have been labeled with the wasteful reputation that is associated with supermarkets

(www.bbc.co.uk). The data has shown me that this is an opinion that is still held and is

sometimes validated by Tesco’s actions, such as with the online delivery comments.


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4.3.2 The Body Shop Newsgroups Search Results


A comprehensive netnography was undertaken searching ‘The Body Shop + Green’ on

www.groups.google.com. I feel the data gathered is rich in information and emotion that

highlight the opinions held by users in relation to TBS’s Green efforts. The quotes were gathered

from 11 different discussions resulting in 4 key themes being interpreted which are listed below:

• L’Oreal

• Marketing References

• Positive Opinions

• Hypocritical comments

A detailed examination of each of these themes and the relevant quotes will follow to try and

draw out the meanings behind them pertaining to TBS’s Green marketing communication

strategy.

4.3.2.2 L’Oreal

A large part of the findings were consumed by TBS being bought over by L’Oreal in 2006.

L’Oreal is a cosmetic company who do not share the same Green image as TBS in terms of their

animal testing policies (news.bbc.co.uk). Many users across many forums expressed their

disappointment and feelings towards the takeover highlighting many issues which are examined

below.

‘The real pity of it all is that The Body Shop is owned by L’Oreal who test on animals.’

(Deb, 2008, Website 2b)

‘Yes, as Deb points out, the Body shop pretty-much stopped being green a while back

when they sold out to L’Oreal in 2006.’ (mobocaster, 2008, Website 2b)


46

These two quotes were taken as part of the same discussion. Deb (2008) refers to the takeover of

TBS as a ‘real pity’ where her use of language indicates that she is sad about the takeover.

Mobocaster (2008) takes Deb’s (2008) comment and states that TBS ‘pretty-much stopped being

green’ when they were taken over. However, this indicates that there is an acknowledgement of

them being Green prior to the takeover. Mobocaster (2008) also used the term ‘sold out’ to

describe the takeover which insinuates that TBS sold their company for monetary reasons which

are not the type of values TBS stand for from my website analysis of them. Despite TBS still

advertising that they do not test on animals, it appears that L’Oreal’s reputation for doing so has

overcome TBS’s efforts. This loss of Green brand image has also been shown in the results of a

Yougov BrandIndex poll after L’Oreal’s acquisition of TBS (news.bbc.co.uk).

‘As for animal testing, I'm not too sure, since they are now owned by L’Oreal (which

does animal testing).’ (earthtocarrie, 2009, Website 1b)

In more recent findings, earthtocarrie (2009) still questioned whether TBS test on animals stating

they are ‘not too sure’ due to them now being owned by L’Oreal.

‘ I understand they were bought by L'Oreal, and sorry, if someone has already asked this,

but they are still claiming to be animal friendly. I went to one of their locations the other

day and purchased the hemp lip gloss. I understand I would still be supporting L'Oreal,

but I do like The Body Shop, and their products..is it ok for me to buy their stuff?’

(ParisNova, 2008, Website 5b)

Here ParisNova (2008) indicates that she is aware of TBS takeover and the implications it now

has for TBS’s products. However, she highlights that TBS ‘are still claiming to be animal

friendly’ and tries to justify buying their products. ParisNova (2008) then asks other users if it is

‘ok’ for her to still shop there. This shows that ParisNova (2008) was and still is a keen TBS

customer, however, now has concerns over their ethics due to this takeover.

‘They aren't changing anything about the Body Shop. Instead, L’Oreal has said that they

would like to learn from The Body Shop's socially conscious business but so far, they

haven't seemed to make any changes to their own line of products or business.


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Purchasing from the body shop is a choice each of us needs to make for ourselves. On the

one hand, you are not supporting animal testing since the products you're buying aren't

tested on animals... On the other hand, your money is going to a company that does test

on animals. I suppose it would be the same as buying a veggie burger from a fast food

chain that sells meat.

Personally, I stopped buying from the Body Shop because I would rather my money went

to more socially conscious businesses.’ (Delsolarie, 2008, Website 5b)

‘ I too stopped buying from The Body Shop when it was bought by L'Oreal. I don't want

any of my money going to a company that does animal testing.’ (Chickadee, 2008),

Website 5b

Delsolarie (2008) then responds to ParisNova (2008) stating that TBS are not changing any of

their products or values, clarifying that TBS are still as Green as they claim to be. Delsolarie

(2008) advices that it is a personal choice now if one shops at TBS, however, explains that ‘your

money is going to a company that does test on animals.’ Delsolarie (2008) argues that she does

not want her purchases from an environmentally and socially conscious business to end up as

profits for a company that does not display the very reasons she would shop at TBS. This same

opinion was held by Chickadee (2008) and helps to emphasise the effect that this takeover has on

TBS’s reputation. Here I see Grant’s (2007) credible partners argument working in reverse.

L’Oreal has partnered with TBS perhaps in order to form a credible environmental partner.

However, the opposite effect has happened for TBS where being associated with L’Oreal and

their reputation has resulted in damaging their own reputation (news.bbc.co.uk).

‘Anita roddick, the founder and once owner of The body shop, sold out by selling the

company to L'oreal, making a mockery of what the body shop once stood for

.’(Blueboar, 2007, Website 7b)

Blueboar (2007) also mentioned the notion of selling out to L’Oreal which was also highlighted

by Mobocaster (2008). This further emphasises the disgust and upset felt at what Anita Roddick

did. Blueboar (2007) then boldly states that Anita Roddick made ‘a mockery of what the body

shop once stood for.’ The emotion felt in this statement was also shown by an emoticon


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displaying anger and sadness which is what has come across in most of the findings concerning

this theme.

‘Are you joking???? The Body Shop is one of the few places I can by toiletries and

cosmetics safe in the knowledge that they are taking all measures possible to reduce

cruelty to animals by unnecessary testing. Where on earth am I supposed to shop now? A

sad day ’ (Red Squirrel, 2006, Website 8b)

‘Oh. Crap. I don't use mainstream toiletries/cosmetics because of the cruelty issues and

the stupid hype. I love the Body Shop's stuff! This is... heartbreaking.’ (Galaxy, 2006,

Website 8b)

These two comments made by Red Squirrel (2006) and Galaxy (2006) were made directly after

the TBS takeover was made public. Both of their opening sentences display shock, stating ‘Are

you joking???’ (Red Squirrel, 2006) and ‘Oh. Crap’ (Galaxy, 2006). This demonstrates to me the

ethical and environmental trust they had in TBS to cause so much disbelief. The use of multiple

question marks and full stops helps one to realise how much of a shock this would have come to

TBS’s consumers. Both Red Squirrel (2006) and Galaxy (2006) revealed that they use to shop at

TBS for the sole purpose that they were ethical in the making of their products which suggests

previous Green marketing communications had been successful in portraying the desired

reputation and image. Red Squirrel (2006) simply stated ‘where on earth am I supposed to shop

now?’ which demonstrates the distress caused to environmental shoppers. Red Squirrel (2006)

then concluded that it was ‘a sad day’ with a sad faced emoticon. Galaxy (2006) said that she

loves TBS’s products and used an exclamation point to illustrate her feelings. She then remarked

that this takeover ‘is heartbreaking.’ This demonstrates to me the potential emotional

involvement in Green shopping and the effect major negative changes can have on consumers.

4.3.2.3 Marketing references

In the netnography findings there were two specific references to Green marketing concerning

TBS. This shows me that consumers are aware of their Green marketing efforts; however, the

opinions vary, as shown below.


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‘All that about being green (true or not), has really helped them sell. Kudos to smart

marketing.’ (earthtocarrie, 2009, Website 1b)

Earthtocarrie (2009) identifies the Green marketing communication TBS does which is a positive

awareness step. However, she feels that their Green claims ‘true or not’ have just helped TBS to

sell their products. Thus she is accusing them of possible greenwashing and it also highlights the

fact that she is not sure if they are Green. She ends with congratulating TBS stating ‘kudos to

smart marketing.’ Earthtocarrie (2009) displays a negative opinion of TBS Green marketing

showing that she believes it is for monetary gain.

‘ I very much appreciate the pro-hemp ads the Body Shop has been running in progressive

magazines over the last few years. "What do you call a farmer who grows a crop that's

good for the environment? Criminals.” paraphrased from one Body Shop pro-hemp

ad...’ (Timothy Lynch, 2002, Website 3b)

Timothy Lynch (2002) makes a direct positive reference to TBS pro-hemp advertisements.

Hemp is a controversial ingredient which is the industrial use term for marijuana and is a crop

that is good for the environment. However, because of hemp’s drug origin, it is shunned by many

countries and illegal to sell (blog.thebodyshop-usa.com/history-hemp/). Timothy Lynch (2002)

displays his appreciation for the pro-hemp advertisements even paraphrasing a statement from

one of their marketing communication. This displays the level of awareness and positive opinion

held about this Green marketing communication where users are moved to the point of sharing a

poignant part of the advertisement with others. This demonstrates to me the positive effect that

TBS’s Green marketing communications have had in the past.

4.3.2.4 Positive opinions

Despite the amount of negative comments I found about TBS, numerous positive ones were also

found. I discovered some people were defending TBS, despite the existing L’Oreal controversy

in some cases, which displays a sense of loyalty to TBS and their values. Also what is interesting

to note is these positive comments come from a 10 year range (1998-2008) which highlights a

consistency in feelings towards TBS.


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‘Hey guys, the Body Shop really is pretty inoffensive. Anita Roddick is an

old hippie who puts in a lot of time to good causes, if they have ever sold

products which were tested on animals it was unknowingly.’ (Simon Geller, 2002,

Website 3b)

Here Simon Geller (2002) is defending TBS and Anita Roddick after having read some attacks

made in the L’Oreal discussion. He describes TBS as ‘pretty inoffensive’ and Roddick as ‘an old

hippie who puts in a lot of time to good causes.’ Simon Geller (2002) is attempting to shed light

on the fact that TBS are trying and that Anita Roddick genuinely values and displays concern for

environmental issues. I feel that it is positive to see that a user is able to stand up to the negative

comments made, which highlights the level of loyalty some would have to TBS. Simon Geller

(2002) concludes in a confident statement by suggesting that TBS would never knowingly test on

animals.

‘From what I understand the Body Shop does not sell items tested on animals, which IS

progressive.’ ( Timothy Lynch, 2002, Website 3b)

In the same discussion Timothy Lynch (2002) backs up Simon Geller’s (2002) last statement

arguing that TBS do not test on animals. Timothy Lynch (2002) ends by stating that their values

for not testing on animals ‘IS progressive.’ The use of capital letters signifies to me that Timothy

Lynch (2002) is trying to convince other users that TBS cannot be compared to other cosmetic

companies which do not stand for the same values.

‘Using natural stuff for make-up. Try "the body shop" at least they don't make

experiments on animals.’ (Zeynep, 2008, Website 10b)

Zeynep’s (2008) comment was taken from a Facebook discussion page which was entitled ‘What

do you do to be Green?’ Zeynep (2008) listed using TBS’s natural products as one of her efforts

to be Green. This is a positive result as TBS has been associated directly with being a Green

choice for make-up despite the controversy surrounding the L’Oreal takeover.

‘From what I understand, some of the body shop products are made without animal

products. I know there musk is fake. Their packaging is recyclable (through the

store) and refillable. They use recycled paper soy inks in their advertising and catalogs.


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They are not perfect and neither are we. They may not be the most environmental

company out there but they are a lot better than most.’ (Katt1369, 1998, Website 11b)

This last comment made by Katt1369 (1998) was the oldest result available across all the case

studies, now 11 years old. Although arguably outdated, I feel this comment is highly valuable as

it demonstrates the range of years that TBS has been talked about positively. Katt1369 (1998)

gives many examples of how TBS are Green which include, not testing on animals, recyclable

packaging and environmentally friendly publications. This not only shows that TBS were

environmentally friendly many years ago, but also that people were aware of this and accepted

their Green marketing communications. Katt1369 (1998) defends TBS by stating that nobody is

‘perfect’ and recognises that TBS is trying and are ‘a lot better than most.’ All of the positive

comments made by people emphasise to me the belief they have in TBS as a result of successful

Green marketing communications.

4.3.2.5 Hypocritical Comments

Hypocritical issues were raised in three separate forums which showed an interesting concern

with the consistency in what TBS proclaims (‘Protect Our Planet’) and what consumers are

seeing in their actions and products. This demonstrates an untrusting and questioning nature

which is explored below.

‘I received a BIG envelope to inform me about the star loyalty discount thing. So much

about loving the environment...’ (Efai, 2008, Website 4b)

Efai (2008) noted that she received a ‘BIG envelope’ from TBS. The use of capital letter to

describe the size of the posted information suggests to me that it was unnecessarily big. Efai

(2008) later shows that she views this action as contradictory, stating ‘so much about loving the

environment.’ She comes to this conclusion due to the amount of waste generated from sending

out ‘BIG’ envelopes. This sentence indicates that she has lost confidence in TBS’s priorities.

‘Be careful with so called natural products. I was just in the body shop and they don't

have a lot of natural products. Natural products shouldn't have so many

unpronounceable ingredients.’ (Country gal, 2005, Website 6b)


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Here, Country gal (2005) is warning TBS customers to ‘be careful’ due to (in her opinion) the

lack of natural ingredients in their natural products. Country gal (2005) calls TBS’s products ‘so

called natural products’ which displays to me she holds a distrustful and negative opinion about

TBS. I feel this demonstrates perhaps the lack of education given by TBS on the natural aspects

of their products so as to deem them natural. This was also largely found to be the case in my

website analysis of TBS.

‘Just had a look at a jar of skin cream from The Body Shop (who are supposed to be

concerned about green issues) and it contains "isopropyl palmitate"’ (GreenTea, 2007,

Website 9b)

GreenTea (2007) has gone one step further to mention an ingredient of one of TBS’s products.

Isopropyl palmitate is a chemical derived from palm oil which has moisturizing properties.

Although this is a natural ingredient (in line with Country gal’s (2005) concerns), due to the

economic value held in palm oil, it is known the for hundreds of acres of rainforests being cut

down to make room for palm oil plantations, such as in Malaysia (Khalid and Braden, 2008).

Therefore, as GreenTea (2007) has highlighted, this could be viewed as a product which is not

environmentally friendly. GreenTea (2007) escalates this by stating that TBS are ‘supposed to be

concerned about green issues.’ This statement again highlights to me the untrusting nature that

has been found across forums.

4.3.2.6 Summary

TBS results spanned a large number (11) of discussions which was anticipated due to them

having an overt Green marketing strategy. I believe the data gained has resulted in a higher

understanding of TBS, Green marketing communication strategies and their differing effects.

One of the most important finding which dominated many of the discussions was in the change

of opinions about TBS’s Green credentials due to it now being inextricably linked to L’Oreal.

TBS’s evangelistic communications were found to escalate consumers’ negative opinion of

TBS’s takeover. I view this outcome as working against the credible partners method noted in

Grant’s (2007) work. This reveals that despite how passionate TBS is about their environmental

values, L’Oreal has stained the opinions of consumers. However, consumers were still ready to


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defend TBS which displays the belief still held in them and what they stand for. I believe this

demonstrates the level to which consumers have an emotional involvement with TBS perhaps

due to successful Green marketing communication strategies in the past.

4.3.3 IKEA Newsgroups Search Results


The following discussion highlights the findings from a netnography search of ‘IKEA + Green’

on www.groups.google.com. Overall I feel the findings demonstrated a high level of education

received from IKEA. Unlike the other two companies, the IKEA findings were limited to only 5

discussion forums. However, I was able to interpret 5 key themes connected to IKEA and their

Green marketing communications which are listed below:

• Positive Green Opinions

• Standards

• Charging for Bags

• Provisions and Policies

• Negative Green Opinions

Following this will be an analysis of the findings within these themes in order so that I can draw

out interpretations and meanings behind the comments of online users.

4.3.3.2 Positive Green Opinions

A range of positive Green opinions about IKEA were found which I believe reflect users’

general feelings of IKEA’s covert Green marketing communication strategy according to my

research. Below are the positive results found from the netnography search:

‘ Ikea is a pretty green company.’ (Moderngal, 2007, Website 1c)


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‘ I generally trust IKEA products. There are no "mystery materials" in anything- they'll

tell you what the item is made of and where it was made. Yes, they do sell some plastic

items that were made in China, but they're very clear about which items they are so you

can easily avoid them.’ (Ruthla, 2007, Website 1c)

‘ I LOVE Ikea. Ikea also uses wood from sustainable wood farms, not old growth forests,

which is nice to know. Also, their stains are vegetable based And purdy.’

(DocsNemesis, 2008, Website 5c)

The above three extracts show a similar quality in the boldness of their first statements.

Moderngal (2007) simply states that she thinks that IKEA is a ‘pretty green company.’ Ruthla

(2007) then goes on to say that she ‘generally’ trusts IKEA and their products (in a Green

context). DocsNemesis (2008) also quotes (in a Green context) ‘I LOVE Ikea’ whereby the use

of capital letters displays the heightened positive emotion felt for IKEA. Ruthla (2007) and

DocsNemesis (2008) both go on to build on their first sentences by justifying it with information

about IKEA and their Green policies and procedures. Ruthla (2007) credits IKEA on the full

disclosure of their materials which leave ‘no “mystery materials.”’ She admits that they do make

some plastic items from China, but again credits them on their honesty in reporting this. This is a

clear and constructed argument which is highly positive towards how IKEA discloses

information about their products. DocsNemesis (2008) highlights that she loves IKEA because

they use wood materials from ‘sustainable wood farms.’ She also approves of their vegetable

based stains for materials by signifying this with a smiling emoticon and describing them as

‘purdy’ (slang for pretty). What was significant in the findings was that a number of people were

found to positively repeat information that they would have retrieved for themselves from

IKEA’s website.

‘ I've heard IKEA is a better store to buy from as far as green goes.’ (Jrose_lee, 2008, 5c)

‘ I read that the wood they use comes from sustainable sources. They seem like the better

choice out of the furniture stores in that price range.’ (Pariah, 2008, Website 5c)

‘ If you're going to shop at a big box store though, I really can't think of a better one than

Ikea. Especially for those of us with limited budgets and the desire to make as little

impact as possible on our environment!’ (Selkat, 2008, Website 5c)


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The three above quotes have one thing in common, that they all identify IKEA as the ‘better’

Green choice of cheap furniture stores. In conjunction with my findings from the website

analysis, this also suggest that IKEA use a ‘less approach’ in their product benefit

communications (Grant, 2007 p.126). Jrose_lee’s (2008) statement does not convey a personal

positive opinion, however, it could indicate how others generally feel about IKEA’s Green

position and image. Pariah (2008) simply reveals that he had read about their sustainable wood

sources and concludes that ‘they seem’ to be ‘the better choice’ in terms of Green objectives.

The use of the word ‘seem’ indicates to me an element of caution in connecting IKEA with being

Green. Finally, Selkat (2008) advises users that IKEA is the best Green option for those ‘with

limited budgets.’ Here Selkat (2008) actively reaches out to other users, advocating IKEA as the

Greenest choice of ‘big box’ stores. Selkat (2008) also perfectly harmonizes IKEA’s

environmental efforts with what they base their business on, good value for money.

4.3.3.3 Standards

An interesting development concerning the Green opinions held by users was IKEA’s strict

environmental material standards. From my website analysis, this information is readily

available for the public to view. The effect of this can be seen in the below comments.

‘ IKEA is a swedish company and makes everything in their store to conform to the EU

safety standards, which are far more "green".’ (Belleweather, 2008, Website 5c)

‘ I do think it's more green due to EU standards.’ (Bad Horse, 2008, Website 5c)

Belleweather (2008) and Bad Horse (2008) both highlight the country origin of IKEA and

directly relate their Green credentials to the EU. This country reference was highlighted by Grant

(2007) and it is interesting to see it presented so clearly in the findings. Belleweather (2008)

associates IKEA, ‘a Swedish company’ with ‘the EU safety standards’ which she then concludes

are ‘far more ‘green’’ than that of her home country. Bad Horse (2008) also supports this opinion

in the same way.

‘ I find that plenty of things from IKEA are made from China so I wonder if the Swedish

standards apply.’ (Funkychunkymunky, 2008, Website 5c)


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Funkychunkmunky (2008) is the only person found to question IKEA’s standards by linking

their products to the country of manufacture, China. However, Funkychunkmunky (2008) only

states that their ‘wonder’ which highlights to me uncertainty but not an outright accusation. I feel

this suggests some level of trust in IKEA and their policies.

4.3.3.4 Charging for Bags

IKEA’s policies on not giving out free bags, but instead offering the ability to buy bags, sparked

some discussion in forums where there were negative feelings about their motives as seen below.

‘Don't be fooled into thinking that shops charging for plastic bags is a purely ethical or

environmental idea. Ikea charge 5p (UK) each for a plastic bag. They may sell it to you

as a 'green' issue but it is a massive profit product for them.’ (Mark & The Zebra, 2007,

Website 2c)

‘In my opinion, the selling of 're-useable bags' is often on closer inspection a bad case of

greenwash.’ (Simoncbrads, 2007, Website 4c)

Here both Mark & The Zebra (2007) and Simoncbrads (2007) express a highly negative view of

the motives behind selling plastic bags. Mark & The Zebra (2007) warns shoppers not to ‘be

fooled’ which is a harsh use of language and indicates his negative opinion on the issue. He

claims that the charging of bags is not ‘a purely ethical or environmental idea’ and highlights the

amount IKEA charge per plastic bag and then insinuates that this is ‘a massive profit’ for IKEA

and not ‘a ‘green’ issue.’ I interpret Mark & The Zebra’s (2007) comment as accusing IKEA

greenwashing. Building on this, Simoncbrads (2007) directly states that he thinks charging for

plastic bags is ‘a bad case of greenwash.’ I find that these two comments highlight the ever

present distrust in Green marketing communications (Grant, 2007).

4.3.3.5 Provisions and policies

This theme interpreted from the research highlights the range of knowledge consumers have

about IKEA and their policies, suggesting that people are taking in what they learn about IKEA


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despite it being covert. However, it must be noted that this theme was taken exclusively from one

forum which weakens the strength of such arguments.

‘Their packaging is less extensive. Most of the packaging is recyclable, and they accept

a lot of products for recycling at the store. For example, we recycle our cardboard and

batteries at Ikea, because our city doesn't accept them.’ (Auntie Sapphire, 2008, Website

5c)

‘ I do like that they recycle and accept things most places don't. I live 1 mile from the

Houston IKEA and they accept CFLs, which is awesome!’ (Bad Horse, 2008, Website 5c)

The above two quotes are concerned with IKEA’s recycling provisions. Auntie Sapphire (2008)

reveals to others that IKEA accept a lot of recyclables and attempt to make most of their

packaging recyclable at the same time. Both Auntie Sapphire (2008) and Bad Horse (2008) relate

to other users their experiences of going to IKEA just to recycle which acts as an encouragement

for others to do the same. Bad Horse (2008) ends by stating that this ‘is awesome!’ which reveals

his approval of this provision. Here it is seen that education and information from IKEA is being

passed on from customer to customer.

‘ I like that the stores are green too with composting, recycling, a green/living roof,

reusable plates/silver ware in the cafe, a fee for non-reusable bags at checkout, reduced

packaging, sustainable wood management, etc.’ (Wombatclay, 2008, Website 5c)

Wombatclay (2008) identifies many ways in which IKEA make their stores Green which

indicates the high level of knowledge gained from IKEA’s communications. This demonstrates

to me that IKEA’s communications are being found and used to inform others.

4.3.3.6 Negative Green opinions

Two general negative Green opinions were expressed in the findings, however, compared to that

of the other two company’s explored, IKEA encountered significantly less negative comments.

The below negative opinion were both constructive criticism with suggestions included for

improving.


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‘ I don't think Ikea is particularly environmentally friendly as a company. It is cutting

down lots of trees to make and sell furniture. Why don't Ikea encourage Singaporeans to

recycle their furniture?’ (Baikinman, 2008, Website 3c)

Baikinman (2008) expresses that he does not think IKEA are ‘particularly environmentally

friendly’ and justifies this with the number of trees needed to be cut down to make their

furniture. Although a seemingly sensible argument, the IKEA website explicitly states how they

source the wood for their furniture sustainably. This demonstrates to me a possible lack of

knowledge which could facilitate for this conclusion. Baikinman (2008) then goes on to suggest

that IKEA could encourage the recycling of furniture. This is a negative comment, but the effort

to suggest improvements indicates to me that Baikinman (2008) perceived IKEA as open to

change.

‘Even Ikea, though it may have taken some genuinely progressive steps, still needs

eventually to address deeper issues such as encouraging car culture by building huge

out-of-town stores, perpetuating a throw-away and short-term mentality with their cheap

cardboard furniture.’ (Simoncbrads, 2007, Website 4c)

Simoncbrads (2007) at first recognises the ‘genuinely progressive steps’ that IKEA have taken,

which would indicate that this is a positive comment with the use of the word ‘genuinely’

connoting a sense of trust. However, Simoncbrads (2007) then goes on to advise that IKEA need

to ‘address deeper issues’ such as to disencourage the ‘car culture’ that is associated with their

‘out-of-town stores.’ Interestingly perhaps if Simoncbrads (2007) had seen the efforts IKEA are

making in the public transport sector, which are available on their website, his opinion may be

changed. However, it was noted in the website analysis of IKEA’s transport initiatives that their

efforts could be seen as being ineffective for the very reasons Simoncbrads (2007) states above.

Simoncbrads (2007) also criticises IKEA’s ‘cheap cardboard furniture’ which he suggests fuels a

‘throw-away and short-term mentality,’ thus increasing consumption and negative environmental

effects. However, I feel that this has been formed subjectively as IKEA state in their website that

they aim to build long lasting, quality furniture.


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4.3.3.7 Summary

From the IKEA netnography research, I feel a number of interesting themes were highlighted. I

believe one of the most intriguing finding was the range and depth of knowledge users appeared

to have about IKEA and their policies. The type of information that users repeated is only

available through their Green marketing communications which indicates that, although covert,

consumers are still seeking and acknowledging such educational information. However, the

restricted findings (only 5 discussions), in comparison to the other two companies, could be

attributed to IKEA’s covert approach and therefore could have an effect on how much they are

discussed online. Additionally, in the findings it was highlighted that some negative opinions

were only perhaps held through inadequate knowledge, possibly as a result of their covert

publications. I feel that the effects of IKEA’s covert Green marketing communication strategy

were apparent and very much in line with Grant’s (2007) arguments and should provide a good

basis for which to company the other two strategies to.

4.4 Chapter Summary

The data for this study was compiled from a website analysis and netnography search of three

companies, Tesco, TBS and IKEA. I feel the findings were rich in valuable qualitative data and

will provide numerous points of comparison for the discussion of results. The website analysis

revealed to me the type of Green marketing communication strategy each of the companies

employed. I found Tesco to have an intermediate strategy (contrary to the initial assumption

made that it was overt), TBS to have an overt strategy (instead of having an intermediate

strategy), and IKEA to have a covert strategy. Within the netnography research many themes

were highlighted from online users’ opinion and thoughts where a number of valuable

comparisons of different strategies will be able to be discussed further in the next section. By

comparing the rich results from the website analysis and linking this to the findings of the

netnography, I believe that valuable discussions and findings will be able to be drawn from

differing Green marketing communication strategies.


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Chapter 5 – Discussion of Results

5.1 Introduction

Each of the three companies were examined through company website analysis and netnography

which resulted in a wealth of qualitative data available for discussion. Please see appendix 17 for

a comparative table of the findings for each company. The following discussion aims to build on

what was found in chapter 4 and explore the case study results in a comparative manner. By

looking at the results from the netnography and linking it to the relative website analysis I was

able to examine the opinions and perceptions of online consumers concerning TBS’s (overt),

Tesco’s (intermediate), and IKEA’s (covert) Green marketing communication strategies. With

this I will be able to draw on and compare the results in terms of their similarities and differences

concerning each company’s strategy. The discussion will reflect on and compare the effects

Green marketing communication strategies have on consumers’ opinions and perceptions found

online. From this it is believed, new understanding will be able to be developed, opening new

avenues of investigation and research. Finally a summary will conclude the discussion to

highlight the most important findings and implication for future Green marketing communication

strategies.

5.2 Evangelism in communications

Evangelism was one of the Green marketing communication method highlighted by Grant (2007)

in B1 of his Green marketing grid (see figure 1). From TBS’s website analysis it was found that,

as Grant (2007) highlighted, they strongly employed evangelistic methods in an overt way. TBS

has long been associated with their environmental campaigning and the use of their business as a

platform for their political stances. These strong messages provoked a lot of emotion in the

netnography results where I found that it caused people to be emotionally invested in TBS and

the issues they stand for. This could be seen in the 10 year time span of people defending them.

However, I feel that although evangelism builds up and inspires people, thus benefiting the

company and the environment, it also opens the company up for disaster should you fall short of


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your own standards (linked to Grant’s, 2007, theories of claiming virtue). Even though

evangelism does not proclaim one’s own actions, it provides a higher standard for one’s actions

to be judged by. I saw this Green marketing fail point presented in the strong presence of

negative findings due to TBS’s takeover by L’Oreal. From the comments users made about this

controversial action it was apparent they felt the takeover undermined all that TBS stood for in

terms of their environmental values. As Grant (2007) argued, online users were very quick to

express their hurt, disappointment and anger felt from the takeover despite TBS’s many years of

environmental success. The result of which, as I have found, is negative perceptions and loss of

consumer trust. TBS’s overt strategy coupled with their evangelistic methods has meant that TBS

appear to be hypocritical since their actions violate the causes TBS proclaim. With these

findings I believe that an overt Green marketing communication strategy demands much caution

as the damage that it can cause to a company’s reputation can be great should the company falter

or change their course of action as seen in TBS case study. This also suggests to me that

evangelism, while effective and emotive, is seen to be risky if one’s standards are not followed

through in their entirety.

5.3 Education in communications

Tesco, with an interpreted intermediate Green marketing communication strategy, used

education widely in their ‘Greener living’ website with solutions to problems being rooted in

their products. However, what I found was that perhaps due to the constant reference of

education back to Tesco’s products, online users were negative about Tesco’s motives (further

discussed in section 5.6). Although Tesco’s intermediate strategy meant the Green education

section of their website was not obvious to find from their home page, once reached the

resources of education available were significant. However, I believe consumers were generally

unable to successfully recall or relate educational information on a broad level considering the

amount of education available to them. This suggests to me that the educational element of

Tesco’s website has not been used to its full potential. Therefore, it could be thought that the

intermediate strategy is not suitable to educational methods. However, IKEA’s covert

educational success suggests that this may not be the case.


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One of IKEA’s communication methods consisted of linking environmental education to their

policies and practices. Unlike Tesco, I saw IKEA’s customers as being successfully able to recall

a lot of educational information which I attribute to their provision of education through

downloadable material. This is especially poignant because to get access to such information

takes effort to search for it as it is not obviously displayed due to their covert strategy. According

to my research, the fact that users frequently referred to such information suggests that a covert

strategy might not affect how many people are able to access educational communications.

Building on this, users were observed as relaying education successfully to other users,

supported them and sharing their experiences. Such behaviour works in IKEA’s favour as

positive word of mouth is particularly powerful and is a free form of advertisement (East et al,

2008). However, all of the findings surrounding IKEA and their covert education methods were

not positive. Two negative comments from the findings possibly stemmed from consumers not

being informed about certain aspects of IKEA’s education of procedures and policies. I have

deduced that this could be linked to their covert Green marketing communication strategy which

maybe resulted in false criticism. This could suggest that covert strategies can have negative

effect on consumers’ opinions, an element that was not highlighted by Grant (2007). However,

the research to suggest this conclusion is limited and further investigation into this aspect would

be required to draw more meaningful interpretations.

5.4 Anti-credible partners

With TBS having built their business around sustainability and held in high regards in ethical

and Green brand polls (Grant, 2007) one would expect to find positive results. However, TBS

findings appeared to be overrun by negative comments surrounding them being taken over by

L’Oreal. This action appeared to leave consumers in the discussion findings being constantly

concerned about where their money is ultimately going and that TBS’s dealings are not

consistent with their overt evangelistic standards (as discussed in section 5.2). In line with the

online comments it appears that TBS’s reputation has been stained by L’Oreal’s low animal

testing standards (news.bbc.co.uk) where the clashing of these two business practices has

resulted in negative responses. This seems to be the opposite of Grant’s (2007, p109) ‘Credible

Partners’ approach in grid A2. Taking Grant’s (2007) theory, one would deduce that TBS’s


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positive Green image would result in benefiting L’Oreal. However, it appears that L’Oreal’s lack

of a positive Green image (news.bbc.co.uk) has instead tainted TBS’s Green image. My possible

reasoning for this outcome comes from levels of power, for example, L’Oreal bought, and now

has the power over, TBS which thus results in L’Oreal’s reputation dominating TBS’s. I believe

that it is a combination of these above factors which have lead to ‘anti-credible partners’ due to

the negative effect that this partnership appears to have. However, such definitive findings would

require other similar situations to provide stronger conclusions such as investigating the Cadbury

takeover of Green & Black’s chocolate.

5.5 Trust in covert strategies

The IKEA findings suggested that customers appeared to have more trust in what IKEA said

concerning standards, materials and policies, where there were minimal questioning of motives

and IKEA’s honesty. From studying their website, I believe it is possible that this level of trust

could be because of the wealth of downloadable official publications and information available.

Although access to this information was covert, I found that people responded well to this

strategy where they could be more likely to believe Green marketing communication information

they find themselves. This aspect also added to more excitement seen in user comments which I

suspect is due to their participation in finding this covert information and sharing it with others.

This result was important in its demonstration of why Grant (2007) is so passionate about covert

strategies.

5.6 Suspicion of Green marketing communications

It was interesting to note that all of the companies, at least in one instance, were accused of

having a monetary focus in their environmental efforts. This immediately suggested to me that

people are arguably dubious about all Green marketing strategy motives regardless of company

(Grant, 2007).

Tesco’s netnography results showed that the online opinions were influenced by the belief that

supermarkets are profit driven (Besoeker, 2009, Website 4a). From my research it appeared that


64

consumers were very focused with companies’ ulterior motives. Many times Tesco was accused

of being driven by profits, for example in their Green Clubcard points initiative and

Greenwashing accusations. This confusion of motives is noted by Grant (2007, p.22) where he

argues that this type of reaction to new Green behaviour is the “why are they suddenly being so

nice to me?’ syndrome.’ Tesco perhaps would have benefited from a more covert strategy, like

IKEA’s, so that consumers would be able to accept their Green endeavours on a quieter level

before more overt Green communications are made. However, a progression of Green marketing

communication strategies might not be suited to all companies. Online users also appeared to be

concerned about Tesco’s integrity in their self proclaimed standards where several users were

able to identify situations where they felt Tesco were not acting accordingly, particularly

concerning home delivery. Due the high number of people expressing concerns, this suggests to

me that the more overt the Green marketing communication strategy, the more as risk you could

run at being judged negatively as consumers appear to be seeking out negative factors (Grant,

2007).

IKEA were accused of having monetary motives behind their policy that customers should pay

for bags. This type of accusation was also seen in the Tesco results and generally this notion of

paying extra for something that was previously free does not appear to appeal to consumers.

These comments were minimal yet it was interesting to see that consumers were able make

negative comments on the same basis about two differing Green marketing communication

strategies. Users also appeared to be highly suspicious of TBS after the L’Oreal takeover, where

it was found that trust in TBS and their actions seemed to be lost in many users. This element of

TBS findings was discussed in more depth in section 5.4.

5.7 Honesty in Reporting Shortcomings

An interesting aspect was found in the netnography findings of Tesco and IKEA where I gather

that there was an appreciation of honesty that appeared to appeal to users. This is in line with

addressing one of Peattie’s (2002, p.88) ‘misconceptions about Green marketing’ - you do not

have to be completely Green to practice Green marketing.


65

In the IKEA results, I found that users liked being able to identify the country where products

were made (sometimes China) regardless of the implications. I believe that this show openness

on IKEA’s part and promotes trust between IKEA and consumers. Here it is seen that consumers

acknowledge that IKEA are trying where possible, however, cannot always act Green and thus

report such shortcomings.

Despite the high number of negative comments in the Tesco netnography findings, some users

did stand up for Tesco and defended their actions with the fact that they are trying to improve.

This was encouraging to see that despite such negative comments, some users were able to put

into perspective Tesco’s improvements. Such results suggests to me that adopting an ‘at least

we’re trying’ (Grant, 2007, p.85) position is a humble approach which appears to be something

that consumers were able to relate to due to the amount of defensive comments found of this.

Incorporating the findings of IKEA and Tesco, I suggest that one method of combating negative

reactions to any Green marketing communication strategy would be to admit that as a company,

they are not Green in their entirety and are making efforts to become Greener. This, Grant (2007,

p.79) argues would subdue the ‘claiming of virtue’ effect and makes companies’ efforts more

realistic and believable.

5.8 Cultural Alignment

In the findings IKEA was the only company that had its reputation and opinions directly linked

to its Swedish and European origin. Cultural alignment Green marketing communication

strategies were introduced by Grant (2007) and here I see it playing a strong role in how much

people trust their high European standards; directly linking and thus reflecting positively on

IKEA. However, within IKEA results, I also saw how China’s negative environmental reputation

was highlighted concerning certain materials and products sold at IKEA. Here I found that

consumers appear to align both positive and negative elements of environmental products and

strategies to the countries of origin, this is known as the country-of-origin effect (Verlegh et al,

2005). This suggests to me that companies should identify whether their country of origin would

have a negative or positive effect on their Green marketing communication strategy and thus act

accordingly to promote or deflect such attention.


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5.9 Summary

I believe that the discussion element of this study has provided highly valuable conclusions

where from the findings it was apparent to me that different Green marketing communication

strategies have differing effects on a number of different areas. This concept builds further on

Grant’s (2007, p.93) theory of three types of Green marketing communication strategies (see

appendix 15). For example in the findings education communications appeared to vary in its

receptivity from strategy to strategy with Tesco’s (intermediate) large educational resources not

being as successfully recalled as IKEA’s (covert). In line with another of Grant’s (2007)

arguments, covert strategies were found to exhibit a higher level of trust from consumers in my

findings. However, it was also found that Grant (2007) seemed to overlook the possible negative

aspects of such covert strategies. I found that instances did occur where negative comments were

made possibly in ignorance due to IKEA’s covert strategy.

In overt strategies, TBS’s strategy and reputation was tainted due to their actions not matching

up to their evangelistic methods and high self proclaimed standards. Such effects suggest to me

that overt strategies are highly effective when acting in harmony with them, but in disregarding

ones’ own standards the company could suffer detrimental reputation ruin. Building on Grant’s

(2007, p.109) idea of ‘credible partners,’ I termed the negative partnership seen in the L’Oreal

takeover of TBS as an ‘anti-credible’ one as from consumers’ opinions it appeared to result in

only damaging TBS’s reputation.

One finding that was consistent across all strategies on a number of levels was a suspicion of

ulterior motives where users questioned if companies were driven by profits and if they were

being truthful in their communications and actions. Another notion that was found in the

discussion was that consumers appear to appreciate honesty and accept when companies admit

they are not completely Green instead of claiming they are Green (Peattie, 2002; and Grant,

2007). In order to address the problem of suspicion I would suggest that incorporating an

element of honesty in reporting into any strategy would prove to be beneficial, providing that

they are working on becoming Green. Finally, cultural alignments were found within the IKEA

results where many users appeared to be influenced by the country-of-origin effect in a positive

manner due to IKEA being inextricably linked to high European environmental standards.


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Overall what I found was that differing Green marketing communication strategies have a

multitude of effects and implications which this study has only just begun to understand. This

analysis suggested that the effect of Green marketing communication strategies permeates more

aspects than was outlined by Grant (2007). Here consumers’ differing reactions to the

implementation of the same methods in different strategies provides me with the conclusion that

Green marketing communication strategies may have a bigger effect on companies’

communication methods than anticipated. The limited research in this area demands attention

where more detailed results from further studies can provide valuable information for marketing

and environmental success.


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Chapter 6 - Conclusion

Although Green marketing has been observed since the 1980’s, the emphasis placed on

companies going Green today has never been stronger. What was evident from my review of the

literature was that authors see honest and progressive Green marketing campaigns as essential to

commercial and environmental success. They have written little about the differing potential

Green marketing strategies and recommendation for action. However, I found no documentation

of studies on the effects that differing strategies may have on consumers’ opinions and therefore

companies’ reputations. Thus, this was found to be a suitable and appropriate area of research to

help build on the limited literature.

This study aimed to explore and compare three Green marketing strategies using website

analysis of company websites. Using typologies defined from Grant’s (2007) work (see appendix

15) I was able to identify three companies which I found to represent the three differing

strategies; TBS as overt, IKEA as covert and Tesco as intermediate. From this I was able to

observe how these differing Green marketing communication strategies related to the opinions

and perceptions online consumers have. Combining these two elements of my research resulted

in the ability to evaluate consumer perceptions of the Green efforts exhibited by the three distinct

Green marketing communication strategies.

The amount of data gathered for each of the three companies particularly varied in terms of their

netnographic research where comparatively little discussion forums were found for IKEA which

I interpret as being a result of the low profile strategy IKEA has been found to have. Whereas,

Tesco and TBS searches resulted in a large number of discussions. To improve the quality of

data, an approach in which I interacted with online users could have been used in conjunction

with the netnographic techniques used. Suggestions for this could be interviews with users

online. It is felt though that the results from the netnography were representative of the issues

and opinions raised in the discussions.

As I saw in the literature review of Grant’s (2007) Green marketing methods, there were many

combinations of methods that a company could choose. What was interpreted from the findings


69

was that a companies’ Green marketing strategy may affect deeper marketing levels that what

Grant (2007) had argued. For example what was seen in the consumer discussions was that

methods of education were received differently across an intermediate (Tesco) and covert

(IKEA) strategy. Although Grant (2007) and other writers did not directly address this issue of

consumer responses, my results were interpreted as suggesting that differing Green marketing

communication strategies produce effects that permeate more aspects than was anticipated. A

more extensive and exhaustive study and discussion on this issue would help to broaden my

understanding of the effects strategies can have.

What was found was that TBS, which is often held in high environmental regard (Grant, 2007),

suffered reputation damage due to its 2006 takeover by L’Oreal. I attributed the backlash from

online consumers to be partly due to TBS’s overt Green marketing strategy coupled with their

evangelistic communications. Although evangelism is effective whilst maintaining good

environmental standing, it appeared to have a crippling effect should environmental standards or

actions be perceived as relaxing. This suggests to me that when adopting methods of

communication a company should investigate the possible positive or negative relationship this

could have with the overall Green marketing strategy of the company. Drawing on Grant’s

(2007, p.109) theories of ‘credible partners’, I also saw the L’Oreal takeover of TBS as being an

‘anti-credible partner’.

Finally, in IKEA’s covert strategy I found a number of examples which sheds light on why this

strategy was so highly favoured by Grant (2007). Additionally, IKEA was also found to be the

only company whose Green credentials had been linked to its country of origin as Grant (2007)

had also done. Having what I assessed as the lowest number of negative comments, the effects of

the covert strategy were striking in the way that they were also consistent with Grant’s (2007)

view that IKEA’s strategy is best received by consumers. Additionally online users were able to

recall and relate information from the company’s covert communications, suggesting to me that a

low profile might not effect how many people are able to access and talk about IKEA’s Green

credentials. However, two of the negative comments made seemed oblivious to relevant IKEA

policies. Although they were presented in a constructive manner, as highlighted in the previous

chapter, this signified to me the possibility of negative comments arising due to IKEA’s covert


70

strategy. This finding was marginal in my results but I suggest that a more extensive study into

this matter may reveal richer data from which more meaningful interpretations could be made.

Consumer questioning of corporate motives was a consistent finding in response to each strategy.

Therefore, I suggest that consumers would appreciate honesty in policies, even if this entails

commenting on Green failures or shortcomings. My interpretation leads me to believe that

consumers cannot believe if a company suddenly ‘turns’ Green and would rather accept it being

presented as a goal they are working towards. This is in harmony with suggestions both from

Grant (2007) and Peattie (2002) where claiming virtue is not beneficial and being Green is not a

one step strategy.

Areas of possible future research are able to be highlighted from this study where a progression

of the same methodology and research process with different companies on a wider scale would

result in richer data. For example, in the discussion, more definitive and meaningful

interpretations could have been highlighted had each of the three companies belonged to the

same industry. Due to the nature of the three varying industries (Supermarkets, Cosmetics and

Furniture) this meant that research on Green marketing communication strategies and its

consumer effects could have been affected by these differences. Such fundamental differences

for instance lie in the frequency of consumers visiting or purchasing from each company which

could have an effect on how consumers feel about each strategy due to differing levels of Green

marketing strategy exposure. Examining companies within the same industry (for example

extending supermarkets to also include Sainsburys and Marks & Spencers) would provide a

higher platform to compare differing Green marketing communication strategies. Different

industries and their adopted strategies may be received differently by consumers and this would

be an interesting avenue to pursue to gain further knowledge about the effects of Green

marketing communication strategies.

I believe that this study has only just touched on the dynamics of Green marketing

communication strategies and its effects. As mentioned, there is an obvious and regrettable lack

of literature for research and guidance on this subject and the ever growing problem and

concomitant focus on climate change calls for more people to research this relatively new

phenomenon. Green marketing, although seemingly oxymoronic, has, as I have argued, the


71

power to influence consumers greatly. Further investigation into the complexities of strategies

such as this study, can not only benefit business, but consumers and the environment too,

resulting in a state which Grant (2007, p.2) suggested as being the solution to Green marketing,

‘beautiful coincidences.’


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