National Capacity Needs Self Assessment (NCSA) · Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) and the...
Transcript of National Capacity Needs Self Assessment (NCSA) · Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) and the...
National Capacity Needs Self Assessment (NCSA)
CAPACITIES, GAPS AND PRIORITIES FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN THE INDIAN HIMALAYA AND TRANS-HIMALAYA (UTTARANCHAL, HIMACHAL
PRADESH AND JAMMU AND KASHMIR)
Draft Report Submitted to ATREE, Bangalore
ByMeera Anna OommenIndependent Consultant
Last revised Jan 2008
Acknowledgements
The NCSA team at ATREE (Neha Ambastha, Ankila Hiremath, Seema Purushothaman, Kartik Shanker,
Ravi Chellam and Gladwin Joseph) and Ms. Aarthi Sridhar is acknowledged for extensive discussions and
development of methodology. The contribution of the following individuals is acknowledged for their
inputs on regional capacities: Dr. Ashwini Chhatre (Duke University), Mr. Rohit Devlal (Appropriate
Technology, India), Dr. Joseph L. Fox (University of TromsØ, Norway), Prof. Brij Gopal (Jawaharlal
Nehru University), Dr. P.K. Joshi (Indian Institute of Remote Sensing), Dr. C.P. Kala (National Medicinal
Plants Board), Dr. R.K. Maikhuri (GBPIHED), Charudutt Mishra (NCF-Mysore and International Snow-
Leopard Trust), Tsewang Namgail , Dr. M.C. Nautiyal, Dr. Sanjeeva Pandey (Winrock International and
Forest Department), Dr. K. Ramesh (Wildlife Institute of India), Dr. K.S. Rao (CISMHE), Dr. G.S. Rawat
(Wildlife Institute of India), Vinay Tandon (Winrock International and Forest Department), Rajesh
Thadani (CHIRAG) and Rinchen Wanchuk (Snow Leopard Conservancy).
Contents
PART I
1. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN THE INDIAN HIMALAYA AND TRANS HIMALAYA:
CURRENT STATUS AND THREATS
2. LINKAGES - THE CONTRIBUTION OF INSTITUTIONS AND INITIATIVES TOWARDS
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CBD IN HIMALAYA AND THE TRANS HIMALAYA
3. THEMATIC AREAS AND CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES: CAPACITY STATUS IN THE HIMALAYA AND
THE TRANS HIMALAYA
PART II
4. THE HIMALAYA: CAPACITY STATUS, PRIORITIES AND POTENTIAL PROJECTS FOR THE
HIMALAYA WITH RESPECT TO SPECIFIC ARTICLES OF THE CONVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY
5. THE TRANS HIMALAYA: CAPACITY STATUS, PRIORITIES AND POTENTIAL PROJECTS WITH
RESPECT TO SPECIFIC ARTICLES OF THE CONVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY
6. APPENDICES
Appendix 1a) Capacity status and interlinkages between the MoEF and other ministries b) 1b) Appendix 1b Capacity status and interlinkages of institutions working in the regionAppendix 2 Institutional activities in the region relating to the various CBD requirements
CHAPTER 1
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN THE INDIAN HIMALAYA AND TRANS
HIMALAYA: CURRENT STATUS AND THREATS
Project Overview: The NCSA
The National Capacity Needs Self-Assessment (NCSA) process aims to assess a country’s
capacities for fulfilling its commitments as a signatory to the three international environmental
conventions (the Convention on Biodiversity, the Convention to Combat Desertification, and the
Framework Convention on Climate Change)—and other relevant Multilateral Environmental
Agreements (MEAs)1. The primary goal of conducting the NCSA is to determine national
priorities for capacity development by identifying the strengths and gaps among various
stakeholder groups in the country. This would further facilitate prioritisation of areas and projects
for support to capacity building by the GEF.
Recognising that capacity assessment and capacity development are vital to effectively
implement activities and commitments related to biodiversity conservation, thematic profiles are
being developed to identify priorities in each region of interest. This report deals with a thematic
profile of the Himalaya and Trans Himalaya biogeographic zones of northern India. In this
exercise, the biodiversity conservation capacity strengths, constraints and gaps among
stakeholder groups are analysed and presented along with recommendations and requirements
for detailed study and funding.
Methods
1 These include Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar), Ramsar 1971; Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), Washington 1973; Convention on the Conservation of
Migratory Species (CMS), Bonn 1979; Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer (Ozone), Vienna 1989;
Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes, Basel 1989; Convention on
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), (Stockholm), 2001. Source NCSA Resource Kit.
For the purpose of this study, a number of methods were used. The first step included extensive
reviews of previously published literature on the region and a re-evaluation of the initial linkages
report (this included cross-checking gaps that were reported during this exercise). Primary data
was compiled from an analysis of completed institutional questionnaires (that were sent out
during the stock-taking phase) was carried out and institutional websites. A total of 78
institutions were evaluated in this manner. In addition questionnaires were sent to over 40 key
informants/ experts. and their views (over 30 responses were received) have been incorporated in
this report. Respondents were selected across a range of disciplines with direct relevance to
biodiversity conservation. A gap analysis and prioritisation matrix was then developed to
ascertain the final set of recommendations. Two senior level experts familiar with biodiversity
conservation in the region reviewed the report.
The Study Regions
The Himalaya is one of the largest and youngest mountain ranges of the world, and covers close
to 10% of India’s land area Extending across much of the northern and north-eastern borders of
the country, the Himalayan massif regulates climate for a much of Asia and provides ecosystem
services (especially perennial water systems) to the heavily populated plains of India. It has been
estimated that the ecological services provided by the range is critical for the sustainable
development of over 140 million people who live within these ranges and over 1.4 billion people
who live downstream in over 10 countries (ICIMOD 20041). In addition, due to its unique
location as the meeting place of three biogeographic realms (the Palaearctic, Indo-Malayan and
Mediterranean), species diversity and endemism in the region is considerable. At the same time
as is the case with most mountain ecosystems elsewhere, the region extremely fragile as a
complex result of tectonic activities and anthropogenic influences. On account of its unique and
diverse ecosystems and high levels of threat, the Himalaya has been recently designated as a
global biodiversity hotspot by Conservation international2. Key areas of the Himalaya also find a
place in other major delineations by international organisations such as ecoregions (WWF),
World Heritage Sites (the IUCN and WCMC), and Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO).
1 ICIMOD, 2004. The Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region. http://www.icimod.org.
2 For more information, refer to: http://www.conservation.org/xp/Hotspots/himalaya/
In northern India, the Himalaya extends across the states of Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal (290 to 36 0 N latitude and 740 to 81 0 E longitude). The
Himalayan region falling within this zone is classified into two major biogeographic zones: the
Trans-Himalaya and the Himalaya.
The Trans Himalaya biogeographic zone is located across the divide of the Great
Himalaya. In northern India this zone comprises almost all of Ladakh and Kargil districts
(Jammu and Kashmir), parts of Lahul and Spiti and Kinnaur districts (Himachal Pradesh), parts
of Uttaranchal state. A large percentage of area in the Trans Himalaya is high altitude cold desert
(approx. 100,000 km2), and is characterised by exceptionally low temperatures and precipitation.
The windward slopes of the Great Himalaya and associated ranges form a large
biophysical zone that is classified under the Himalaya biogeographic zone. Ecosystems in this
zone range from the subtropical forests of the Siwaliks to alpine meadows and scrub in the
higher elevations. Also referred to as the Western Himalayan Ecoregion, Singh et al (2002) stress
that the diversity and uniqueness of the Western Himalayan Ecoregion (WHE) is unique in terms
of its latitudinal, altitudinal and moisture gradients. As per the Champion and Seth (1968)
classification, 11 major types (and 47 subtypes including seral stages and disturbance types)
occur in the Himalaya. (Forest types found in the Himalaya as per the Champion and Seth (1968)
classification: Source: Table given on page 22 in Singh NBSAP). The key features of biological
diversity in this region include: 1) wide latitudinal, altitudinal and moisture gradients
encompassing a large number of ecosystem types, 2) high levels of diversity and endemism, 3)
unique examples of agro-biodiversity, 3) species of great commercial value, and 4) unique
indigenous knowledge systems.
This report attempts to investigate the capacities and needs related to biodiversity
conservation in the following provinces (as per the Rodgers and Panwar1988 classification1) of
the Indian Himalaya:
1A – Trans Himalaya – Ladakh Mountains
1B – Trans Himalaya – Tibetan Plateau
1 Rodgers, W.A. and H.S. Panwar. 1988. Panning a Protected Area Network in India. Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehradun. Government of India. 341 pages.
2A – Himalaya – North-west Himalaya
2B – Himalaya – West Himalaya
Flora and Fauna of the Himalaya
The Western Himalaya Ecoregion encompasses one of the largest altitudinal gradients in the
world, ranging from the low elevation Siwaliks to the higher peaks of the Great Himalaya. Forest
types range from tropical to alpine, and as a meeting place of three biogeographic realms,
encompass a unique intermixture of species with both tropical and temperate affinities. Some of
the riches assemblages of wild and medicinal plants are found in this region. It has been
estimated that the region supports over 4500 species of vascular plants (Singh et al 2002). Agro-
biodiversity recorded from the region is also considerable as are recorded medicinal plant species
traditionally used by people. The mid-elevation oak (Quercus sp.) forests found in the region are
ecologically as well as economically important. A number of species such as sal (Shorea
robusta), chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) and deodar (Cedrus deodara) have been extracted for their
wood. Currently extensive harvesting of medicinal species such as Taxus wallichiana, Aconitum
heterophyllum and Picrorrhiza kurrooa are causing concern.
High plant species diversity and productivity of this zone is matched by a diverse
assemblage of faunal elements. Avifauna in this region is diverse and over 640 species of birds
have been reported of which 205 are endemic (Singh et al 2002). Bird species of maximum
conservation importance include the pheasants such as the Western tragopan (Tragopan
melanocephalus), the satyr tragopan (Tragopan satyra) and Cheer pheasant (Catreus wallichi).
The mammalian fauna of the Himalaya is also diverse. The lower altitudes, especially the
Siwalik zone has significant populations of elephant (Elephas maximus), tiger (Panthera tigris)
and other large mammal populations. The temperate zone has a large number of resident species.
Among these include endangered species like the musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), the
Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) and the Kashmir stag or hangul (Cervus elaphus
hangulu). Compared to birds and mammals, reptiles and amphibians are less studied and less
diverse, especially in the higher altitudes. Fish species diversity is considerable and a large
number of fish species have been introduced into the region. The golden mahseer (Tor ), which is
found in the lower and middle altitude streams and rivers, is now endangered. Reliable estimated
of invertebrate diversity for the region are not available. Over 450 species of butterflies
(Lepidoptera), more than 200 species of Hymenoptera, and close to 50 species (each) of
Hemiptera and Isoptera are reported from the region (Singh et al 2002).
Flora and Fauna of the Trans Himalaya
The plant and animal species that manage to exist in this region is well adapted to the harsh,
extreme environmental conditions. Compared to the main Himalaya, this region is floristically
impoverished. Floristically, this region has affinities with the main Himalaya and diverse regions
such as Afghanistan, Tibet, the Mediterranean region and the Indian desert areas. About 750
species of flowering plants have been reported from the region (Chundawat and Rawat 1994)1.
Unique floristic features of this region include a large number of endemics, a high proportion of
monocots and the absence of large tree species. Predominant taxonomic groups include
Asteraceae (Compositae) and Brassicaceae (Cruciferae). The vegetation of the cold desert has
been largely characterized as the Caragana-Lonicera-Artemesia formation which is found all
over the region (Dry alpine scrub as per the Champion and Seth 1968 classification). In this
region, there are a number of species of great medicinal and economic importance, and a result
have great conservation importance. Wild relatives of numerous species including onion (Alium
sp.) rhubarb (Rheum) and Horedum (barley) are found in the Trans Himalaya. It is believed that
over 50% of plants in the region have recorded medicinal value (Kala 20012). Common
medicinal and aromatic plants include species such as Physoclaina praelta and a number of
species belonging to the genera Artemesia, Tanacetum, Delphinium, etc. Trees and shrubs,
particularly Juniperus and Betula utilis which have aromatic as well as medicinal properties
seem to have been over harvested.
Despite low plant diversity and productivity, the fauna is surprisingly diverse and has
elements from the Himalayan as well as Mediterranean and Tibetan regions. Bird life is diverse
and the high altitude wetlands are the breeding grounds for large number of migrants, especially
water birds. Bird families with the highest species diversity are the Muscicapidae (Thrushes,
1 Chundawat, R.S. and G.S Rawat. 1994. Indian Cold Deserts: A Status Report on Biodiversity. Wildlife Institute of
India, Dehradun.
2 Kala, C.P. (2001) A Study of Traditional Health Care & Medicinal Plants. In Anon. (2001) Conserving Bio-
Diversity in the Trans-Himalaya: New Initiatives of Field Conservation in Ladakh. First annual Technical Report
(1999-2000), Wildlife Institute of India, International Snow Leopard Trust and US Fish and Wildlife Service.
Flycatchers & Redstarts &Chats: 32 species), the Sylviidae (Whitethroats & Warblers: 25 sp.),
the Fringillidae (Finches & Buntings: 24 sp.), the Accipitridae (Hawks: 23sp.), the Scolopacidae
(Sandpipers, Snipes & Curlews: 23 sp.), the Passeridae (Sparrows, Wagtails, Pipits & Accentors:
22 sp.), and the Anatidae (Ducks & Geese: 15sp.). Birds found in this region that are of high
conservation value include the black-necked crane (Grus nigricollis), Tibetan sand grouse
(Syrrhaptes tibetanus), Tibetan snowcock (Tetragalus tibetanus) , chukar (Alectoris chukar),
golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) and the bar-headed goose (Anser indicus). A number of
mammal species are found in the region are endangered and are listed under Schedule I of the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (and in Appendix I of CITES). Examples include the snow
leopard (Uncia uncia), the Ladakh urial or shapu (Ovis vignei vignei), the Tibetan argali or
nayan (Ovis ammon hodgsoni) and the Himalayan ibex (Capra ibex sibirica). Species such as the
wild yak (Bos grunniens), the Tibetan gazelle or goa (Procapra hodgsoni) and the Tibetan
antelope or chiru (Pantholops hodgsoni) found in the Chang Thang region of the Trans Himalaya
are similarly under threat.
Very little is known about other faunal groups. It is known that there are few species of
amphibians and reptiles. Only a few amphibians and reptiles (approximately 12 species) are
adapted to the region. Amphibians are represented by the toads (Bufonidae), reptiles include
agamids (Agamidae - three species of toad agamas are found in this region, even in the Chang
Thang), skinks (Sinicidae), geckos (Geckonidae) and the snake family Colubridae (three species
of colubrid snakes). Since these are not diverse groups, much attention has not been paid to them
and the survey conducted by Wildlife Institute of India in 1999-2001 (Vijayakumar et al 2001)1
remains as one of the few such efforts in the region. Endemic fish diversity is believed to be
considerable, however much has not been published on fish diversity in the region. A number of
species belonging to the loach family (Homaopteridae) and a carp species (Cyprinidae) have
been reported from the region (Humbert-Droz 2001)2.
1 Vijayakumar, S.P., K. Vasudevan and B.C Choudhury. 2001. A Preliminary Survey of Herpetofauna in the Ladakh
Region. In: Conserving Biodiversity in the Trans Himalaya: New Initiatives of Field Conservation in Ladakh. First
Annual Technical Report (1999-2000), Wildlife Institute of India, International Snow Leopard Trust and the U.S
Fish and Wildlife Service.2 Humbert-Droz, B. 2001. Survey findings and priorities for protection of the Chang Thang region of Ladakh and
Upper Spiti Valley in Himachal Pradesh. Unpublished report, Worldwide Fund for Nature, Gland, Switzerland and
New Delhi. Cross-reference.
Invertebrate diversity in the region is largely undocumented and still remains to be
explored in detail. A number of surveys were conducted in the Trans Himalayan regions during
the seventies (Mani 19621) and a few recent studies have added to them. These include
Maheshwari (2000)2 and also surveys by the Wildlife Institute of India (Uniyal , the WWF
(Humbert-Droz 2001) .
Threats to biodiversity conservation in the Himalaya
Deforestation
Deforestation was and continues to be a major threat to biodiversity conservation in this region.
Commercial logging was a major problem in the recent past (especially during the colonia era for
railway expansion and post independence). Currently, firewood and fodder extraction, frequent
forest fires, road construction, etc. contribute to deforestation and forest fragmentation. Many
forests especially in the lower and middle elevations are affected and there are hardly any
completely undisturbed slopes left behind that encompass large altitudinal gradients. Commercial
exploitation was aimed at both lower elevation species such as sal (Dalbergia sissoo), and chir
pine (Pinus roxburghii) as well as conifers from the higher elevation (e.g. deoadar, Cedrus
deodara). In the middle elevations, oaks are preferred fodder species and many communities
practice lopping of trees.
Commercial extraction of medicinal plants
One of the major problems facing the region is the unregulated extraction of medicinal and
aromatic plants for commercial purposes. Although traditionally, a large number of plants have
been utilised, current levels of extraction are much higher and cannot be sustained on a long-
term. A number of medicinal species (such as Taxus wallichiana and Aconitum heterophyllum)
are now under threat. In addition commercialisation has taken place without adequate regulations
in place and infringe on benefit sharing and IPR arrangements. There is an urgent need to frame
specific biotechnology, sustainable use, benefit sharing and IPR guidelines specific to this
1 Mani, M.S. 1962. Introduction to High Altitude Entomology. Methuen and Co., Ltd., London.2 Maheshwari, G. (2000). A survey of bio-indicator community of Chironomidae (Diptera) of North-West Himalayan
lakes. National consultation on conservation of high altitude wetlands in Ladakh. WWF-India at Leh, July 2000.
region. Currently some amount of base line information is available for the region (for details,
see Misra 20033).
Grazing
Grazing in the alpine pastures has been practiced over a long-term and exists in some sort of
equilibrium. However, when grazing is carried out in the forests, there are adverse consequences.
Regeneration is affected and seedlings are often damaged. Species such as oaks are particularly
under threat. Grazing in conjunction with settlements within sub-alpine forests lead to gap
formation (as people also lop wood) and failure in regeneration.
Invasive species
The spread of invasive species such as Lantana, Eupatorium and Parthenium continues to cause
problems for the region. Continued spread of Lantana in the lower elevations has led to
persistent fires as well as failure in the regeneration of native species and carbon loss. Higher
elevation areas are also under threat from exotics (for example the Valley of Flowers N.P).
Poaching
Poaching is still a problem in some areas of the Himalaya and some large mammals and large-
bodied birds are targeted. Musk Deer is still poached and traded in considerable numbers and
adequate measures need to be taken. The conduits for musk deer poaching are the valleys
bordering Nepal and Tibet. In the main Himalaya, hunting of tahr and sambar and pheasants,
partridges, etc. takes place on a small scale. In the lower elevations, especially the Siwaliks, the
problem is more pronounced and large ungulates are frequently trapped or shot for the pot. It is
important to distinguish between low level subsistence use by local communities in sparsely
populated areas as opposed to targeted commercial exploration of selected species.
Growth of orchards
In parts of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir plantations such as apple are well
established and seen as a model for economic growth. However, in most of these regions, the
3 Misra, M.K. 2003. Baseline information on medicinal plant conservation and sustainable utilization. Overview
Report. Sponsored by UNDP/GEF, MoEF, GoI and coordinated by the Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health
Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore.
growth of orchards have resulted in clear-felling of trees for wood for packing cases, extensive
use of pesticides, and damage to pollination systems. The decline in prices of fruit (as was seen
in the case of H.P) also have detrimental effects on the economy as a whole.
Pollution and eutrophication
Pollution of river systems water and bodies and eutrophication of lakes have had adverse effects
on aquatic systems. These seem to be very serious problems in Kashmir as well as in the
Kumaon region of Uttaranchal (Nainital in particular). Some of the lakes are in need of urgent
restoration measures.
Global warming
Global warming is a definite threat to the region and evidence for the region is already been
gathered from glacial retreat (insert ref on recent Nature paper), range contraction and
phonological changes of species (Singh et al. 19971) as well as temperature and season changes.
An important point to note is that local communities are on the whole unaware of such changes
and need to be educated on such aspects.
Threats to biodiversity conservation in the Trans-Himalaya
Information on threats in this zone have been summarised largely from the NBSAP documents
on Ladakh, Lahul and Spiti and Kinnaur.
Changes in lifestyles and economic structures
On account of it remote location and economic and cultural alliances with Tibet, Pakistan and
parts of Central Asia, Ladakh was more or less sheltered from change till Indian independence.
As borders with China and Pakistan became closed for barter, new alliances had to be developed
with the rest of India. This resulted in a departure from traditional trading practices, commodities
and employment. Key aspects of Ladakhi economy such as the caravan trade, trade in pashmina
as well as nomadic lifestyles were disrupted as Ladakh realigned itself with the rest of India.
Traditional social structures and lifestyles also changed (examples of change include population
1 Singh, S.P., Y.S. Rawat and S.C. Garkoti. 1997. Failure of brown oak (Quercus semecarpifolia) to regenerate in
Central Himalaya: A case of environmental semisurprise. Current Science 73(4):371-374.
explosion and a switch from polyandrous systems). For a more detailed account of changes and
threats, see Humber-Droz et al 2002. These in turn affected changes in urban and rural structures
relating to the use of natural resources and biodiversity conservation and are explained further in
the following paragraphs.
Human-wildlife conflict
The region (Ladakh in particular) has seen dramatic increases in numbers of livestock which
seems to be partly a result of government schemes to boost wool, milk and meat production
(Humber-Droz et al 2002). A number of cross-breeding programmes were also initiated with
exotic and local livestock. It has been pointed out that increased numbers in livestock would not
only cause degradation to the already fragile area, but also bring wild ungulates in direct
competition for fodder. A number of wild ungulates whose habitat preferences overlap with that
of livestock (e.g., shapu, nayan, kiang) are now endangered; on the other hand, species such
inhabiting rocky, inaccessible terrain (e.g. bharal, ibex) seem to be doing better in assessments.
(For detailed discussion on these topics, see Mallon 19901, Fox et al. 19912, Mishra et al 20023,
Bhatnagar and Wanchuk 20014). Conflicts between humans and carnivores such as the snow
leopard and wolf can also be looked at from the point of view of livestock increases. Studies
have reported high levels of depredation by snow leopards in and around protected areas
(Jackson and Wanchuk 20015). ‘Surplus killings’ where a large number (sometimes more than a
hundred in a single incident) of sheep and goats are killed often provoke retaliation from local
1 Mallon, D. 1990. Status and conservation of large mammals in Ladakh. Biological Conservation 56:101-119.2 Fox, J.L., C. Norbu, and R.S Chundawat. 1991. The mountain ungulates of Ladakh, India. Biological Conservation
58:167-190.
3 Mishra, C., S.E. Van Wieren, I.M.A. Heitkonig, & H.H.T. Prins, 2002. A theoretical analysis of competitive
exclusion in a Trans-Himalayan large-herbivore assemblage. Animal Conservation 5: 251-258.4 Bhatnagar, Y.V. and R. Wanchuk. 2001. Status survey of large mammals in Eastern Ladakh and Nubra. . In:
Conserving Biodiversity in the Trans Himalaya: New Initiatives of Field Conservation in Ladakh. First Annual
Technical Report (1999-2000), Wildlife Institute of India, International Snow Leopard Trust and the U.S Fish and
Wildlife Service.5 Jackson, R. and R. Wanchuk. 2001. Linking snow leopard conservation and people-wildlife conflict resolution:
Grassroots measures to protect the endangered snow leopard from herder retribution. Endangered Species
UPDATE. 18(4):138-141.
people. Mishra (20071) reported for the Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary (in Lahaul and Spiti District)
that over 18% of livestock holdings were killed by snow leopard and wolf amounting to a loss of
approximately US $ 128 per household (average annual income per household in this region was
between US $ 200 and 400. Conflict however is not a new thing, historically communities have
subsisted with low levels of depredation (and had evolved their own largely effective traditional
forms of controlling depradation, example wolf trapping in various villages in the Trans
Himalaya), but increased retaliatory killings and intolerance have now called for conservation
measures (Chundawat and Rawat 19942, Mishra 19973).
Changes related to agro-pastoralist systems
In addition to changes in livestock populations a number of changes have been brought about
with respect to cropping patterns, production systems and introduction of exotic-crossbreeds. A
number of programmes have been initiated within the region that promote exotic varieties of
crops and may result in the disappearance of local varieties. Fertiliser has been subsidised and
the cultivation of cheap leguminous fodder with the help of irrigation is encouraged. Of special
concern is the fact that alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is now one of the most important crops in
Ladakh district (Mir 20024). A number of plantation programmes have also been initiated in the
region that have undesirably 1) planted trees in areas that are not suitable for tree growth, 2)
carried out this planting with fast growing exotics.
Extraction of medicinal and aromatic plants
Large quantities of medicinal and aromatic species are extracted from the region. These include
species such as Ephedra gerardiana, Aconitum heterophyllum, Artemisia brevifolia and
Podophyllum hexandrum. Slow growing species such as Juniper that are an integral part of
1 Mishra, C. 1997. Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Indian trans-Himalaya: conflict perceptions and
conservation prospects. Environmental Conservation 24(4):338-343.2 Chundawat, R.S. and G.S Rawat. 1994. Indian Cold Deserts: A Status Report on Biodiversity. Wildlife Institute of
India, Dehradun.
3 Mishra, C. 1997. Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Indian trans-Himalaya: Conflict, perceptions and
conservation prospects. Environmental Conservation 24 (4):338–343.4 Mir, A.A. 2002. Protection of local varieties of cereals. Paper presented at the Biodiversity Strategy and Action
Plan Workshop, organized by LEDeG, Leh, October 2002. Cross-reference.
Tibetan religious ceremonies are also being extensively extracted. There has been growing
concern about the future of some of these plant populations as unregulated extraction and
commercialisation has resulted in near extinctions and few benefits to local communities. Some
organisations have speculated that Aconites and Podophyllum seem to be on the brink of
extinction and estimated that for a few species, there has been up to an 80% depletion in
population1. Added to the loss of species, there also seem to be the problem of insufficient
economic and intellectual property benefits to local communities. Many species currently
extracted have been traditionally used by the Tibetan healers or amchis and their discovery has
been largely due to local knowledge about their medicinal and aromatic value. Inventories and
information on medicinal plants have been attempted for many areas in the trans Himalaya (for
details, see Misra 20032).
Tourism and other developmental activities
The positive impacts of tourism include high revenue generation and development of
infrastructure since the region was opened up to outsiders in the 1960s and 70s. However, the
negative impacts of a sudden, unregulated influx of tourists into these ecologically fragile areas
have been numerous. There has been disturbance and destruction of wildlife especially in the
higher altitude regions. Disturbances by tourists include collection of rare and endangered
species (particularly plants and butterflies). The physical disturbance of species including people
physically chasing kiang and black-necked cranes as well as dumping of garbage in marmot
burrows (Humbert-Droz et al 2002). A large number of tourists undertake treks that result in the
overgrazing of areas around trails and campsites by accompanying pack animals. The impact of
jeep safaris are particularly intrusive and cause soil compaction and degradation in the Chang
Thang region. Inadequate garbage disposal facilities as well as the pollution of water bodies with
faecal matter are also problems (include info. On traditional dry toilets).
It is important that since tourism brings in revenues to the region, ecologically friendly methods
need to be promoted. Currently, the home stays systems in Ladakh are being experimented on a
large scale, however the ecological and cultural impacts need to be further examined.
1 Information from Pragya website: http://www.pragya.org/nwproar.htm accessed on 9 September 2006.2 Misra, M.K. 2003. Baseline information on medicinal plant conservation and sustainable utilization. Overview
Report. Sponsored by UNDP/GEF, MoEF, GoI and coordinated by the Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health
Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore.
Other impacts
Primary among the other impacts, is the role played by the armed forces that has a significant
presence in this strategically important region. Although this has had a number of positive
impacts (by way of employment to the youth, increased demand for local produce, etc.), in the
past a great deal of hunting used to take place, and currently disturbance of wildlife and the
habitat degradation are problematic. However at the higher level, the army is committed to
conservation and open to helping out with conservation initiatives and could be of great potential
to biodiversity conservation activities such as eco-restoration, patrolling and limiting trade in
endangered species (Humbert-Droz et al. 2002). Their presence in far-flung border areas can
especially useful in providing logistic support. The activities of the Field Research Laboratory,
Leh and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is particularly
noteworthy with respect to conservation initiatives of alpine medicinal plants (Chaurasia et al.
n.d1).
Among other problems that need to be highlighted include poaching of large mammals
such as the snow leopard and chiru. Although sport hunting was widespread in the trans
Himalaya during the British period and extensive hunting of selected species (especially
ungulates) by the armed forces was prevalent in certain areas, poaching for commercial gains in
the international market has more detrimental impacts. The International Snow Leopard Trust
points out that there seems to be increasing linkages between poaching and the lucrative illegal
trade in pelts and body parts.2 The small population of chiru found in the Aksai Chin area of
Ladakh may be also vulnerable to poaching.
1 Chaurasia, O.P., B. Ballabh and R. Raut. n.d. Indian Army and green governance: Conserving medicinal plants of
Ladakh Himalaya. Biodiversity and Business, pp. 9-11.2 Source: http://www.snowleopard.org/news/currentnews/whereinthewildindia/document_view
CHAPTER 2
LINKAGES - THE CONTRIBUTION OF INSTITUTIONS AND INITIATIVES
TOWARDS IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CBD IN HIMALAYA AND THE TRANS
HIMALAYA
Brief summary of past and ongoing assessments within and outside the framework of the
CBD
The Himalaya and Trans Himalaya have been focus areas as part of national conservation
assessments as well as a number of smaller regional thematic initiatives. The MoEF in its plans
and policies such as the National Wildlife Action Plan (2002), the Biodiversity Act (2002),
Biodiversity Rules (2004), and the National Environmental Policy (2006)1, has accorded
importance to both areas on account of their global significance with respect to their richness and
uniqueness of biodiversity as well as fragility and sensitivity to degradation (India: Third
National Report to the CBD 2005). The Indian Forest Act, 1947 and Wildlife (Protection) Act
1972 also have provisions built for basic biodiversity conservation in the Himalaya.
The recently concluded National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP), a
participatory panning process that involved various stakeholder groups considered both regions
within the framework of analysis. A Western Himalaya ecoregional plan (Singh et al 20022) was
prepared separately as were plans for the sub-state level for Munsiari (FES 20033), Ladakh
(Dawa and Humbert-Droz NBSAP 20024), Lahul and Spiti and Kinnaur districts (Tribal
1 MoEF. 2006. National Environmental Policy. Ministry of Environment and Forests. Government of India.
Approved by the Union Cabinet on 18th May 2006.2 Singh, S.P. (ed.). 2002. Western Himalayan Ecoregional Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Prepared under the
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, India.3 Gori River Basin Sub-State BSAP 2003. Full citation. Foundation for Ecological Security (FES). 2003. A
Biodiversity Log and Strategy Input Document for the Gori River Basin. Western Himalayan Ecoregion, Dst.
Pithoragarh, Uttaranchal. A substate process under the NBSAP-India. Submitted to the MoEF, GoI, New Delhi.4 Ladakh Sub-State BSAP 2003. Full citation. Ladakh Ecological Development Group, LEDeG. 2003. Ladakh Sub–
State Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Preparation coordinated by Dawa, S. & Humbert-Droz, B., LEDeG.
Prepared under the National Biodiversity Strategy & Action Plan – India, executed by the Ministry of Environment
& Forests, Government of India, technical implementation by the Technical & Policy Core Group (TPCG)
coordinated by Kalpavriksh and administrative coordination by Biotech Consortium India Ltd., funded by the
Development Department, H.P. and State Council for Science and Technology1) in the Trans
Himalaya. State-level action plans were also produced for Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and Uttaranchal as were regions of particular importance within the Himalaya such as
the Siwaliks (Mehta 20022 NBSAP). These documents provide a comprehensive discussion of
two main components for the regions: 1) an overview of ecological and physical features, and 2)
a review of various issues related to biodiversity conservation, and action plans and strategies for
future work. In addition, these reports prepared by the working groups have the distinction of
taking progressive steps and stresses on issues such as incentives to people, valuation of
resources and restructuring of forest services. Such integration of biodiversity, livelihoods and
sustainable use issues are especially significant for the fragile ecosystems of the Himalaya. The
outputs of these assessments have been used in other completed as well as ongoing assessments
(see for example the Thematic Report on Mountain Ecosystems3).
A number of international initiatives also focus on Himalayan ecosystems and species.
For example, certain high altitude wetlands in the Trans Himalaya receive specific attention
under the framework of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (1971) and subsequent resolutions
and initiatives such as the Himalaya Wetlands Conservation Initiative that covers high altitude
wetlands of the Himalaya, Hindu Kush and Pamir Alay (see Lei 20054 for a review).
Assessments have been carried out by organisations such as the WWF and Wetlands
International. Species receiving individual attention include large charismatic carnivores such as
the snow leopard (Wikramanayake et al 2006) and species come under the ambit of international
trade through CITES (example the Tibetan antelope as well as a large number of medicinal
plants). The Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) workshops conducted on
various taxonomic groups also include a number of species from the region. For many of these
Global Environment Facility through the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).1 Lahaul ad Spiti Sub-State BSAP 2002. Full citation. Tribal Development Department, H.P and State Council for
Science and Technology. 2002. Sub-State Site Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (Lahaul and Spiti and
Kinnaur). Submitted to TPCG (NBSAP), MoEF, GoI, New Delhi.2 Shiwalik Sub-State BSAP 2002. Full citation. Mehta, H.S. (Co-ordinator). 2002. Shiwaliks Biodiversity Strategy
and Action Plan. A sub-state process under the NBSAP-India. Submitted to the MoEF, GoI, New Delhi.3 http://www.biodiv.org/doc/world/in/in-nr-me-en.doc accessed on 30th August 2006.4 Lei, G. 2005. A Review of the Himalayan Wetlands Conservation Initiative. Asia Regional Meeting in preparation
for Ramsar CoP9, Beijing.
initiatives there are interlinkages and collaborations between international and Indian
organizations.
As is the case with many ecosystems in India, the various commitments under the CBD
has promoted biodiversity conservation within the Himalaya as well. Dhar (2002) contends that
although such exercises have helped in building up baseline information, significant gaps still
exist with regard to evaluation and implementation of articles under the CBD. Primary among
these is the need to build on baseline information and develop approaches to prioritisation and
action plans for conservation. Equally important are assessments regarding recent cross-cutting
issues such as climate change, which are known to affect the Himalayan regions
disproportionately. At present, considering the vastness of the region and the potential impacts to
biodiversity, very few assessments have taken place for the region (but see Shresta 20031).
Linkages among various stakeholder groups - status, capacities and gaps
For this regional assessment the linkages among various stakeholder groups are identified in the
linkages report by presenting a short write up on the status, core-capacities and requirements for
improvement. Stakeholders in the following categories are considered.
• Central Government Ministries
• Central Government Departments, sub-ordinate offices
• Autonomous institutions
• University /Academic Institutions
• Non Governmental Organizations
• International Initiatives
• National Initiatives
The linkages among various stakeholder groups—government ministries, departments,
subordinate institutions, autonomous institutes, nongovernmental organisations, universities and
1 Shrestha, K.L. 2003. Global impact assessment for Himalayan mountain regions: Resource management and
sustainable development. Final Report.
initiatives—are assessed. In this section, the status core competencies and strengths as well as
major gaps and requirements are summarised for easy reference. An analysis of capacities of
major laws and policies for the region are also identified. This list is not comprehensive. Only
those stakeholders that have direct interests in the region or have the potential to contribute to
biodiversity conservation in the Himalaya and Trans Himalaya have been included. Information
for a number of stakeholders is incomplete and difficult to obtain. The information for this
analysis has been derived from institutional websites, annual reports, completed questionnaires
and publications. This assessment of interlinkages is presented as an appendix (Appendices 1 a
and 1b) for ease of presentation. A presence-absence matrix of activities of stakeholders in
various spheres is provided in Appendix 2.
At the highest level, i.e., at the level of ministries, there is poor integration with respect to
the conservation of biodiversity. Although most ministries are involved in common activities
such as overseeing of administration, funding and infrastructural support, training, capacity
building, research and development and policy making, the specific mandates of some ministries
are contradictory to that of the MoEF. Find Examples for Himalaya Departments within
ministries such as the DBT and DST also need to be brought on a common platform of
awareness about issues regarding the conservation of biodiversity. Similarly there seems to be an
urgent need to improve networking between institutions that oversee a large number of
subordinate institutions. Examples include the CSIR, DST and ICFRE.
Overall institutional capacities for the region
Tables 1 and 2 present the institutional capacities in the two focal regions. These results are
based on a survey of individuals working in the region. A summary of these is provided further
on.
Table 1 Institutional capacities in infrastructure, human resources and other issues in the Himalaya
No. Infrastructure Non existent Poor Adequate1 Office space & facilities 5 62 Field stations 2 93 Transportation facilities 9 24 Field equipment 1 9 15 GIS facilities, Computers & Software 1 4 66 Communication facilities 1 6 4
7 Libraries & documentation facilities 8 3
8 Herbaria, Museums and other repositories 3 4 4
9 Molecular Biology Labs 7 4
10 Germplasm/ Tissue Culture facilities 3 6 211 Other (Specify) Tools for Awareness
Conservation Models11
Human Resources Non existent Poor Adequate12 Networking capabilities 1 7 3
13 Fund raising capabilities 1 8 214 Administrators 6 515 Biologists 6 5
16 Taxonomists 2 917 Statisticians 4 718 Social scientists 1 8 219 Trainers and outreach personnel 1 7 320 Laboratory technicians 2 8 1
21 Research fellows and students 8 322 Field assistants & support staff 7 423 Policy groups 2 8 224 Advocacy groups 7 225 Other (specify) Conservationists/Activists 1
Inter-Institutional Issues Non existent Poor Adequate26 Inter-institutional collaboration 3 6 1
27 Participation in networks 1 928 Engagement with the government 6 4
29 Others (specify)Data Sharing 1
Outputs Non existent Poor Adequate
30 Databases 2 7 2
31 Websites 2 7 232 Peer-reviewed publications 4 6 133 Conferences, workshops, symposia 1 6 3
34 Others (specify) 1
Table 2Institutional capacities in infrastructure, human resources and other issues in the Trans Himalaya
No. Infrastructure Non existent Poor Adequate1 Office space & facilities 2 42 Field stations (1) 2 43 Transportation facilities 1 54 Field equipment 55 GIS facilities, Computers & Software 2 46 Communication facilities 5 1
7 Libraries & documentation facilities 6
8 Herbaria, Museums and other repositories 2 4
9 Molecular Biology Labs (1) 4 1
10 Germplasm/ Tissue Culture facilities (1) 4 111 Other (Specify)
Human Resources Non existent Poor Adequate12 Networking capabilities 1 5
13 Fund raising capabilities 1 4 114 Administrators (1) 3 215 Biologists 2 4
16 Taxonomists (1) 3 217 Statisticians (1) 2 218 Social scientists 2 3 119 Trainers and outreach personnel 1 520 Laboratory technicians (1) 2 3
21 Research fellows and students 1 522 Field assistants & support staff 1 3 223 Policy groups 2 3 124 Advocacy groups 1 4 125 Other (specify)
Inter-Institutional Issues Non existent Poor Adequate26 Inter-institutional collaboration 1 5
27 Participation in networks 1 528 Engagement with the government 5 1
29 Others (specify)
Outputs Non existent Poor Adequate30 Databases 2 3 1
31 Websites 2 432 Peer-reviewed publications 2 333 Conferences, workshops, symposia 4 2
34 Others (specify)
1. Do institutions have clearly defined and understood missions and mandates?
Mission/ Strategic Management (WH)
There are very few institutions dealing with the Himalaya as their primary thematic mandate.
The few examples include the GBPIHED, the HRFI, etc. Similarly, many of these institutions are
still largely focused towards simple inventories of flora and fauna (BSI, ZSI, FSI). Hardly any of
the institutional mandates deal with other articles of the CBD. However, in the light of new
developments such as the CBD, the MoEF has initiated the re-orientation of some if these survey
organisations (see for example, MoEF 1999). The organisations that deal with such issues such
as sustainable use and indigenous knowledge are usually NGOs. Institutional mandates towards
clauses dealing with current crucial issues such as biotechnology and transfer of genetic
resources should be built in. International organisations such as the UNDP and the World Bank
have a presence in the region by way of research projects undertaken1 and implemented by
funded institutions.
The mandate of the Forest Department is still largely aimed towards resource extraction
and forestry techniques. The wildlife divisions are weak and there is no specialised biodiversity
division. FD mandates should be re-oriented towards the protection of biodiversity and
ecosystem services.
Mission/ Strategic Management (TH)
The trans Himalayan zone is yet to have an institution dedicated to holistic biodiversity
conservation of this fragile zone. This is particularly so with regard to government institutions.
1 For example, UNDP initiatives in environment and biodiversity conservation in Uttaranchal are listed at
http://www.undp.org.in/Programme/undpini/uttaranchal.pdf (UNDP Initiatives in Uttaranchal) and Jammu and
Kashmir are listed at http://www.undp.org.in/Programme/undpini/UNDP%20Initiatives%20in%20J&K.pdf
(UNDP Initiatives in Jammu and Kashmir).
Other than the Forest Department, a large central institution for the region is absent. On the other
hand, a number of international organisations have been involved in the region and have offices
located within it. Examples include the International Snow Leopard Trust, Snow Leopard
Conservancy, etc. For many of the institutions, current missions are towards the protection of
certain species (chiru, snow leopard) or ecosystems (WWF, wetlands). Although flagship/
charismatic, large-vertebrate centric approaches are needed and still pertinent to a large extent,
there needs to be more focus towards conservation of overall diversity. Currently, the onus is on
these scattered NGOs to develop sustainable use models as well as in developing incentives to
mitigate human wildlife conflicts.
In this region, institutions such as the Armed Forces are involved in BD related issues
(e.g. The Field Research Laboratory, Leh). Awareness generation among these institutions about
BD conservation needs to be brought into the mandate of the primary organisations.
2. Are the institutions effectively structured and managed?
Structure and Management (WH)
Institutions are not clearly structured or managed. They seem to be top heavy. In some cases,
there are a large number of scientists and administrative support staff and fewer research fellows
and students. This problem has already been highlighted in the course of preparing re-structuring
plans for organisations such as the ZSI and the BSI (see MoEF 1999). Although not comparable
to other government institutions elsewhere in the country, these are to a large extent bureaucratic.
In the forest department, a larger number of forest guards and lower level staff are
necessary. Field staff such as forest guards and watchers being employed on a temporary basis
for long periods of time and not offered permanent jobs is an issue which needs to be addressed
for efficient functioning of the department. The FD is seen as hierarchical and bureaucratic.
Motivational issues are common across all levels. At the same time there are exemplary officers
in the region who can be effective role models for others.
For some organisations, restructuring has been attempted at least on paper. For example,
as a first step towards meeting the goals of the CBD, a national seminar on restructuring the roles
of the BSI and ZSI was conducted by the MoEF (MoEF 1999).
Structure and Management (TH)
FD staff particularly field staff such as forest guards are few. The FD is less hierarchical in nature
here probably owing to cultural differences such as the absence of caste.
3. Do institutional process such as planning, quality management, monitoring and evaluation
wok effectively?
Processes (WH)
Institutional process especially relating to quality control are few or non-existent.
FD seems to have a more clear (but outdated ?) set of procedures (for example preparation of
working plans, budgets, etc) but it must be investigated as to how some of these activities can be
brought up-to-date involving current environmental issues and paradigms (climate change,
ecosystem services, etc.).
Processes (TH)
4. Are human resources adequate, sufficiently skilled and appropriately deployed?
Human Resources (WH)
In some cases, there are a large number of scientists and administrative support staff and fewer
research fellows and students. This problem has already been highlighted in the course of
preparing re-structuring plans for organisations such as the ZSI and the BSI (See MoEF 1999).
In the field, forest guards and lower level staff cannot handle large beats. Incentives and
allowances for good work are few and many of the forest department staff have also been
employed on a temporary basis for long periods of time. Awareness about basic/general
principles of PA management should be imparted to all levels of staff. The same includes for the
basic principles of biodiversity conservation and the value of ecosystem services. As suggested
by the Western Himalaya ecoregional plan of the NBSAP (Singh et al NBSAP), the FD staff
should be re-oriented towards holistic BD conservation, not just mensuration and commercial
exploitation.
Human Resources (TH)
The number of people involved in biodiversity conservation in the region is not adequate. With
respect to scientific expertise, significant inputs from national level institutes, regional
educational centres and Indian as well as international conservation NGOs are notable. The local
resource base of biodiversity experts is growing especially for Ladakh. The institutions of the
armed forces also contribute scientific expertise. The Forest Department is currently understaffed
in most parts of the trans Himalaya.
5. Is required information available and effectively distributed and managed?
Information Resources (WH)
A number of clearinghouse initiatives have been specifically initiated for the Himalaya (e.g.
ENVIS node at GBPIHED) and the region is also covered under several national clearinghouse
activities such as the AICOPTAX. However, it would also be useful to have a few websites or
databases dealing with very basic information dissemination about biodiversity that is accessible
to all. This could be done in English as well as the local language. It will also be useful to initiate
networks of individuals involved in BD conservation. Currently there seems to be a lot of
duplication of work as a result of a lack of awareness about ongoing and completed research in
the region.
Peer-reviewed publications in medium-level journals, such as Current Science are
considerable. The exceptions are papers in plant ecology that find a place in reputed international
journals. In general, there are considerable more publications on higher plants and mammals than
other taxonomic groups. Currently, literature on related aspects of BD conservation such
ethnobotany, indigenous knowledge, community forestry and policy are increasing.
One of the few world class library and documentation centres of the region is located
within the WII, which houses information on BD and related topics for the whole country. This
library subscribes and archives a considerable number of international peer-reviewed journals as
well books, reports and project documents. A number of searchable databases and other library-
based assistance is available here.
Since a number of institutions with overlapping objectives are found in the region, the
creation of a web-based database of publications would be relevant for the area. The Extension
division of FRI produces Van Anusandhan Patrika in Hindi for employees which is distributed
free of cost. It will be useful to develop such newsletters for farmers and lay people in vernacular
languages.
Information Resources (TH)
Information resources are fewer for the trans Himalaya. This is true of peer-reviewed literature as
well as general information such as websites and printed material. There needs to be a
clearinghouse mechanism for various topics in this region. The creation of a database of
publications would be relevant for the region
6. Are financial resources managed effectively and allocated appropriately to enable effective
operation?
Financial Resources (WH)
Conservation International has recently redesignated the entire Himalaya as a hotspot.
Institutions should capitalise on this designation of the region and gather funds for more research
and monitoring activities.
Financial Resources (TH)
Conservation of flagships has brought in international funds.
7. Are material requirements such as buildings, offices, vehicles, computers allocated properly
and managed effectively?
Infrastructure (WH)
Infrastructure development is poor in general for the region and this is reflected in the
institutions as well. However, when compared with each other, infrastructure and facilities are
variable. Certain organisations (such as the WII, IIRS) stress on this aspect and in addition to
buildings and transportation have succeeded in setting up state of the art facilities such as
libraries, labs, computer and GIS units.
Infrastructure (TH)
SCIENTIFIC TECHNICAL CAPACITY
8. Are scientists in biodiversity institutions equipped with the requisite skills?
Basic competencies are available in the region when one takes into account the large number of
scientists who have doctoral degrees. However there is a paucity of certain skills such as
taxonomic expertise. Biodiversity research is still in its descriptive stages and it is important that
scientists also concentrate on research output that is of a more analytical nature.
9. Is there sufficient information on genes, species, ecosystems and ecosystem function?
Species and genetic level information depend on taxa. When comparisons between taxonomic
groups are made, inventories are good for some species and non-existent for others. Even among
plants and mammals which are the best studied groups, inventories and basic information cannot
be termed as adequate. There is even less research on ecosystems and ecosystem function
especially in the light of crucial environmental issues such as global change. It may be
worthwhile at this point to develop additional uniform sampling protocols for projects and
individuals working in the region. Such an exercise would enable the collection of simple, yet
crucial information on some basic parameters in addition to the work carried out by a particular
individual or group.
10. What is the extent and quality of linkages between research institutions and biodiversity
regulatory agencies?
Currently, the linkages are inadequate. Linkages with regulatory, permit giving authorities such
as the National Biodiversity Authority are still being established. Other primary regulatory
bodies such as the customs and police departments need to be developed. For example, results
from forensic research especially leading to species identification is of importance for the
customs departments. The Indian Army, the Border Security Force (BSF) and the Indo-Tibetan
Border Police (ITBP), etc . need to be brought into this loop especially in remote border areas
that have a history of cross-border trade in wildlife parts.
Inter-institutional linkages (between research institutions) – To cite an example, the ZSI
has identified inter-institutional collaborative work as part of its objective for taxonomic studies1.
This indicates that the institution has taken cognisance of gaps/limitation within its structure and
is taking positive steps to counter them. HFRI has a Research Coordination Division that
coordinates with the State Forest Department and other research institutions in the country2. The
Field Research Laboratory (FRL), Leh and Defence Agricultural Research Laboratory (DARL),
1 http://www.envfor.nic.in/zsi/2 http://hfri.icfre.org/Research%20Divisions-coordination.htm
Pitthoragarh of the DRDO specifically lists a number of collaborating agencies1 (within as well
outside DRDO). These include both govt. and NGOs within and outside the country and shows
that the institution is open for collaboration. The National Institute of Science Communication
and Information Resources – lists inter-institutional collaboration as one of its mandates2.
11. What is the status and quality of scientific infrastructure?
The quality of scientific infrastructure is extremely variable. There are a few (mostly
government) institution whose scientific infrastructure such as GIS facilities and molecular lbs
can be comparable to world class institutions. However, the majority of institutions are small set
ups. This is more so in the case of the Trans Himalaya. Most NGOs in the region are limited by
their budgets and work with very basic scientific infrastructure.
12. Are S&T policies comprehensible? Do they give sufficient guidance for overall development
of S&T in biodiversity?
Policies do not seem to evolve from research outputs and there is no formal visible interlinkage
between the two. This could be because such outputs take time to be integrated into policies and
legislations and partly because most policy level documents and activities are initiated at the
centre. It is extremely important that policy makers for the region are made aware of general
scientific outputs relevant to their subject (and not just stemming from research within the
Himalaya). The onus for such awareness generation is on the scientific community. These could
include periodic briefings, interaction sessions and annual research seminars by institutions and
research scientists. A few very crucial themes where such linkages need to be made include:
global change research, ehtnobotany, biotechnology and intellectual property rights and patents,
PA identification, prioritisation and management, economic valuation and ecosystem services,
and reconciliation ecology.
1 http://www.drdo.org/labs/dls/frl/interact.shtml, http://www.drdo.org/labs/dls/darl/interact.shtml2 http://www.niscair.res.in/aboutus/about.asp?a=topframe.htm&b=leftcon.asp&c=mandate.htm&d=test1
CHAPTER 3
THEMATIC AREAS AND CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES: CAPACITY STATUS IN THE
HIMALAYA AND THE TRANS HIMALAYA
Status and gaps in thematic Areas
Forests
The Himalaya has some of the most extensive forests in India. The former Chamoli district (now
split into Chamoli and Rudraprayag districts) had the highest percentage of forest cover for the
country. The wide latitudinal, altitudinal and moisture gradients encompass a large number of
ecosystem types. Sub-tropical, temperate (broad-leaved forests), subalpine forests (mainly
coniferous forests and krummholz) and alpine pastures and meadows are well represented along
extensive altitudinal gradients. The forests in the Himalaya are unique in terms of their
composition, many tropical species occur within temperate forests, evergreen oaks species and
maples are found species diversity peaks close to the middle elevation zone. According to the
classification by Champion and Seth (1968)1, 11 major forest types occur in the Himalaya along
with 47 subtypes including seral stages and disturbance types2. The area under forests in is
20,441 km2, 12,521 km2, and 23,360 km2 in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
Uttaranchal (9.2%, 22.5% and 43.9% of the area of the state) respectively (Forest Survey of
India Statistics). The Trans Himalaya region has very little forest cover except along
watercourses and is mostly composed of treeless expanses and cold desert. Recent estimates of
forest cover based on IRS-1D multispectral images point out that the conventional forest cover
values generated by the FSI (at least for Eastern Uttaranchal, the study area) is likely to be an
underestimate (Prabhakar et al. 20063).
The protected area network in the Himalaya covers most forest types. In general, the
lower elevation forests are more disturbed. High levels of disturbance are associated with
1 Champion, H.G and S.K. Seth. 1968. A Revised Survey of Forest Types of India. Government of India, New Delhi.2 A summarised list of forest types found in the Himalaya as per the Champion and Seth (1968) classification can
also be sourced on page 22 of the NBSAP report for the Western Himalaya Ecoregion (Singh et al. 2002).
3 Prabhakar, R., E. Somanathan and B. S. Mehta. 2006. How degraded are Himalayan forests? Current Science
91(1): 61-67.
settlements and where permanent settlements stop, forests are better preserved. The middle
elevation forests are comparatively better protected, however many areas are reserve forests and
permit some level of extraction (specially fodder and montane bamboo or ringal). In terms of
protected area coverage, the oak forests receive better protection. In the higher altitude a number
of parks and sanctuaries have been established including a biosphere reserve, the Nanda Devi
Biosphere Reserve. Research in the region is considerable when compared with the Eastern
Himalaya and some other biogeographic zones. Research on mammals and plant diversity is
considerable. Many taxonomic groups still remain poorly studied. When compared across
individual states, Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh seem to be better explored than Jammu and
Kashmir. There have been several database and clearing-house initiatives as well as symposia
that partially address these issues for the Himalaya. The ENVIS centre at the G.B Pant Institute
of Himalayan Environment and Development specifically deals with the Himalayan region.
Similarly, a number of taxonomic gaps in Himalayan biodiversity and taxonomy research were
assessed in a three day national workshop on ‘Himalayan Biodiversity 2000: Options for
development’. For details refer to Dhar et al. 20011.
Maintenance of connectivity between forests, protection against deforestation,
fragmentation and conversion are priority requirements for forest ecosystems. Lower and middle
elevation zones are more likely to be affected by human disturbance, have more frequent fire
regimes and are more prone to colonisation by exotics. The ecosystem services provided by
forests in the region are enormous and currently hardly any work has been carried out in
Himalayan forests dealing with aspects such as valuation and accounting. The effects on climate
change on Himalayan forests and species is also poorly studied. There have been no long-term
studies on these aspects and one of the primary requirements for this region would be the setting
up of long-term monitoring plots and weather stations.
However, the survival of the forests in this region are critically linked to the livelihoods
of people living in and around them (Singh 2006)2. Many rural communities are economically
poor and marginalised and depend on forests for a number of daily needs. Therefore it is
imperative that more attention is placed on sustainable use and alternate livelihood options.
Gender issues too crop up in this region were women share an unusually high amount of the
1 Dhar, U., R.S. Rawal, S.S. Samant, U. Shankar and H.K. Badola. 2000. Himalayan biodiversity 2000: Options for
development. Current Science 80(4):494-496.2 Singh, J.S. Sustainable development of the Indian Himalayan region. Current Science: 90(6):784-788.
workload. Much importance has been given to the extraction of medicinal and aromatic
resources from the region. Currently, extraction is unregulated and unsustainable practices have
resulted in the endangerment of a number of species. Economic benefits presently do not reach
the local communities and is often misappropriated by middlemen. It is therefore necessary to
strengthen policy as well as institutional frameworks with respect to sustainable use, alternate
livelihoods and incentive programmes, IPR, ethnobotany and community management. A
number of case studies on these subjects in the Himalayan region are outlined in Ameeruddy-
Thomas and Shengji (2003)1. Environmental awareness about biodiversity conservation should
be stepped up. There is a history of voluntary forest protection by communities in this region (as
can be seen from the tremendous effects of local movements like the Chipko movement), at the
same time immediate economic and survival pressures may eventually overrule a desire to
protect.
Grasslands and meadows
There are a number of terrestrial natural ecosystems in the Himalaya and Trans Himalaya that do
not have forest cover. Most of these are found in high elevation areas usually close to or above
the treeline. A major part of the Trans Himalaya biogeographical zone is a vast treeless expanse
of grassland, scrub and cold desert. It has been reported that alpine meadows cover over 69000
km2 of area in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal (over 22%
of total area of the region, over 35% when the snow-free zone is excluded) (Singh et al.2002).
These include warm temperate grasslands, sub-alpine and cool temperate grassy slopes, alpine
meadows of the Himalaya, and steppe formations of the cold arid regions of the Trans Himalaya
and dry alpine scrub. Among these particularly interesting are the grasslands of natural and semi-
natural origin that have co-evolved with grazing systems in the recent past (Rawat 19982).
Himalayan grasslands also support a wide variety of faunal elements including large mammals
(especially grazing and browsing ungulates) and large bodied birds such as pheasants and
partridges.
1 Ameeruddy-Thomas, Y and P. Shengji. 2003. Applied ethnobotany: Case studies from the Himalayan region.
People and Plants working paper 12. WWF, Godalming, UK.2 Rawat, G.S. 1998. Temperate and alpine grasslands of the Himalaya: ecology and conservation. Parks. Grassland
Protected Areas. Vol. 8. No. 3. Oct. 1998. IUCN, Gland. Switzerland.
Research has been carried out on the classification, species composition, biomass and
productivity of grassland ecosystems in the Himalaya (a number of studies are mentioned in
Rawat 1998). Currently, a number of issues specific to grasslands need to be given priority.
These include grazing and livelihoods, collection of medicinal and aromatic plants and fuel wood
and the potential effects of climate change. In spite of the fact that grazing is the mainstay of
many Himalayan communities, adequate policy guidelines and institutional frameworks are
largely missing. Institutions (such as the ICIMOD in Nepal) that look at rangelands and grazing
systems need to be set up to focus on these issues. Currently, a number of government
departments operate in the region (Forest Department, Agriculture, Revenue, Animal Husbandry)
and there are conflicting inputs to local livelihoods and biodiversity conservation. Similarly, as is
the case with Himalayan forests, medicinal plant collection needs to brought under the
framework of specific policies dealing with sustainable use, benefit-sharing and IPR.
Inland water systems and wetlands
Some of the most important river systems of the world namely those of the Indus, the Ganges
and the Brahmaputra originate in the Himalayan ranges. Not only are these rivers are vital to
livelihoods of densely populated down-stream communities, many rivers contain several
indigenous of economic importance such as the snow trout (Schizothorax spp.,
Schizothoraichthys spp.), the Himalayan trout (Barilius spp.) , katle (Neolissochylus
hexagonolepis) and mahseer (Tor spp.). Currently, many river systems and their biodiversity are
threatened by human induced change. Introduced exotics include brown trout (Salmo trutta) and
rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss). Threats in this region include over exploitation, pollution,
siltation, damming and water diversion. A number of priorities exist for biodiversity conservation
of water systems including documentation of status, distribution, ecology and behaviour of a
number of species. The Trans Himalaya needs to be given special importance as very little is
known on the biodiversity of its rivers (Anon 2001)1.
There are a number of wetlands of importance in the Himalaya and Trans-Himalaya. Water
bodies are reported to cover 3785 km2 (1.2% of the area of the Western Himalaya) (Singh et al
2002). Himalayan wetlands have received special attention under the Ramsar Declaration (1971)
1 Anon. 2001. Report of the symposium on ‘Cold water fishes of the Trans-Himalayan region. Directorate of
Fisheries Development and associated institutions, Kathmandu, Nepal.
as well as subsequent related initiatives including the Himalayan Wetlands Conservation
Initiative which covers the Himalaya, Hindu Kush and the Pamir Alay (Ramsar 20021, WWF and
Ramsar 20032, ICIMOD, WWF and Ramsar 20033, ICIMOD, WWF and Ramsar 20044, Ramsar
20045). A Framework Agreement on Himalayan Initiative – Conservation and Wise Use of
Himalayan Mountain Wetlands has been drafted. For a review of Himalayan wetland related
initiatives such as the Urumqi Call, the Sanya Workshop and the Evian Encounter, see Lei
20056. There are 7 Ramsar sites in the region out of which two (Tso-Moriri and Chandertal) are
unique high altitude wetlands occurring in the Chang Thang region of the Trans Himalaya. These
wetlands contain a variety of endemic of aquatic fauna and is also the breeding ground for
threatened birds including the bar-headed goose () and the black-necked crane (Grus nigricollis).
Endangered mammals such as the snow leopard (Uncia uncia), the lynx (), nyan or the Tibetan
argali ( ), etc. are found here. In the Trans Himalaya threats to this region include unsustainable
tourism and its resultant activities and the effect of climate change. The latter is bound to bring
about rapid change in these regions. Organisations such as the WWF and Wetlands International
are working with local people in this region to bring about changes. Wetlands in other parts of
the Himalaya such as Kashmir, Himachal and Uttaranchal are also important in terms of
biodiversity conservation. Large lakes include Wular, Hokersar, Hygam, Mirgund and Dal Lake
in Jammu and Kashmir. Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal also have a considerable number of
water bodies. Although many of these water bodies are rich in biodiversity of aquatic flora, fauna
and breeding birds, water bodies especially near the urban centres are polluted and threatened by
eutrophciation.
1 Ramsar, 2002. Ramsar Resolution VIII. 30, http://www.ramsar.org/key_res_viii_30_e.doc.
2 WWF & Ramsar, 2003. Report of the Regional Workshop on the Conservation of High Altitude
Wetlands in the Himalayas (Urumqi, China), unpublished, 268 pages.
3 ICIMOD, WWF & Ramsar, 2003. Report of the regional Workshop on Wetland Conservation and
Wise Use in the Himalayan High Mountains (Kathmandu, Nepal), unpublished, 201 pages.
4 ICIMOD, WWF and Ramsar. 2004. Workshop report on “Wetland Conservation and Wise Use in the
Himalayan and Central Asian High Mountains” (Sanya, China), unpublished, 29 pages.
5 Ramsar, 2004. Report of the Evian Encounter on Himalayas and the Mekong,
http://www.ramsar.org/evian_encounter_himalaya.htm6 Lei, G. 2005. A Review of the Himalayan Wetlands Conservation Initiative. Asia Regional Meeting in preparation
for Ramsar CoP9, Beijing.
The melting of Himalayan glaciers (which are the largest outside the polar areas) has also been
attributed to global warming. Currently, the region has more than 33,000 km2 of glaciers. In
India, the major glaciers are in the Indus (3538), the Ganga (1020) and the Brahmaputra (662)
basins. Principal glaciers include Siachen (72km), Gangotri (26km), Zemu (26km), Milam
(19km) and Kedarnath (14.5). Various studies have estimated dramatic retreats for over 67% of
Himalayan glaciers (Ageta and Kadota 19921, Yamada et al. 19922). For region specific reviews
see Chamling Rai 20053 (Nepal, India and China) and Kumar 20054 (India).
The protected area network
The protected area network in the region is about 9.6 % and is higher than the national average
of 4.66%. Higher percentages of forest cover and protection are necessary for these ecologically
fragile mountain ecosystems. The present area under the protected area network for the states of
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal are 14872 km2, 7,202 km2 and 6475
km2 (7.3%, 13% and 12% of total area) respectively. Currently there are 84 (check) protected
areas including a World Heritage Site and Biosphere Reserve (Nanda Devi BR), 11 National
Parks, 53 Wildlife Sanctuaries and 7 Ramsar sites. Notifications of a few protected areas are
pending. The Himalaya has also been redesignated as a single global biodiversity hotspot (as
opposed to only the Eastern Himalaya in previous assessments) by Conservation International5.
A trans-boundary protected area network in the lower elevation regions (the Terai-Arc) has also
been initiated. There are also low profile protected areas in the region that host a large number of
species and ecosystems of conservation importance (e.g., the Askot WLS in Kumaon Himalaya)6.
1 Ageta, Y., and T. Kadota. 1992. Predictions of changes of glacier mass balance in the Nepal Himalaya and Tibetan
Plateau: a case study of air temperature increase for three glaciers. Annals of Glaciology 16, pp 89-94.
2 Yamada T., T. Shiraiwa, T. Kadota, T. Watanabe, B. Rana, Y. Ageta and H. Fushimi, 1992. Fluctuation of the
glaciers from the 1970s to 1989 in the Khumbu, Shorong and Langtang regions, Nepal Himalayas, Bulletin of
Glacier Research, 10, 11-19.
3 Chamling Rai. 2005. An Overview of Glaciers, Glacier Retreat, and Subsequent Impacts in Nepal, India and
China. WWF Nepal. Kathmandu.
4 Kumar, R. 2005. Status review of possible Impacts of Climate Change on Himalayan Glaciers, Glaciers retreat and
its subsequent impacts on fresh water regime. HIGHICE-India Glacier Research group, SES, JNU, New Delhi.5 http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/himalaya/
P.As in the Himalaya are on an average larger (average = 512.1 km2) than those in other parts of
the country (average = 270.3 km2).
The PA network in the region does not have much of a scientific basis, i.e. it does not
seem to follow any design based on diversity, complementarity, endemism or any of the usually
accepted criteria. Undisturbed (or partially disturbed) sites were designated largely on the basis
of availability. Therefore limitations still exist with respect to representation of some forest types,
habitats for specific species and so on. In the Siwaliks for example, though there are a number of
protected areas (e.g. Corbett NP, Rajaji NP), primarily aimed at protecting large mammals such
as tiger and elephant, connectivity in terms of corridors are low. Species such as elephants need
forested corridors (ideally their historical migration pathways) to move from one region or they
may end up causing degradation in a small locality. In the middle elevations, the threatened oak
forests are largely classified as Reserve Forests. There are very few protected areas that actually
encompass larger contiguous altitudinal gradients.
It may also be useful to explore the efficacy of Rapid Assessment and Prioritisation of
Protected Area Management (RAPPAM) methodology (Ervin 20031) by PA managers and policy
makers. This is a standardised methodology outlined by the WWF and an assessment has already
been carried out for PAs in Nepal (Nepali 20062). This methodology has been adopted by WWF-
India for the Eastern Himalaya3.
Areas outside protected areas
Agro-pastoral systems, plantations, village lands, etc. contribute significantly to levels of agro-
diversity in the region. A large number of wild relatives of crops as well as indigenous crop
varieties are grown in the region (39 species are reported from the Western Himalaya) –
Uttaranchal alone is reported to have 119 crop varieties (Singh et al 2002). The introduction of
6 Rawal, R.S. and U. Dhar. 2001. Protected area network in Indian Himalayan region: Need for recognizing values
of low profile protected areas. Current Science 81(2):175-184.1 Ervin, J. 2003. Rapid Assessment and Prioritisation of Protected Area Management (RAPPAM) Methodology.
WWF, Gland, Switzerland.2 Nepali, S.C. 2006. Rapid Assessment and Prioritisation of Protected Area Management (RAPPAM) Methodology,
Nepal. WWF, Nepal.3 http://www.wwfindia.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/forests_conservation/projects/rappam_project.cfm
fast-growing high yielding varieties of crops (many of these are exotics) as well as the
conversion from traditional techniques to modern agricultural methods have been detrimental.
There has been a loss of genetic diversity and land races especially in Himachal Pradesh where
modernisation was taken up in a big way. Saxena et al.1 report that the a number of traditional
crops have been replaced by cash crops in the Himalaya. Examples include the abandonment of
cultivation of species such as Fagopyrum esculentum, Fagopyrum tataricum, Panicum
miliaceum, Setaria italica and Pisum arvense. Traditional rice growing regions such as Jammu
have now switched to more lucrative wheat farming. Local varieties of cold and disease resistant
barley and wheat in Ladakh are under threat of replacement. Ladakhi agricultural systems has
seen the introduction and spread of alfalafa as the second major crop in the region. Indigenous
diversity in domesticated mammals such as sheep and goats, horses (Chumurti) and dogs are also
under threat form cross-breeding and introduction of exotics.
A small, yet significant aspect of biodiversity conservation outside protected areas is the
protection accorded by local communities to traditional sacred groves in the region. It has been
documented that sacred groves host considerable biodiversity in the Garhwal Himalaya (Anthwal
et al. 20062), and the same can be said about the devban in Himachal Pradesh. Above all, these
are among the first voluntary, traditional conservation institutions of the region and need to be
protected as they may be the only remaining links to pre-agricultural, animistic cultural histories
of local communities.
1 Saxena, K.G., R.K. Maikhuri and K.S. Rao. Changes in Agricultural Biodiversity: Implications for
Sustainable Livelihood in the Himalaya Journal of Mountain Science 2(1):23-31.
2 Anthwal, A. R. C. Sharma, and A. Sharma. 2006. Sacred Groves: Traditional Way of Conserving Plant Diversity in
Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal. The Journal of American Science 2(1):35-38.
In spite of recent changes in crops and land use practices, many areas outside the
protected area system have the potential to contribute to biodiversity conservation by way
of the recent paradigm of reconciliation ecology (Rosenzweig 20031). It needs to be
emphasised to managers, trainers and local people that even agricultural areas,
plantations and fragments (especially those close to forests) preserve a certain level of
diversity. For example, in plantations and agricultural fields, large mammals may be
absent, but these could be habitats for small mammals, bird, reptiles, amphibians and
invertebrates. In addition many they serve additional purposes of carbon sequestration,
prevention of soil erosion and other ecosystem services.
1 Rosenzweig, M.L. 2003. Win-Win Ecology: How the Earth’s Species can Survive in the Midst of Human
Enterprise. Oxford University Press, New York.
Status and gaps: cross-cutting issues in the Himalaya and Trans Himalaya
A matrix of fourteen primary cross-cutting issues were evaluated on the basis of institutional
mandates and projects. A total of 85 stakeholders including government institutions, NGOs and
major initiatives were assessed. The results of this exercise are presented in Appendix 2. The
existing status of institutional capacities for biodiversity conservation were also assessed with the
help of the results a questionnaire survey conducted among a number of experts on biodiversity
conservation in the region1. Respondents were selected across a range of disciplines with direct
relevance to biodiversity conservation. Tables 1 and 2 summarise their responses to the status
of institutional capacities in the Himalaya and Trans Himalaya biogeographic zones respectively.
Respondents were also asked to prioritise the cross-cutting issues that needs to be addressed for
biodiversity conservation in the Himalaya (Tables 3 and 4).
Institutional capacities are on the whole lacking and there is much room for improvement
for both regions. On an individual scale, very few respondents have marked any of the cross-
cutting issues as adequate. However, there are noticeable differences between the capacities in
both areas. On a three point scale (high, medium, low), some of the CBD requirements
(biodiversity conservation and planning exercises, in-situ conservation, scientific education,
training and awareness generation, indigenous knowledge and practices, tourism, taxonomy
related initiatives) seem to be partially satisfactory in the Himalayan region. There seems to be
only a weak integration of certain cross-cutting issues with biodiversity conservation. These
include the issues such as environmental impact assessment, regulating access to and transfer of
genetic resources, biosafety and alien invasives.
As opposed to the Himalaya where a number of requirements seem to be partially addressed,
in the Trans Himalaya, most of the cross-cutting issues have been rated as poor and there seems
to be very little integration. It also needs to be pointed out here that in general priorities differ
between the two regions. For example, appropriate tourism related initiatives may be much more
crucial to the Trans Himalaya in terms of alternate livelihood strategies in comparison to the
main Himalaya. In the latter region, involvement of local communities in medicinal plant
conservation under appropriate benefit-sharing mechanisms may be more crucial.
1 A list of contributors are provided on p.xx
Based on expert questionnaires and a review of current literature, the following priority
requirements have been identified for the Himalaya:
Developing and introducing economic and social incentives
Regulating commercialisation and ensuring benefit-sharing from genetic resources
Identifying and monitoring biodiversity and its conservation (esp. taxonomy)
Biodiversity conservation and planning exercises
A different set of requirements need to be addressed in the Trans Himalaya on a priority basis.
These are:
Biodiversity conservation and planning exercises
In-situ conservation including PA system management
Regulating commercialisation and ensuring-benefit sharing
Developing and introducing economic and social incentives
Scientific and technical education and training
Table 3Cross-cutting requirements in the Himalaya: Evaluation by Experts
No. Institutional capability in relation to the following clauses Low
Poor/ Non existent
Medium
Exists, but needs to be upgraded
High
Satisfactory
1 Biodiversity conservation and planning exercises
2 8 1
2 Identifying and monitoring biodiversity and its conservation
6 4 1
3 In-situ conservation including PA system management
2 7 2
4 Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity 5 65 Environmental impact assessment (EIA)
for biodiversity conservation9 1 1
6 Managing information through clearinghouse mechanisms (e.g. ENVIS nodes, database centers, etc.)
4 5 2
7 Providing scientific and technical education and training
1 9 1
8 Raising public understanding and awareness
2 9
9 Preserving indigenous and local knowledge, innovations and practices
3 8
10 Regulating access to and transfer of genetic resources
9 2
11 Biosafety, regulating the handling of living, modified organisms
10 1
12 Regulating commercialisation and ensuring benefit-sharing from genetic resources
11
13 Developing and introducing economic and social incentives
6 5
14 Research on alien species and invasives 9 215 Biodiversity and tourism 1 9 116 Taxonomy related initiatives 4 717 Accessing financial resources 5 4 2
Table 4Cross-cutting requirements in the Trans Himalaya: Evaluation by Experts
No. Institutional capability in relation to the following clauses Low
Poor/ Non existent
Medium
Exists, but needs to be upgraded
High
Satisfactory
1 Biodiversity conservation and planning exercises
3 3
2 Identifying and monitoring biodiversity and its conservation
3 2
3 In-situ conservation including PA system management
3 2 1
4 Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity (1) 55 Environmental impact assessment (EIA)
for biodiversity conservation6
6 Managing information through clearinghouse mechanisms (e.g. ENVIS nodes, database centers, etc.) (1)
4 1
7 Providing scientific and technical education and training
4 2
8 Raising public understanding and awareness
3 3
9 Preserving indigenous and local knowledge, innovations and practices
5 1
10 Regulating access to and transfer of genetic resources (1)
5
11 Biosafety, regulating the handling of living, modified organisms (2)
4
12 Regulating commercialisation and ensuring benefit-sharing from genetic resources (2)
4
13 Developing and introducing economic and social incentives
4 2
14 Research on alien species and invasives 615 Biodiversity and tourism 2 416 Taxonomy related initiatives 5 117 Accessing financial resources 2 4
CHAPTER 4
THE HIMALAYA: CAPACITY STATUS, PRIORITIES AND POTENTIAL PROJECTS
FOR THE HIMALAYA WITH RESPECT TO SPECIFIC ARTICLES OF THE
CONVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY
The Himalaya: An evaluation of issues in the context of the CBD articles (Articles 6–19)
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1 Article 6:
General Measures for Conservation and Sustainable Use
The Himalaya has been designated as a global biodiversity hotspot1. Initiatives include national level initiatives and plans that had a thematic emphasis on the region . Dhar 19972
prepared an action plan for the Himalaya. The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002), the Biodiversity Act (2002), Biodiversity Rules (2004), the National Environmental Policy (2006)3, the Indian Forest Act, 1947 and Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 have provisions built for basic biodiversity conservation in the Himalaya (a different set of rules applies to J&K). The Planning Commission has set up a Task Force on Mountain Ecosystems (as part of the 11th Five Year Plan) which will
These documents provide a review of the current status of biodiversity in the region and also suggest progressive solutions (such as incentives to people, valuation of resources and restructuring of forest services), which are distinct from conventional initiatives in the past. However, in their current state they are only accessible to biodiversity professionals.
Efforts have to be made to make sure these find a place in regional plans and public documents of all government departments working in the region. Current capacities for this are lacking.
A specific thematic planning and monitoring framework needs to be prepared for the Himalaya especially with respect to participatory conservation approaches, indigenous knowledge, and sustainable use and benefit sharing.
1 http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/himalaya/ 2 Dhar, U. (ed.) 1997. Himalayan Biodiversity: Action Plan. Get full details3 MoEF. 2006. National Environmental Policy. Ministry of Environment and Forests. Government of India.
Approved by the Union Cabinet on 18th May 2006.
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concentrate on a number of biodiversity issues in the Himalaya.
The NBSAP initiative used a participatory approach to address the issue of biodiversity conservation in the Himalaya. A Western Himalaya ecoregional plan (Western Himalaya Ecoregional BSAP 2002) and plans for Siwaliks (Shiwalik Sub-State BSAP 2002) and Munsiari (Gori River Basin Sub-State BSAP 20031). State-level action plans were also developed for J&K, HP and Uttaranchal. The outputs of these assessments have been used in other completed as well as ongoing assessments (see for example the Thematic Report on Mountain Ecosystems2).
2 Article 7:
Identification and Monitoring
Status, distribution and ecology of a number of species especially large mammals, and large bodied birds have been carried out. Recent surveys on mammals include the
Considerable gaps exist in the identification and characterization of biodiversity. The levels of diversity and endemism are considerable and as
Projects looking at both taxonomy and large-scale patterns of diversity at the same time need to be sponsored. These should be based on proper methodologies. Outside expertise may need to be solicited for this.
1 Gori River Basin Sub-State BSAP 2003. Full citation. Foundation for Ecological Security (FES). 2003. A
Biodiversity Log and Strategy Input Document for the Gori River Basin. Western Himalayan Ecoregion, Dst.
Pithoragarh, Uttaranchal. A substate process under the NBSAP-India. Submitted to the MoEF, GoI, New Delhi.2 http://www.biodiv.org/doc/world/in/in-nr-me-en.doc accessed on 30th August 2006.
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first systematic survey of the markhor (Ranjitsinh et al 20051).
Floras are available for all three states as well as various districts. Baseline information on medicinal plants has been documented for many areas in the three states and institutions working on these aspects have also been listed (see Misra 20032).
Ecosystem studies have been largely concentrated in the Uttaranchal Himalayas. A number of recent studies have dealt with large-scale patterns of species’ distributions in the Himalaya.
a result gaps exist in taxonomic knowledge as well as status and distribution information for many taxa. Among faunal groups, fishes and invertebrates have received less attention.
More work on species diversity, rarity and endemism are required for multiple taxa as these are important criteria for many reserve selection algorithms.
There is non-availability of trained taxonomists in this region. Projects such as AICOPTAX that have been initiated by the MoEF are contributing to taxonomic knowledge in the Himalaya.
In addition to initiatives such as AICOPTAX, more capacity building for taxonomy is required (training, funding and if necessary incentives). Pushpangadan and Nayar (2001) outline important components that can b incorporated into systematics research at the national level and these can be incorporated for the Himalaya also.3
The influence of alien invasive such as Lantana camara, Eupatorium odoratum and Parthenium heterophyllum need to be studied.
3 Article Conservation A vital gap in the Western Himalaya Ecoregional
1 Ranjitsinh, M.K., C.M. Seth, R. Ahmed, Y.V. Bhatnagar and S.S. Kyarong. 2005. Goats on the Border: A Rapid
Assessment of the Pir Panjal Markhor in Jammu and Kashmir: Distribtuion, Status and Threats. Wildlife Trust of
India, New Delhi. 34 pages.2 Misra, M.K. 2003. Baseline information on medicinal plant conservation and sustainable utilization. Overview
Report. Sponsored by UNDP/GEF, MoEF, GoI and coordinated by the Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health
Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore.3 Pushpangadan, P. and K.N. Nayar. 2001. The future of systematics and biodiversity research in India: Need for a
National Consortium and National Agenda for systematic biology research. Current Science 80(5):631-638.
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8:
In-situ Conservation
International1 has designated Himalayas as a global biodiversity hotspot.
The current PA coverage in the Himalaya region is 9.6 percent (higher than the current national average of 4.6 percent). Area under PA coverage for the states of J&K, HP and Uttaranchal are 7.3 percent, 13 percent and 12 percent respectively.
There are 84 Pas including a World Heritage Site and Biosphere Reserve (Nanda Devi), 7 Ramsar sites, 11 National Parks and 53 Wildlife Sanctuaries.
Some lower elevation regions in the Terai-Siwalik tracts are also part of the Terai-Arc Transboundary Initiative2.
Although PA establishment in the region has largely been
PA network is the inadequate representation of threatened mid-elevation oak forests which are storehouses of diversity as well as ecosystem services to the region, and provide connectivity along altitudinal gradients. Presently they are mostly under reserve forests and extraction is allowed.
Additionally, there are very few protected areas that encompass large contiguous altitudinal gradients.
There is still limited focus on biodiversity conservation. Many activities of the Forest Department are still focused on forest mensuration and commercial utilization, and
BSAP 2002 recommends a restructuring of the present form of administration by calling for a special unit for biodiversity and wildlife conservation. They stress on adopting PA management practices that preserve the ecological integrity of ecosystems both in terms of the biodiversity they contain as well as the ecosystem services that are preserved.
Oak forests need to be accorded more protection. Contiguous altitudinal gradients need to be accorded protection wherever possible.
There are low profile protected areas in the region that host a large number of species and ecosystems of conservation importance (e.g., the Askot WLS in Kumaon Himalaya) (Rawal and Dhar 20013). In addition some studies such as (Misra 20034) has tentatively identified potential sites for the location of Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs) such as Tungnath, Madhyamaheshwar, Bhatkot, Nanda Devi, Dodital, Niti Valley, Valley of Flowers, Milam, GHNP, Kangra Valley, etc.
1 http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/himalaya/
2 For more details, visit http://www.worldwildlife.org/tigers/pubs/Terai_Arc2004.pdf (The Terai Arc Landscape:
Bengal Tigers in the Himalayas’ Shadow).3 Rawal, R.S. and U. Dhar. 2001. Protected area network in Indian Himalayan region: Need for recognizing values
of low profile protected areas. Current Science 81(2):175-184.4 Misra, M.K. 2003. Baseline information on medicinal plant conservation and sustainable utilization. Overview
Report. Sponsored by UNDP/GEF, MoEF, GoI and coordinated by the Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health
Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore.
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4 Article 9:
Ex-situ Conservation
There are a number of scattered ex-situ initiatives for the Himalaya. There are a few ex-situ initiatives for large mammals and birds (e.g. musk deer, pheasants) but designing and carrying out such initiatives for these taxa are usually complicated and in many cases it is more economical to re-design conservation measures in the wild.
Institutions such as the Himalaya Forest Research Institute have ex-situ conservation facilities for plants. Forest Departments such as the State Forest Department of J&K are also involved.
However, a limited number of ex-situ initiatives such as zoos, if managed properly can serve as significant awareness tools. For other groups such as medicinal and aromatic plants and indigenous crops and domestic animals, it is vital to set up ex-situ conservation facilities.
The limitation here is that there are a number of institutions involved from various departments such as DST and DBT, which can potentially contribute to biodiversity conservation in the region, but there is lack of information.
There needs to be a formal review of ex-situ initiatives for both the Himalaya and Trans-Himalaya.
Guidelines need to be developed for commercialisation as well as intellectual property rights (IPR) based on biotechnology. For species that are marketed, it is important to develop measures to prevent further exploitation from the wild (i.e., there should be ways of distinguishing between cultivated and exploited products).
5 Article 10:
Sustainable Use of Components of Biological Diversity
Potential sustainable use initiatives discussed for the region involve medicinal plant commercialisation, agro-forestry practices and ecotourism.
Inventories and spatial distribution of plants in general and medicinal and wild edible plants in particular have been attempted. This will provide information for sustainable use
Unregulated medicinal plant extraction and commercialisation can lead to loss of species as well as loss of IPR and credits.
Unregulated tourism can result in quick degradation of mountain areas as a result of increased use of resources such as fuel wood.
Sustainable use policy guidelines at the systemic level need to be developed as a priority.
Case-specific alternate livelihood options need to be identified and adopted for different areas.
Sustainable use measures could also focus on resolving gender related issues in the region. In this region, women are involved in resource extraction activities and need to be identified as a major stakeholder segment.
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initiatives. The Growers Forum is one such initiative in Uttaranchal is trying out a multi-stakeholder approach (farmers, traders, industry and exporters) whereby the participants support each along the lines of a mutually agreed upon framework of the Kosi Declaration. Stakeholders do not participate in collection or trade illegally, follow organic farming practices, favour multi-cropping practices and aim for organic certification of their medicinal plants and agricultural products1.
The GBPHID’s (G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development) ‘Indigenous Knowledge Systems’ core initiative focuses on identification of traditional systems, IPR and benefit sharing.
National Afforestation and Eco -Development Board (NAEB) in the MoEF gives special attention to
1 Rastogi, A. 2004. Organic Certification of Members of Grower Forum: A Feasibility Assessment. Forests and
Biodiversity Conservation Programme. WWF-India.
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regeneration of degraded forest areas in ecologically fragile areas like the Himalayas.
There is evidence of encouragement of rural tourism initiatives. E.g. identification of project site at Mana village, Chamoli dist.
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Incentive Measures
National and regional biodiversity planning documents have begun to stress the importance of incentive measures.
Programmes such as JFM (Joint Forest Management) that include incentive measures have been launched in different areas.
A number of projects have been initiated by NGOs on a small scale (e.g. Himalayan Environmental Studies and Conservation Organisation, HESCO, Appropriate Technology, AT India).
Some examples of large state mediated programmes include the Livelihood Based Management Plan of the GHNP, and the Biodiversity
Although along theoretical lines there is talk of incentive measures, there have been fewer such measures on the ground.
There have been fewer such initiatives where government departments and institutions have played a role.
There is a crucial requirement for integrating alternate livelihood and benefit sharing options with biodiversity policy.
JFM has its limitations. The traditional Van Panchayat model has been largely ignored.
Avenues for developing incentive base livelihoods in the Himalayan region include participatory development in agro forestry (Saxena et al 20051), ethno botany and ecotourism under the framework of appropriate policy.
The Van Panchayat model can be a better model than JFM incorporating the latter’s strengths.
The development of self-help groups and rural credit/micro-finance institutions are necessary. Womens’ groups could be empowered to bring about gender equity.
1 Saxena, K.G., R.K. Maikhuri and K.S. Rao. Changes in Agricultural Biodiversity: Implications for
Sustainable Livelihood in the Himalaya Journal of Mountain Science 2(1):23-31.
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Conservation and Rural Livelihoods Improvement Project (BCRLIP) initiated attempts to biodiversity conservation by improving livelihoods and income opportunities in high-value biodiversity landscapes. A project site has been identified in the Himalayas (Askot Musk Deer Sanctuary.
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Research and Training
Some institutions such as the GBPIHED is solely dedicated to environment and biodiversity conservation in the region.
Additionally, the region derives benefits from a number of national level autonomous research and academic institutions headquartered in the region. These include the Wildlife Institute of India (WII), the Forest Research Institute (FRI), the Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy (IGNFA), the Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) and so on.
Many of these institutions provide education and training to students and in-
Currently there is little focus on socio-economic studies.
Despite the location of a number of institutions in the region, there is very little training of people from the region itself and fewer still take up careers in biodiversity conservation or in environment related fields.
Outputs of past initiatives such as the NBSAP process have called for capacity building by way of restructuring the current administrative set up to form a separate cadre of officers for biodiversity conservation. Training and education in forestry should stress on new aspects such as the valuation of ecosystems services, development of appropriate policies, and biological, socio-economic research tools.
Institutions in the region also need to organize targeted training programmes for students and professionals from the region.
Improvement of taxonomic expertise in the region should be treated as a priority training initiative.
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service Forest Department personnel. Universities such as Garhwal University, Kumaon University, and various universities in HP and J&K all provide educational facilities at the graduate and post-graduate level.
8 Article 13:
Public Education and Awareness
Organizations such as Centre for Environment Education (CEE), Himalaya that have been involved in awareness programmes (such as Himalaya Initiative) for all sections of society. A strategy and action plan called "Himalayan Education, Awareness, Training: Strategy and Action Plan" (HEATSAP) (CEE 2002 1) which describes CEE's mandate and action plan has been prepared.
The GBPIHED has instituted a systematic conservation education programme targeting students at the high school and college levels (Dhar et al 20022). This
However, largely as a result of lifestyle pressures, the younger generation seems to be drifting away from these values.
Therefore it is necessary to revive environmental consciousness by way of creative and informative environment awareness programmes.
Widespread public awareness programmes need to be initiated especially for school children by way of eco-clubs in schools as well as booklets, fliers and posters in the local language.
Local people can be made aware of some basic techniques and concepts by way of simple awareness generation exercises (for example, people encouraged to remove litter from community forests, since forest litter hampers regeneration of oak forests in the Himalaya).
Small capacity building grants can be provided to each organization to develop interpretation programmes for its activities.
A biodiversity portal or even a simple website can be developed for the region.
1 CEE Himalaya. 2002. Himalayan Education, Awareness and Training: Strategy and Action Plan (HEATSAP)
(Draft). Sustainable Development in the Himalaya: Environmental Education and Communication Initiative. Centre
for Environment Education (CEE Himalaya), Lucknow. Available at:
http://www.mtnforum.org/resources/library/ganga02a.htm accessed on 25 August 06.
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innovative project known as ‘Peoples’ participation in Himalayan biodiversity conservation’ was initiated in Uttaranchal and is hoped to be used as a model for the entire Himalayan region.
Among NGOs, the efforts of the Uttrakhand Seva Nidhi, Almora have been focused on this aspect.
The local people, especially in the Uttaranchal Himalaya can be credited with a high degree of environmental awareness. This is evident form a number of voluntary initiatives such as the Chipko movement and the ‘beej bachao andolan’ (Save the Seeds Movement).
9 Article 14:
Impact Assessment and Minimizing Adverse Impacts
According to the provisions of the EIA Notification (May, 1994), clearances are mandatory for all projects in areas notified as ecologically sensitive or fragile under the EPA (1986). Hilly and mountain areas are covered
There needs to be a specific set of EIA guidelines for the Himalayas. On account of its steep slopes and environmental conditions, the fragile ecosystems of the Himalaya are vulnerable to even
EIA techniques and legislation tailor-made for the region should be created.
Developmental activities in the region, like dam building, mining and road construction need to be monitored closely.
2 Dhar, U., R. S. Rawal, S. Airi, I. D. Bhatt and S. S. Samant. 2002. Promoting outreach through conservation
education programmes – Case study from the Indian Himalayan Region Current Science 82(7):808-815.
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under this. small-scale changes. For example, activities such as building roads can cause landslides, fragmentation, soil-loss and invasion by exotics. Many of these effects occur at much accelerated scales than in plains and low-lying areas.
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Access to Genetic Resources
Biotech is an emerging field in India and a number of species in the Himalayas are useful in terms of their pharmaceutical and other benefits.
The Himalaya is a region rich in genetic resources especially with respect to medicinal plants, indigenous varieties of agricultural crops and livestock.
Recently efforts have been initiated at the policy as well as ground level to deal with commercialisation and benefit sharing from resources (especially genetic resources); the issues that exist as major challenges.
The TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) Agreement of
Policy formulation on genetic resources is extremely weak. A biotech framework would be of extreme importance to regions such as the Himalaya where medicinal and ethno botanical wild resources hold extreme potential for utilization, but at the same time are vulnerable to misuse.
However, since much of the knowledge of its bioresearches is derived from local people, it has to be ensured that the economic as well as IPR benefits reach them. It is essential that effective policies as well as regulations are in place for sustainable
It is necessary that benefit-sharing arrangements be enforced through biodiversity and conservation related laws also and not just through the Ministry of Commerce and Industry and the Ministry of Science and Technology.
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the WTO does not favour the developing countries. Nevertheless India is moving forward and recently a number of legal instruments have been put in place like The Plant Varieties Protection and Farmers’ Rights Act (2001), The Patent Second Amendment Act 2002, Patent Third Amendment Act (2006), Biodiversity Act (2002) and the Draft National Biotechnology Strategy and Policy (2005).
collection/cultivation, manufacturers and marketing of these resources.
Currently, there is a lack of models to follow – the TBGRI-Kani tribal model is probably the only model of this kind to date.
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Access to and Transfer of technology
Since there are a number of academic institutions, there is moderate to high presence of contributions from the region in peer-reviewed literature.
Currently, there are insufficient monetary and IPR benefits to traditional knowledge practitioners with respect to transfer of knowledge regarding genetic resources. This is especially with respect to patents in the pharmaceutical industry.
There does not seem to be any formal mechanisms for transfer of technology.
Manuals, management plans, policy documents,
Unregulated commercialisation and misappropriation of patents by pharmaceutical companies and individuals should be prevented with appropriate guidelines and regulations.
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on various aspects of biodiversity conservation are lacking.
12 Article 17:
Exchange of Information
A number of Indian as well as international institutions are involved in collaborative work in the Himalayas. For e.g. the Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology (IHBT) is a member of the Global Forest Information Service (GFIS).
There are ENVIS centres at GBPIHED and the WII.
International collaborations in biodiversity research need to contribute more in terms of scientific training.
Translation of research reports to peer-reviewed publications is at best moderate.
Translation of research output towards policies and public awareness programmes is poor.
Organizations receiving funding from the government should be encouraged to set aside a budget for extension purposes.
Small grants can be given to NGOs to make their work more accessible.
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Technical and Scientific Cooperation
The Terai-Arc Project includes low elevation zones in the Himalayas in India and Nepal.
There are very few initiatives that are the product of technical and scientific cooperation between a numbers of institutions.
Certain aspects of biodiversity related research (e.g. survey and analysis techniques, PA prioritisation, climate change research, EIA) are well developed in western countries and Indian institutions can benefit from these.
Multidisciplinary projects especially those dealing with climate change would require scientific and technical inputs from a variety of regional institutions.
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Handling of Biotechnology and
The Himalaya has a large number of species that are used for biotechnological purposes. A biotechnology framework would be of importance where
Biotechnology frameworks are vulnerable to misuse especially in the pharmaceutical industry.
However, since
It is essential that effective policies as well as regulations are in place for sustainable collection/cultivation, manufacturers and marketing of these resources.
Biotech policy should be
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Distribution of its Benefits
medicinal and ethno botanical wild resources hold potential for utilization.
A number of components of the Biotechnology Information System and the BTISNet Programme deal with aspects of Himalayan biodiversity such as microbial wealth, agro biodiversity, pharmaceuticals, etc. (For more details, see ‘Proceedings of the BTISNet Coordinators’ Meet’ 20051).
At the policy level, the TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) Agreement of the WTO has been recognized as problematic to the developing world, and countries such as India are now moving forward and to develop legal instruments that are unbiased2.South Asia Watch on Trade, Economics and the Environment
much of the knowledge of its bioresources is derived from local people, it has to be ensured that the economic as well as IPR benefits reach them.
Currently, there is lack of successful models to follow.
developed specifically for the region by all concerned ministries such as the Ministry of Commerce and Industry and the Ministry of Science and Technology and the MoEF.
The National Innovation Foundation4 launched by the GOI and the Peoples’ Biodiversity Registers5 are important starting points for exploring issues regarding benefit sharing.
1 Available at: http://www.btisnet.nic.in/cormeet/jaipur/Jaipur_Proceedings.doc (DBT. 2005. Proceedings of the
XVI Annual BTISnet COORDINATORS’ MEET. 3-4 February 2005. The Biotechnology Information System of
India. Bioinformatics Centre, Birla Institute of Scientific Research, Jaipur. Department of Biotechnology Ministry of
Science and Technology, Government of India.) 2 The Plant Varieties Protection and Farmers’ Rights Act (2001), The Patent Second Amendment Act 2002, Patent
Third Amendment Act (2006), Biodiversity Act (2002), Draft National Biotechnology Strategy and Policy (2005).
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(SAWTEE), a Kathmandu based organisation has evolved a project that looks at WTO agreements and farmers rights in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya region. SAWTEE organised a workshop on trade related aspects and agreements such as CUTs and TRIPs with regard to farmers’ rights and livelihoods in the Garhwal region3.
15 The ‘Cartagena’ Biosafety Protocol
The inter-ministerial Task Force on biosafety was set up by in 1997-98 to develop India’s stand on biosafety issues.
It has been proposed for some mountain areas that a special policy or set of guidelines that gives preferential treatment to mountain communities to buffer them from potential negative impacts of GM crops (Adhikari and Adhikari 20034).
People living in mountain regions are particularly vulnerable with respect to food security. Globalisation could lead to the influx of modified species, which in turn could wipe out indigenous varieties and bring about changes in agricultural patterns and practices. For these regions more attention needs to be paid to food norms and farmers’ rights and the
Biosafety norms as per the CPB (Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 2000) need to be assessed in detail for the Himalayas. Anticipatory/precautionary decision-making strategies may be relevant for this region (Gupta 2000).
3 SAWTEE. 2003. Farmers’ Rights and Livelihood of Garhwal Himalayan Farmers Report of Dissemination
Workshop held at Nainbagh, Tehri Garhwal on 20th-21st December, 2003.4 http://nifindia.org/activity.html5 For more information on this topic, see
http://www.etfrn.org/etfrn/workshop/biodiversity/documents/gadgil/amruth.doc
4 Adhikari, R. and K. Adhikari (eds.) 2003. Farmers’ Rights to Livelihood in the Hindu-Kush Himalayas. SAWTEE,
Kathmandu, Nepal.
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introduction of GM crops and other potentially harmful practices.
3. Conclusions
a. Capacity status and strengths
The Himalaya is now considered as one of the global hotspots of biodiversity.1 The
region is now receiving importance from researchers as well as policy makers and a number of
institutions are involved in biodiversity conservation in the region. A few of these are solely
focused on the Himalaya, and the region also benefits from a number of national level state of
the art institutions and scientific expertise that is located within the region. Significant strides in
biodiversity research have been made by universities and institutes located in the region.
Significant plans and policy documents such as the NBSAP Western Himalayan ecoregional and
sub-state reports have assessed biological diversity conservation in detail.
Although yet to be implemented at the grass-roots level, sustainable use models,
traditional livelihood practices, knowledge and benefit-sharing are finding mention in recent
policies and planning documents. These prepare the ground for future field-level initiatives
relating to participatory conservation and sustainable use frameworks. Currently, a number of
NGO initiated livelihood and sustainable use projects are going on.
One of the unique capacities of the region is the heightened environmental consciousness
of local communities. This is especially so in the Uttaranchal Himalaya where voluntary
movements to protect forests and biodiversity have been initiated by the local people themselves.
b. Capacity gaps and weaknesses
Infrastructure and Logistics
Field stations and communication including transport need to be upgraded carefully. Currently,
field stations are few and far between. Since the cost of setting up field stations is high,
collaborative efforts between institutions may be required to get maximum benefits. A major
lacuna in the infrastructural set up is the absence of weather stations in much of the high
Himalaya (especially above 1500m). This is a primary requirement as climate change studies
need to be initiated not only by institutions involved in biodiversity work, but also by many
1 As opposed to the earlier classification by Conservation International which considered only the Eastern Himalaya as a hotspot, the new classification delineates the entire Himalaya as a single global hotspot.
meteorology and geology departments. Some basic field equipment such as data loggers should
be made available for long-term research projects. Most molecular laboratory facilities also seem
to be located away from the region making material management and maintenance a costly affair.
Research
Current levels of research are at best mediocre. Although a large amount of research seems to be
carried out (as is evident from publications in mid-level peer-reviewed journals such as Current
Science), significant gaps still exist. Taxonomic work has been considerable, but not at all
sufficient as high diversity endemism and rarity within many species groups and as a result there
are still very significant gaps in taxonomy. Taxonomists are on the decline. Although projects,
such as the AICOPTAX have helped in improving the situation, the Himalaya needs more
specialized taxonomists and initiatives.
Inventory mapping and quantification of rare, threatened taxa as well as taxa that are of
economic importance (especially medicinal plants) are required. Research on invasives is
important. Many ecosystems are in the grip of invasives (Parthenium heterocarpum in the higher
elevations, Eupatorium (Chromeleana) odoratum and Lantana camara in lower elevations, a
number of carp and trout species in hill streams and lakes).
More projects on biodiversity and climate change need to be funded and institutional
capacities in terms of infrastructure and human resources need to be upgraded for this purpose.
Studies on single species seem to show that climate change in association with human factors is
already affecting the region (for example the failure in regeneration of kharsu oak, Quercus
semecarpifolia as detailed by Singh et al. 19971). Therefore, long-term, interdisciplinary projects
with a regional focus need to be initiated to gather representative data for the region as a whole.
Although a large amount of work has been carried out in the region, compilations of basic
information are few (e.g. Singh and Singh 1999). Basic species diversity, rarity and other macro-
ecological patterns looking at range sizes and distributions should be established for groups. This
is especially critical for climate change. It may be worthwhile to situate long-term monitoring
1 Singh, S.P., Y.S. Rawat and S.C. Garkoti. 1997. Failure of brown oak (Quercus semecarpifolia) to regenerate in
Central Himalaya: A case of environmental semisurprise. Current Science 73:371-374.
plots on the CTFS STRI model1, although at a smaller scale (50 ha plots may be difficult to
locate and monitor in the Himalaya). Inter-institutional collaboration could be encouraged and
the baseline data generated by these plots could be utilized by different institutions for their
different focal areas of research. Research on critical ecosystems also needs to be stepped up.
Examples include the low profile oak forests in the middle elevations, the timberline and
grasslands. Higher altitude areas (esp. above 1500 m) remain unexplored.
Access to available information is poor. More region-specific database and clearing-
house projects are required. Establishing scientifically valid spatial databases incorporating GIS
techniques (such as Map Asia 2004 and similar GIS oriented thematic initiatives, Bajracharya
and Pandey 20042) and new methods need to be incorporated. A database unit for the Himalaya
as a whole maybe facilitated through the ENVIS centres.
Research and conservation outside PAs need to be encouraged. The contribution of
village commons and areas falling outside the conventional PA network can be examined in
terms of species composition and diversity, ecosystem services. Ecological economics and the
valuation of ecosystem services need to be incorporated into accounting processes (Western
Himalaya Ecoregional BSAP 2002). Projects that investigate linkages between agricultural
practices, subsidies and trade are also needed.
Human Resources
In spite of a history of producing dedicated taxonomists and field biologists, biodiversity
research is not attracting young talent in universities and the younger generation is forced to look
for lucrative jobs elsewhere. Properly trained technical manpower (especially taxonomists,
statisticians, social scientists) is critical in all aspects of biodiversity conservation. Within
universities and training institutions, there is a need to follow up with trainees, place them in
appropriate jobs and upgrade their capabilities regularly. The same is required in terms of support
to the Forest Department. Since the Forest Department is the primary PA management institution,
1 For more information, visit http://www.ctfs.si.edu/doc/ctfsbackground.htm 2 Bajracharya, B. and S. Pandey. 2004. GIS oriented thematic portals: A means for partnership in sustainable
development in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas. Map Asia 2004 Conference. Beijing, China.
it needs to be supported with additional manpower and management tools. It would also be very
useful to create a strong network of individuals involved in biodiversity research and
conservation activities in the Himalaya. This network could be a means of keeping people
informed about developments across fields. This would also help in improving inter-agency
collaborations that are at present very poor.
Education and Awareness
The people of the region have been very receptive to environmental conservation – as is evident
from the results of the Chipko movement and other local initiatives such as the ‘beej bachao
andolan’ (Save the Seeds Movement). The younger generation especially is drifting away from
these values. Some basic techniques and concepts can be instilled among the local people by way
of simple awareness generation exercises. The basic awareness generating activities that can be
encouraged in the region include: establishing eco-clubs in schools and colleges, establishing a
basic website on biodiversity (this will serve the dual purpose of computer education), and
production of simple manuals, poster and fliers that explain the most basic biodiversity
conservation techniques in the local language. Education and awareness programmes of the CEE
Himalaya1 and the GBPIHED (Dhar et al 20022) could serve as models for larger regional projects.
Policy and Advocacy
Inadequacies among policies include blanket adoption of policies on these regions without
considering the present culture, customs, practices and traditions. Advocacy is absent and seems
to be adopted only as a political tool for delaying actual development. A few advocacy projects
in the region are taken up by small NGOs and does not seem to have an impact on a regional
scale.
1 CEE Himalaya. 2002. Himalayan Education, Awareness and Training: Strategy and Action Plan (HEATSAP)
(Draft). Sustainable Development in the Himalaya: Environmental Education and Communication Initiative. Centre
for Environment Education (CEE Himalaya), Lucknow.
2 Dhar, U., R. S. Rawal, S. Airi, I. D. Bhatt and S. S. Samant. 2002. Promoting outreach through conservation
education programmes – Case study from the Indian Himalayan Region Current Science 82(7):808-815.
Various institutions dealing with utilization of resources need to be brought on a common
platform to frame guidelines for sustainable use, IPR and benefit sharing and biotechnology
policy. A sustainable policy on ecologically friendly tourism is missing.
Sustainable use and livelihoods
To meet the dual objectives of biodiversity conservation and economic development, it is
necessary to develop sustainable use models of conservation wherever appropriate. Integrated
natural resource management that is initiated on the basis of key interventions that are
economically beneficial as well as environmentally and legally sound are required for the region.
Saxena et al (20011) outline such an exercise carried out for a village in the Nanda Devi
Biosphere Reserve in the Gharwal Himalaya. It is also important to develop and expand
participatory management in the region around traditional working models such as the Van
Panchayat model of Uttaranchal (Western Himalaya Ecoregional BSAP 2002). It has been felt
that the Van Panchayats could be made more autonomous and not displaced by parallel
institutions such as JFM which may be more appropriate elsewhere. In any case, the support of
local communities is necessary for conservation measures to be effective. In the first such
attempt in India, PA managers initiated an such an eco-development project with the assistance
of the World Bank in Great Himalayan National Park, Himachal Pradesh (Nangia and Kumar
20012). The participation of people in the preparation and implementation of the project was an
important component of this project. The results of the participatory Integrated Watershed
Development Project (IWDP) that was executed in the Siwalik foothills of the Himalaya are
elaborated in Vedeld 20003.
1 Saxena, K.G., K.S. Rao, K.K. Sen, R.K. Maikhuri and R.L. Semwal. 2001. Integrated natural resource
management: approaches and lessons from the Himalaya. Conservation Ecology 5 (2): 14. [online] URL:
http://www.consecol.org/vol5/iss2/art14/ 2 Nangia, S. and Kumar, P. Population And Environment Interface in the Great Himalayan National Park. Centre for
the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Paper submitted for session(S08) on Population
and Environment of the 24th General Population Conference of the IUSSP, to be held at Salvador-Brazil from 18-24
August 2001.
3 Vedeld, T. 2000. Participation in the Himalayan Foothills: Lessons from Watershed Development in India. Social
Development Papers Paper Number 38. SASSD, New Delhi.
Grazing and transhumant systems, an important livelihood as well as cultural aspect need
to be managed in an integrated and economically viable manner. Grasslands and meadows in
many parts of the world seem to be in some sort of equilibrium with grazing, however, grazing
within forests are conducive to gap formation and affect regeneration negatively - this is
especially true in sub alpine oak (kharsu) forests where fragmentation has been caused by
grazing.
Particular attention needs to be paid to displaced/ migratory pastoral communities such as
Van Gujjars and transhumant communities. Effective rehabilitation measures and supplementary
livelihood options need to be explored that do not destroy their traditional lifestyles. For
example, Nautiyal et al. (20051) elaborate on conflicts over resource use between transhumant
pastoralists and the settled sedentary population in the buffer zone of the Nanda Devi Biosphere
Reserve. They call for a critical appraisal of current land use policies of the region which seem to
aggravate problems for the animal husbandry sector.
A livelihood approach (within and outside PAs) need to be used to conserve medicinal
plant and biotech wealth of the Himalaya at the same time protecting indigenous knowledge and
IPR. Livelihood approaches also need to take be prioritised to promote gender equity and the
economic improvement of the poorer and marginalised sections of the society. Recent
explorations of indigenous knowledge systems have also revealed that women are perhaps the
real custodians of indigenous knowledge (Samal and Dhyani 20062).
Government agencies, MNCs and private agencies need to be convinced that investing in
biodiversity conservation is not mere altruism but makes business sense (but see also
commentaries on actual projects that have been undertaken3). Examples can be illustrated from
the work of conservation organisations in the Western Ghats and elsewhere.
1 S. Nautiyal., R. Shibasaki, K.S. Rajan, R.K. Maikhuri and K.S. Rao. 2005. Impact of land use changes on
subsidiary occupation: a case study from Himalayas of India. Environmental Informatics Archives 3:14-23.
2 Samal, P.K., and P. P. Dhyani. Gender in the management of indigenous knowledge: reflections from Indian
Central Himalaya. Current Science 91(2):104-108.
3 An enterprise model for biodiversity conservation undertaken by Appropriate Technology, India, Ltd. is critiqued
at : http://www.ansab.org/research_papers/ntfp_paper_JC.pdf (Accessed on 25 October 25, 2006) (Croucher, J. .d.
The Enterprise Model for Biodiversity Conservation: A Critique)
Protected area network and management
Restructuring of departmental structures for PA management is necessary as the forest
conservation paradigm (forest utilization and wildlife protection) has undergone shifts and now
incorporates the conservation and ecosystem services as well as livelihoods and sustainable
development issues and as a result there are increasingly important roles for social scientists in
the administrative set ups. Perhaps there can be an increase in focus on capacity building of PA
management on issues like wildlife management, ecosystem studies and social science
disciplines.
Protected area design in the Himalaya should incorporate connectivity as a factor. Focus
need to be on conserving at least a few complete altitudinal gradients in the main Himalaya. The
connectivity issue will also establish protection of the species rich middle elevation oak stands
and adjoining subalpine forests. The lower elevations of the Himalaya particularly the Siwalik
region are habitats for a number of endangered large mammals such as elephant and tiger. The
management of these areas needs to be carried out with adequate stress on corridors for
movement.
c. Capacity needs and recommendations
1. Individual capacity needs
There is an urgent requirement to improve capacities of local research personnel and induct more
students and trainees into biodiversity conservation. In terms of training capacities, individual
capacities need to be improved for taxonomy. There needs to be capacity development for
research personnel dealing with socio-economic and policy aspects of biodiversity conservation.
In the forest department, a larger number of forest guards and lower level staff are necessary.
There are exemplary forest department officers in the region who can be effective role models
for others. A re-orientation of PA managers towards economic valuation, ecosystem services and
sustainable use aspects is necessary for in-service forest personnel.
2. Institutional capacity needs
Institutional mandates need to be better structured in terms of development and development of
projects. Some institutions are not clearly structured or managed. They seem to be top heavy. In
some cases, there are a large number of scientists and administrative support staff and fewer
research fellows and students. This problem has already been highlighted in the course of
preparing re-structuring plans for organizations such as the ZSI and the BSI. For example, as a
first step towards meeting the goals of the CBD, a national seminar on restructuring the roles of
the BSI and ZSI was conducted by the MoEF (MoEF 19991).
3. Systemic capacity needs
Linkages need to be made between research institutions and key regulatory agencies for the
region as a whole. Currently these linkages are somewhat blurred. Areas that should be addressed
as priorities are biotechnology and benefit-sharing. Policies need to emerge from research
outputs. Similarly linkages need to be established between various agencies carrying out
development activities and regulatory agencies. Environmental impact assessment plans also
need to be drafted specially for the Himalaya. An important systemic need for the Himalaya
would be a region specific action plan.
Inter-institutional linkages need to be improved for specific issues such as climate
change. Studies on climate change require multidisciplinary inputs ranging from bio-physical
sciences to socio-economic studies. Inter-institutional collaborations can also contribute to
sharing scientific infrastructure and expertise, infrastructural development such as field stations
and effective interdisciplinary research.
4. Proposed capacity building initiatives and projects for the thematic area
Multidisciplinary project on climate change
Large collaborative multidisciplinary project/s on climate change to measure species as well as
ecosystem responses to climate change. Agricultural change should also be monitored. Study
sites should be selected carefully encompassing a diversity of habitats, altitudinal and moisture
1 MoEF 1999. Proceedings of the National Seminar on the Role of Botanical Survey of India and the Zoological
Survey of India in the Next Millennium. MoEF. Govt. of India. New Delhi.
gradients. Liberal use of spatial technologies can be combined with computer modelling to create
scenarios for management experts. In order to measure changes, key ecosystem outputs such as
species densities, productivity, temperature and precipitation, stream discharge, need to be
measured over the long-term. Forest modelling, watershed research, glacial monitoring, should
be main components. The absence of long-term meteorological data in the Himalaya can be a
limiting factor.
The research teams should include biologists as well as social scientists. Information on
key sociological aspects especially factors such impacts on food security; as changes in the
migration of human labour, diseases, can be add ons. A project that aims at both research and
development and institutional capacity building can be envisaged. Such a project could have
similar components as that of the Natural Resources Data Management System (NRDMS)
initiative of the Department of Science and Technology1.
It is also unclear if there are a sufficient number of scientists with the level of expertise required
for climate changes studies. Therefore some amount of training and capacity building needs to be
carried out at this level. Associated infrastructure development could include the establishment
of a network of field and weather stations and permanent plots. It is important that MoUs and
guidelines for data sharing, sharing of resources and publishing guidelines are in place.
Additionally, recent international declarations such as the ‘Perth Declaration2’ on global change
affecting biosphere reserves could be of relevance to networking, funding and collaborative work
in the Indian Himalaya, especially with respect to the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve.
Valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services
Projects that assess the economic value of biodiversity and ecosystem services need to be
initiated. Himalayan biodiversity has a variety of values in medicine, agriculture, food and
1 For more details, visit the NRDMS website at: http://nrdms.gov.in/ or refer to the vision document available at:
http://nrdms.gov.in/NRDMS_vision_doc.pdf (Accessed on 9 Sept 06).
2 Declaration on Global Change Affecting Mountain Biosphere Reserves, the ‘Perth Declaration’. International Open
Science Conference ‘Global Change in Mountain Regions’ Perth, Scotland (United Kingdom), 2 to 6 October 2005.
industry, as well as spiritual, cultural and recreational values. Himalayan ecosystems also render
critical services such as carbon sequestration and nutrient cycling, soil maintenance, pollination
services and climate regulation. The value the life-supporting ecosystem services can be used as
incentives for conservation. Economic valuation of forests should be carried out along with
exploration of the potential for adequate alternate livelihoods and employment generation. For
example, exploratory projects focusing on this aspect have already been initiated in the
Uttaranchal Himalaya by ANSAB1 and FES2. Of particular importance for valuation would be
the mid-elevation forest types—banj (Quercus leucotrichophora) and moru oak (Quercus
dilalta) forests, low elevation alder (Alnus nepalensis) and chir pine (Pinus roxburghii).
Interdisciplinary projects on conservation and livelihoods involving participatory management
and village level institutions
Sustainable-use and alternate livelihood options need to be a greater part of biodiversity
conservation initiatives in the Himalaya region. The participation of local communities as well as
local village level institutions (such as Van Panchayats as opposed to state sponsored
programmes such as JFM) in designing and executing alternate livelihood options that could
improve food security, economic well being and gender equity need to be emphasized.
Interdisciplinary research into the theoretical as well as applied aspects of such exercises needs
to be initiated where institutions work with local bodies. A few projects have been initiated that
look at capacity building of community organisations (e.g. in Himachal Pradesh3), however these
need to be started on a larger scale.
1 http://www.ansab.org/cp_VES.php Accessed on 25 October 2006 (Valuation of ecosystem services of Himalaya
mountains forests for conservation through capacity building and policy interventions-A pilot study of Nepal and
Uttaranchal India).
2 Asher, M., P. Bhandari, K. Ramnarayan and E. Theophilus. 2002. Livelihoods in transition: Agriculture in the
alpine villages of Malla Johar, Western Himalaya. Working Paper 5. Foundation for Ecological Security.
3 For more details, see http://www.etfrn.org/ETFRN/WORKSHOP/BIODIVERSITY/documents/sharma.doc As-
sessed on 25 October 06 (Sharma, V. n.d. Capacity Building of Community Organisations for Biodiversity Monitor-
ing and Management in Himachal Pradesh, Western Himalayas, India.
A series of pilot projects could be initiated with government funding and institutional support on
the improvement of rural livelihoods at multiple sites and ecosystems. Appropriate alternative
livelihood options need to be selected on an individual site by site basis after consultation with
local institutions and looking into the real needs of the site, i.e. this could be sustainable
medicinal plant extraction (or cultivation) for a site, organic farming of indigenous varieties or
community ecotourism for other sites. Employment generation, benefit-sharing and gender
equity are issues that could be addressed in projects across sites. These projects need to be
initiated after consultation with organizations that have experience in the region1. Certain local
communities need to be incorporated in to these projects without extensive modification of their
traditional lifestyles. Livelihood options should be thought out carefully for communities that
have extensive mobility. Additional scientific components of such a project could include
mapping of potential conservation areas outside the PA network and identification of sites for
eco-restoration, the planting of fodder species.
Policy – Biotechnology, indigenous knowledge and benefit-sharing
For the Himalayan region in particular specific policies are needed to address equitable benefit
sharing, documentation and preservation of traditional knowledge (e.g., health, agro-pastoral,
water conservation systems) and intellectual property rights. It is desirable that a separate set of
policies be developed for the Himalaya. As a part of such a project, checklists, databases and
status reports of species with commercial importance (especially medicinal plants) can be
compiled. Policy formulation needs to be comprehensive and should be developed in
conjunction with research institutions as well as all concerned higher level governmental
departments to avoid contradictory policies. Efforts need to be made to communicate policy
guidelines to the relevant customs departments and regulatory bodies.
Education and awareness generation for conservation professionals and local people
Enhancing awareness and education among people through simple widespread programmes go a
long way in biodiversity conservation in the region. The same applies for professionals involved
in biodiversity conservation. Forest Department and NGO staff and researchers should be
encouraged to participate in advanced training programmes and refresher courses. Some basic 1 For example in Uttaranchal, projects have been initiated by FES, HESCO and AT-India.
biodiversity conservation concepts can be passed on to local people using simple techniques.
These could be by way of initiating eco clubs in schools, the dissemination of information
through booklets and posters in the local language, and setting up of websites.
CHAPTER 5
THE HIMALAYA: CAPACITY STATUS, PRIORITIES AND POTENTIAL PROJECTS
FOR THE TRANS HIMALAYA WITH RESPECT TO SPECIFIC ARTICLES
OF THE CONVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY
The Trans Himalaya: An evaluation of issues in the context of the CBD articles (Articles 6–
19)
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1 Article 6:
General Measures for Conservation and Sustainable Use
The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002), the Biodiversity Act (2002), Biodiversity Rules (2004), the National Environmental Policy (MoEF 2006)1, the Indian Forest Act, 1947 and Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 (note that a different set of rules apply for J&K) have provisions built for basic biodiversity conservation in the Himalaya.
During the NBSAP process, action plans for the three northern states and sub-state level plans for Ladakh (Ladakh Sub-State BSAP 2003), Lahaul and Spiti and Kinnaur districts in the Trans Himalaya (Lahaul ad Spiti Sub-State BSAP 2002) were prepared. Recently, the Planning Commission has set up a Task Force on Mountain Ecosystems (as part of the 11th Five Year Plan).
Although a number of initiatives have addressed biodiversity prioritisation and planning, considering the vastness of the region and the potential impacts to biodiversity, there still needs to be more attention to specific aspects of biodiversity conservation and planning.
A key limitation that needs to be addressed speedily is the development of a specific action plan for the Trans Himalaya. It needs to be stressed repeatedly that larger regional policies should also stress on the distinctness of the Trans Himalaya. The Trans Himalaya is very distinct from even proximate biogeographic zones such as the Himalaya and biodiversity conservation planning exercises need to address specific important issues that are currently in focus in this region. Among these, initiatives need to be stepped
1 MoEF. 2006. National Environmental Policy. Ministry of Environment and Forests. Government of India.
Approved by the Union Cabinet on 18th May 2006.
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In the Trans Himalaya, in addition to the national and level planning exercises, international initiatives and organizations have also accorded importance to species and ecosystems (e.g., some high altitude wetlands1
in the Trans Himalaya receive special attention under Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (1971) and organisations such as the WWF and Wetlands International). The conservation species such as the snow leopard is addressed by strategies and action plans (Wikramanayake et al 20062) and those that figure in international trade are recognized by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species or CITES (example the Tibetan antelope as well as a large number of medicinal plants).
up to study and manage human-wildlife conflict are necessary. Status survey reports and future planning documents relating to endangered and threatened species are required. Ecotourism and heritage based conservation initiatives should receive adequate planning attention. In short, there is a requirement for a specific action plan for the Tans Himalaya.
2 Article 7:
Identification and Monitoring
Work has been carried on assessing the status, distribution and ecology of large mammals. Birds are also a relatively better studied group.
Floras of this region have
Fish, invertebrate and microbial inventories are deficient.
Although, floristically impoverished in comparison with the Himalaya, a large number of species are of
A systematic review of inventories and taxonomic knowledge would identify gaps. Institutions such as the WII should be encouraged to carry
1 Anon. 2003. Framework for an Action Plan on ‘Wetland Conservation and Wise Use in the Himalayan high
Mountains’ Ramsar and ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal Available at: http://www.ramsar.org/key_himalayan_plan.htm2 Wikramanayake, E. et al. 2006. The WWF Snow Leopard Action Strategy for the Himalayan Region. WWF,
Bhutan.
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been compiled. Baseline information on medicinal plants has been documented for many areas in Ladakh and Lahaul and Spiti, hotspots such as Zanskar, Chang Thang, Nubra, Suru, Khardungla and Changla have been identified (Misra 20031).
Patterns of diversity are fairly well described.
medicinal importance and the status of many species is unknown.
this out with local organizations.
Relatively low-cost rapid surveys can be organized for inventorisation.
1 Misra, M.K. 2003. Baseline information on medicinal plant conservation and sustainable utilization. Overview
Report. Sponsored by UNDP/GEF, MoEF, GoI and coordinated by the Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health
Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore.
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3 Article 8:
In-situ Conservation
Although, the PA network in the region does not have a scientific basis, but has a more or less adequate representation of most habitat types.
Currently, human influences are at worst only moderate in most places.
Forest and biodiversity protection staff are very few. In 2002, for an area of approximately 13, 000 sq km in Ladakh, there were only 20 staff members. Such numbers are clearly inadequate especially so in the Trans Himalaya where working conditions are extremely difficult. The regulation of tourism and the impact of pack animals also need to be taken up within PAs.
Most protected areas also encompass villages and agro-pastoral systems (there are no reserve forests to buffer human impacts) which people have been using for a long time.
Unregulated tourism can cause problems here.
As per the 1991 amendment of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 all PAs constituting over 15000 sq km have technically become ‘core zones’ (which technically prevent human occupation and interference).
Clear delineation of boundaries for some PAs (such as the Karakorum WLS) need to be carried out, PA management staff should be increased, a closer examination of human-wildlife conflict in the region and the up gradation of logistics and infrastructure in some areas need to be carried out.
Instead of classifying whole protected areas as core areas, it has been suggested (Bhatnagar et al 20021), that careful delineation within Trans Himalayan PAs be carried out that identifies appropriate core and buffer areas within the mosaic of human use lands.
Potential Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs) have been identified as Khardungla, Changla, Nubra Valley, Suru Valley and Zanskar and the Lahaul and Spiti Valley (Misra 20032).
4 Article 9:
Ex-situ Conservation
Institutions such as Himalayan Forest Research Institute and Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu have ex-situ conservation facilities for plants. Forest Departments such as the State Forest
There are hardly any ex-situ conservation facilities in the Trans-Himalaya.
Ex-situ conservation of certain medicinal plants and aromatic plants, indigenous crops and breeds is needed. Basic
A formal review of ex-situ initiatives is proposed which takes into account efforts by all concerned government departments and
1 Bhatnagar, Y.V., V.B. Mathur and T. McCarthy. 2002. A regional perspective for snow leopard conservation in the
Indian Trans Himalaya. Envis Bulletin on Wildlife and Protected Areas 2002(1):57-76. 2 Misra, M.K. 2003. Baseline information on medicinal plant conservation and sustainable utilization. Overview
Report. Sponsored by UNDP/GEF, MoEF, GoI and coordinated by the Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health
Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore.
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Department of J&K are also involved.
molecular labs and germplasm facilities are needed.
NGOs working in the region.
5 Article 10:
Sustainable Use of Components of Biological Diversity
Many traditional knowledge and practices related to the use of medicinal and aromatic plants, indigenous crops, seed banks, water management, etc. have been sustainable at low human population densities and would only require modification.
Ethno botanical knowledge in the region is considerable. The region is rich in medicinal and aromatic plant resources as well as a hotspot for tourism. These can yield adequate rewards if they are used sustain ably.
The home stay system seems to be gaining ground in Ladakh and may be an appropriate model for other Trans Himalayan regions.
Currently, information on status and distribution as well as sustainable use guidelines are lacking for medicinal plants. There is unregulated collection and commercialisation. Some organizations have speculated that Aconites and Podophyllum seem to be on the brink of extinction and estimated that for a few species, there has been up to 80percent depletion in population.1.
Of particular importance is the sustainable use and benefit-sharing guidelines for sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides), which is extracted on a large scale.
The government has to provide more attention to ecotourism plans and policies.
Sustainable use of resources should be brought under the framework of appropriate traditional knowledge and IPR guidelines.
There needs to be a co-ordination and sharing of information among groups working on sustainable use aspects with those working on biodiversity survey and monitoring.
Some capacity building projects could be initiated to address gender related issues in addition to biodiversity conservation.
Appropriate harvesting methodologies, thresholds and benefit-sharing guidelines need to be developed for sea buckthorn and medicinal plants such as Ephedra gerardiana, Podophyllum hexandrum, Aconitum heterophyllum and other medicinal plants.
6 Article 11:
Incentive Measures
Notable incentive and insurance programmes have been carried out by the Nature Conservation Foundation, the International
The development of economic and social livelihood options must be a primary responsibility of conservation organizations in the Trans
Avenues for developing incentive base livelihoods in the Himalayan region include
1 Information from Pragya website: http://www.pragya.org/nwproar.htm accessed on 9 September 2006.
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Snow Leopard Trust and partner organizations. These are further elaborated in Jackson and Wanchuk 20011
and Mishra et al. 20032.
Projects such as the Biodiversity Conservation and Rural Livelihoods Improvement Project (BCRLIP) have initiated attempts to biodiversity conservation by improving livelihoods and income opportunities in high-value biodiversity landscapes.
Himalaya. This should apply to both government organizations as well as NGOs. Currently most livelihood initiatives have been initiated by NGOs at a small scale.
participatory development in ethno botany and ecotourism under the framework of appropriate policy.
7 Article 12:
Research and Training
There are considerable capacities in wildlife research staff and a lot of work has been carried out on biodiversity assessment and inventories of certain groups.
The region has benefited from the expertise of a number of outside agencies (e.g. NORAD).
There is a need for improved scientific education and training for Forest Department staff as well as for other professionals involved in biodiversity conservation.
Currently, human resources are inadequate as there is not enough park management staff. Staff needs to be trained on a variety of fronts ranging from basic biodiversity conservation to trade related aspects.
Setting up a different management cadre for the division needs to be considered.
Training also need to focus on wildlife trade. For e.g., basic training in forensics need to be given.
Training could also be given to people indirectly engaged in conservation or people who can be potentially be of help. These include
1 Jackson, R. and R. Wanchuk. 2001. Linking snow leopard conservation and people-wildlife conflict resolution:
Grassroots measures to protect the endangered snow leopard from herder retribution. Endangered Species
UPDATE. 18(4):138-141.
2 Mishra, C., P. Allen, T. McCarthy, M.D. Madhusudan, A. Bayajargal and H.H.T. Prins. 2003. The role of incentive
programs in conserving the snow leopard. Conservation Biology 17(6):1512-1520.
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local administrators, police, customs personnel, and army personnel and others.
8 Article 13:
Public Education and Awareness
Student organisations such as the Students’ Educational and Cultural Movement of Ladakh (SECMOL) are active in the region.
Regional Research Laboratory (RRL), Jammu has a Biodiversity Information network (BIONET).
Organizations such as the Ladakh Ecological Group have been active in promoting overall development along sound ecological and cultural tenets (e.g. traditional agricultural practices, land rights, etc.). A number of small NGOs in the region have the potential to take up educational projects.
Awareness about biodiversity and conservation is not included at the school level.
Small capacity building grants can be provided to each organization to develop interpretation programmes for its activities.
Student organizations such as SECMOL could be encouraged to develop independent educational programmes.
9 Article 14:
Impact Assessment and Minimizing Adverse Impacts
According to the provisions of the EIA Notification (May, 1994), clearances are mandatory for all projects in areas notified as ecologically sensitive or fragile under the EPA (1986). Hilly and mountain areas are covered under this.
There are very few formal EIA studies.
There should be a focus on the impacts of roads, development activities and garbage as a result of tourism.
As is the case with the Himalaya, the Trans-Himalaya also requires a specific set of EIA guidelines as a result of steep slopes and extreme environmental conditions.
10 Article 15:
There are a number of genetic resources relating to agricultural, horticultural,
Extraction of resources especially that of medicinal and aromatic plants are being
Commercialization that takes economic benefits away from
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Access to Genetic Resources
livestock, fisheries, medicinal and other NTFPs that are exploited from the Trans Himalayan region.
Agreements like the TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of International Property Rights) of the WTO do not favour the developing countries1, nevertheless India is now moving forward and recently a number of legal instruments have been put in place like the Plant Varieties Protection and Farmers’ Rights Act (20012), The Patent Second Amendment Act 2002, Patent Third Amendment Act (2006), Biodiversity Act (2002), Draft National Biotechnology Strategy and Policy (2005).
carried out in an unregulated fashion. These include even for commonly extracted local species such as sea buckthorn.
Many medicinal plants are being unsustainably harvested. Such practices have necessitated the regulation of exploitation and the sharing of benefits with local communities. It is also necessary to ensure that adequate intellectual benefits such as IPR patents be granted to the traditional practitioners.
local communities should be discouraged. To cater to these requirements it is necessary to constitute regulatory bodies and policies that provide enough geographical focus on this region.
11 Article 16:
Access to and Transfer of Technology
Limited. No capacity strengths.
There does not seem to be any formal mechanisms for transfer of technology.
Since there are fewer academic institutions, there is a lower presence of contributions from the region in peer-reviewed literature.
Manuals, management plans, policy documents, etc. on various aspects of biodiversity conservation are lacking.
Currently, there are insufficient monetary and IPR
Adequate precautions need to be in place to discourage unregulated commercialisation and misappropriation of patents by pharmaceutical companies and individuals.
Peer-reviewed publications need to be encouraged for academic
1 See for e.g., India’s submissions to the WTO, Department of Commerce.2 The Plant Varieties Protection and Farmers’ Rights Act (2001), The Patent Second Amendment Act 2002, Patent
Third Amendment Act (2006), Biodiversity Act (2002), Draft National Biotechnology Strategy and Policy (2005).
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benefits to traditional knowledge practitioners with respect to transfer of knowledge regarding genetic resources. This is especially with respect to patents in the pharmaceutical industry.
institutions and institutions must be encouraged to develop management plans policy documents on their area of expertise.
12 Article 17:
Exchange of Information
There are limited capacities on the whole but the region benefits from national level initiatives such as the Biodiversity Information System.
Exchange of information between government departments is low. For example there needs to be an integration of the goals of the MoEF, the DBT and the Department of Commerce with respect to biotech policies and commercialisation.
An ENVIS centre or other clearing-house node for the region is essential.
Events that facilitate frequent meetings between stakeholders need to be organized as a capacity building measure.
13 Article 18:
Technical and Scientific Cooperation
Biodiversity conservation initiatives have been developed between organizations working in the region. e.g., the Wildlife Institute of India initiated tripartite collaborative programmes with the International Snow Leopard Trust (ISLT) and the US Fish and Wildlife Service.
Scientific and technical cooperation between like-minded NGOs (e.g. NCF, Mysore, the ISLT and the SLC) have been initiated.
Current collaborative exercises are limited and need to be upgraded to involve all aspects of biodiversity.
Multi-institutional collaborations need to be developed for designing surveys as well as developing sustainable use projects.
Co-operation between ministries and departments is necessary for framing system level policies for biotechnology and ecotourism.
14 Article 19:
Handling
The region is rich in biotech resources especially with respect to medicinal and aromatic plants, indigenous
Policies need to be formulated to provide benefits local people especially with respect to medicinal plants and agro-
A biotech framework would be of extreme importance to
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of Biotechnology and Distribution of its Benefits
varieties of agricultural crops and livestock. Revenue from biotech related aspects of biodiversity could be of significance to some sections of society in the region.
biodiversity. The current policy framework is extremely weak.
Since much of the knowledge of its bioresources is derived from local people, it has to be ensured that the economic as well as IPR benefits reach them. It is essential that effective policies as well as regulations are in place for sustainable collection/cultivation, manufacturers and marketing of these resources.
Currently, there is a lack of benefit-sharing models that have worked in the region - the TBGRI-Kani tribal model in southern India is probably the only model of this kind to date.
regions such as the Himalaya where medicinal and ethnobotanical wild resources hold extreme potential for utilization, but at the same time are vulnerable to misuse.
Benefit-sharing arrangements for biotechnology need to be enforced through biodiversity and conservation related laws also and not just through the Ministry of Commerce and Industry and the Ministry of Science and Technology.
15 The ‘Cartagena’ Biosafety Protocol
The inter-ministerial Task Force on biosafety was set up by in 1997-98 to develop India’s stand on biosafety issues.It has been proposed for some mountain areas that a special policy or set of guidelines be prepared that gives preferential treatment to mountain communities to
People living in mountain regions are particularly vulnerable with respect to food security. Globalisation could lead to the influx of modified species, which in turn could wipe out indigenous varieties and brought about changes in agricultural patterns and practices. For these regions more attention need to be paid
Biosafety norms as per the CPB (Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 2000) need to be assessed in detail for the Himalaya and Trans Himalaya region.
Anticipatory/precautionary decision
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buffer them from potential negative impacts of GM crops (Adhikari and Adhikari 20031).
to food norms and farmers rights and the introduction of GM crops and other potentially harmful practices.
making may be relevant for this region (Gupta 20002).
1 Adhikari, R. and K. Adhikari (eds.) 2003. Farmers’ Rights to Livelihood in the Hindu-Kush Himalayas. SAWTEE,
Kathmandu, Nepal.
2 Gupta, A. 2000. Governing Biosafety in India: The Relevance of the Cartagena Protocol. Belfer Center for Science
and International Affairs (BCSIA) Discussion Paper 2000-24, Environment and Natural Resources Program,
Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, 2000.
3. Conclusions
a. Capacity Status and Strengths
A number of biodiversity conservation planning documents have focused on the Trans
Himalaya. The NBSAP initiative focused on districts within the Trans Himalaya and has
identified region-specific issues. Research on important umbrella species such as the Snow
Leopard and its prey species have contributed to biodiversity research in general. Currently,
as a result of a number of such initiatives, there seems to be a good coverage of research
topics, species and ecosystems.
Historically, the region has supported very low human population densities and even
now population densities are low in most parts of the Trans Himalaya. This makes PA
management easier and in most places no active management is required. This gives PA
managers room to concentrate on areas of heavy grazing (livestock numbers have increased
tremendously), tourist influx and other problems. Though human-wildlife conflicts have
existed even in the past (at a much smaller-scale), solutions that combine traditional
responses and ingenious insurance and incentive schemes seem to be effective.
As is the case with the Himalaya, the Trans Himalaya is also rich in medicinal and
aromatic plant resources and indigenous agro-pastoral diversity. Therefore, under the
framework of proper policy and guidelines, these resources can benefit local people. Some
such initiatives have already begun and need to be monitored for sustainability like the
utilization and commercialisation of seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides). As an alternate
livelihood option, ecotourism has gained ground and has received considerable attention
from researchers.
b. Capacity Gaps and Weaknesses
Infrastructure and logistics
The Trans Himalaya still remains one of the remotest biogeographic zones in the country.
Infrastructure and logistics are still poor for the region as a whole. Field stations and
equipment, long-term monitoring stations, multi-institutional set-ups (like Wildlife Institute
of India – International Snow Leopard Trust model) need to be tested. Advanced facilities
such as GIS labs are also lacking in this region. Transport and communication facilities
need to be improved for the Forest Department as well as research personnel. Forest guards
in particular need to be outfitted with appropriate equipment. Data stations need to be set up
to monitor climate and gather data on the effects of climate change. Wetlands should be
given priority as they are directly affected.
Research
There are still many faunal groups that are largely unstudied with respect to taxonomy as
well as status, distribution and ecology. Since most of the ecosystems are simple and host
fewer species (than the main Himalaya), systematic surveys could be carried out for basic
documentation and taxonomy. Spatial information on the distribution and status of
medicinal plants could be given priority. Additional research and monitoring is required on
species that are currently under threat or being commercially exploited. Human-wildlife
conflict and its potential impacts should be studied in more detail. Spatial information on
the distribution and status of medicinal plants could be given priority. More databases and
clearing-house mechanisms are needed for the region. The primary requirement here is for
an ENVIS node or database centre for the Trans Himalaya.
Much of the Trans Himalaya is still largely undisturbed and has low human
population densities. In many such areas no additional management interventions are
required. At the same time, it is important to identify critical areas requiring immediate
management intervention. For example ecotourism facilities in the vicinity of Tso-Moriri
and Korzok have been known to cause a variety of problems. Such sites need to be given
special attention.
Socio-economic data on the region needs to be compiled and made available to
biodiversity practitioners. Land use zonation and patterns need to be studied. Socio-
economic evaluations and alternate livelihood practices also remain to be researched.
Protected Area design and management
Management units within PAs should be identified. The current classification (as per the
1991 amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972) of PAs as entirely core zones is not
practical. Therefore, careful delineation needs to be attempted that identifies appropriate
core and buffer areas within the mosaic of human use lands.
Officers at the departmental level should be given orientation to multi-disciplinary
exercises and need to be encouraged to develop projects of that nature. Local forest and
wildlife officials should be identified who can administer such projects effectively.
PA management should accord more importance to wildlife related issues and less
to forestry. This would entail greater involvement of the State Wildlife Wings. Care should
be taken to avoid establishing large-scale plantations of exotic poplars (Populus sp.) and
willows (Salix sp.), which may turn out to be detrimental to local biodiversity conservation.
Conservation in the region is largely based on umbrella/ flagship species approaches and
revolves around the conservation of species such as the snow leopard, ibex, bharal and
kiang and species associated with them. Community based management of human-wildlife
conflicts should also be explored. Development of management plans incorporating the
various aspects of biodiversity conservation specific to the region should be undertaken.
Human Resources
Currently, human resources are lacking for the region. There is a shortage of trained and
dedicated personnel. For example in Ladakh, in 2002, there were only 20 park staff for
over 13500 sq km of PAs and a similar situation exists in the neighbouring district of
Lahaul and Spiti. It is largely impractical for such a small team of personnel to take care of
extensive areas especially in the harsh climatic conditions prevalent in the region. The
requirement is to have a larger number of better trained people and to provide orientation
and training programmes to staff who are already employed. There needs to be a greater
amount of information and information sharing between researchers and administrative
personnel in the region. Personnel from other departments such as agriculture, animal
husbandry, revenue, police and customs and the armed forces should be involved in
biodiversity conservation measures. Such networking and training may require only
minimal financial inputs, but may result in a number of benefits. The army and customs
departments can be involved in monitoring wildlife trade; the army could be particularly
useful in monitoring areas close to the border.
Sustainable use and livelihoods
Sustainable use and alternate livelihoods projects need to be initiated. Sufficient incentives
need to be provided to local communities to conserve biodiversity effectively. Currently
there seems to be a point of view that there are more incentives to poach and trade than
conserve biodiversity. This needs to be given special attention since there is trade in species
(especially large mammals such as snow leopard and chiru). In many cases, the customers,
middlemen and workers from areas outside the study region have impacts and may be
impacted by wildlife trade. Studies that have looked at socio-economic aspects and impacts
on communities dependent on wildlife trade need to be furthered. For example, Gopinath et
al. 20031 enumerated shahtoosh weavers in the Kashmir Valley and are of the view that
timely interventions by the government can fully compensate losses incurred by the ban on
shahtoosh; alternate options such as their entry into pashmina weaving markets are already
underway. A number of community based incentive programmes involving livestock
insurance and incentives in dealing with grazing and snow-leopard depredation
(programmes have been initiated by NGOs such as the NCF and ISLT and associated
organisations) are gaining ground. However for large-scale success, a larger number of such
projects need to be initiated by governments also. Projects that examine how the private
sector can contribute meaningfully to biodiversity conservation in the region should be
encouraged.
Existing sustainable use and exploitation models especially relating to plant species
need to be reviewed. Of primary significance is the exploitation and sale of seabuckthorn
given its widespread presence in the region and the recent attempts by various
organizations to develop beverages and other products. Medicinal plant conservation and
utilization also needs to be brought under the sustainable use and benefit-sharing
frameworks, so that economic benefits and intellectual rights go to local communities.
1 Gopinath, R., R. Ahmed, A. Kumar and A. Mookerjee. 2003. Beyond the Ban: A Census of Shahtoosh
Workers in Jammu and Kashmir. Wildlife Trust of India and International Fund for Animal Welfare.
Tourism contributes to the economy of the region, especially to urban centres such
as Leh and along major trek routes. The concept of home stays is also beginning to get
established. Since the area is ecologically fragile, more assessments are required to look at
sustainable ecotourism. There is an overall need to strengthen local institutions for
biodiversity conservation and to enhance rural livelihoods. Theoretical frameworks for
economic development of the trans Himalaya has been explored in some detail (for a such a
study and discussion of two villages in Spiti District, see Chandrasekhar and Bhaduri
20061).
Policy and advocacy
Inter-disciplinary policy/advisory groups need to be formed. In the current scenario, where
emerging challenges are largely livelihood based, it is unreasonable to expect any one
department to single handedly manage these issues. Institutional arrangements seem to be
lacking for collaboration among NGOs, communities and the government. A number of
networking projects need to be funded and initiated. Policy related work especially with
sustainable development and livelihoods needs to be distinct from that of the main
Himalaya, since the Trans Himalayan zone is distinct. Sustainable policies for specific
issues such as intellectual property rights, medicinal plant conservation and biotechnology
for the region need to be prepared.
c. Capacity Needs and Recommendations
1. Individual capacity needs
Individual capacity needs such as training in taxonomic capacities and PA management
need to be addressed for the region. There is a need for increasing the number of trained PA
management staff. Since the needs of this region are specific, the FD staff should be given
special training on aspects such as the potential impacts of climate change, planting of
exotic species, minimizing human-wildlife conflict, wildlife trade, etc. Networking needs to
1 K. Chandrasekhar and S. Bhaduri, 2006. Vicarious learning and socio-economic transformation in Indian
Trans-Himalaya: An evolutionary tale of economic development and policy making. Papers on Economics
and Evolution 2005-18, Max Planck Institute of Economics, Evolutionary Economics Group.
be facilitated between individuals involved in biodiversity conservation and personnel from
other departments and organizations, especially the army. Research and training
opportunities need to be improved for almost all aspects of biodiversity conservation.
2. Institutional capacity needs
There are hardly any institutions dealing with the Trans Himalaya as a thematic mandate.
This is particularly so with regard to government institutions. Other than the Forest
Department, a large central institution for the region is absent. Existing institutional
capacities are especially lacking in terms of scientific infrastructure such as advanced
equipment, and GIS and molecular labs. Field stations and communication facilities need to
be upgraded and there needs to be networking with the armed forces for providing logistic
facilities in remote border areas. Library and documentation centres and a clearing-house
facility need to be established.
In this region a number of institutions such as the Armed Forces are involved in
biodiversity related issues (e.g. The Field Research Laboratory, Leh). Awareness generation
among these institutions about biodiversity needs to be brought into the mandate of the
primary organizations.
For many of the institutions, current missions are towards the protection of certain
species (chiru, Snow Leopard) or ecosystems. Although flagship/ charismatic, large-
vertebrate centric approaches are needed and still pertinent to a large extent, there needs to
be more focus towards conservation of overall diversity. Currently, the onus is on these
scattered NGOs to develop sustainable use models as well as in developing incentives to
mitigate human wildlife conflicts.
1. Systemic capacity needs
The Trans Himalayan zone is yet to have an institution dedicated to holistic biodiversity
conservation of this fragile zone. The same applies to an action plan for the area. A plan for
this region would need to incorporate three major aspects: a sustainable use policy,
guidelines and regulations for appropriate use of biotic resources and ecotourism. EIA and
mitigation of human-wildlife conflict also need to be addressed at the system level.
4. Proposed capacity building initiatives and projects for the region
Sustainable use, incentives and policies
Biodiversity conservation in resource poor areas and fragile ecosystems need a different set
of protection measures. This is especially so in the light of exploitation of valuable natural
resources, especially agricultural, medicinal and aromatic plant species. In the Trans
Himalaya there are evidences of unsustainable practices and an absence of regulation of
commercialisation. Existing exploitation practices, commercialisation, benefit-sharing and
IPR aspects of seabuckthorn as well as of a variety of medicinal plants (many of which are
used in traditional Tibetan medicine) need to be reviewed and appropriate institutional
capacities need to be developed for this purpose. It should also be examined as to how the
private sector can contribute meaningfully to such enterprises.
Human-wildlife conflict and solutions
As a result of increased human and livestock numbers in the past few decades, there has
been an escalation in human wildlife conflict. Depredation by snow-leopards and wolves is
common and local people lose considerable revenue from livestock that are predated on by
these carnivores. Domestic livestock also compete for food resources of wild ungulates.
Currently, a few organizations have been working at the grass-roots level to bring about
socio-economic change within local communities and provide incentives for the protection
of these large mammals. A number of measures have been suggested by researchers
working on these aspects (see for example Jackson and Wanchuk 20011). These include
improving animal husbandry measures, predator proofing enclosures, generating awareness
among and providing economic incentives, alternatives and insurance schemes especially
by the adoption of Appreciative Participatory Planning and Action (APPA techniques).
1 Jackson, R. and R. Wanchuk. 2001. Linking snow leopard conservation and people-wildlife conflict
resolution: Grassroots measures to protect the endangered snow leopard from herder retribution. Endangered
Species UPDATE. 18(4):138-141.
These are being explored in Ladakh as well as Tibet and Mongolia. Incentives for keeping
livestock out of certain pastures and insurance and compensation programmes for loss of
livestock are being tried out. Most of these projects have been initiated by NGOs such as
the Nature Conservation Foundation, the International Snow Leopard Trust and the Snow
Leopard Conservancy. A number of positive developments have been reported in this
context and it would be worthwhile to investigate if such schemes can be initiated at a
larger level. The initial components of such a project could be aimed at testing the efficacy
of such initiatives.
PA delineation, management, human resources and infrastructure
A project dealing to address current problems relating to protected area management, PA
delineation, infrastructure and human resources development is necessary for the
Trans Himalaya. Currently, as outlined in the preceding section, there are problems
associated with the legal status of some PAs (some are entirely classified as
inviolate core areas). Such classification is impractical and can cause problems
further on. The Forest Department in Ladakh and Lahaul and Spiti district has very
few staff members. Therefore at the current strength, there is very little patrolling
and monitoring that can be done in these areas. A number of experts have also
pointed out that PA manager in the Trans Himalaya need to have a specialized set
of skills different from those required for the rest of the country. Therefore
capacity building of the PA management system is necessary. Infrastructure,
transport and communication facilities are also lacking. Although this has helped
in insulating the region from unregulated development, some critical infrastructure
needs have to be met. These include GIS labs, field stations, library and
documentation centres.
Special Action Plan for the Trans-Himalaya
Most policies, strategies and action plans do not account for the distinctness of the Trans
Himalaya. Conservation and development in this region needs to be specifically suited to
the environmental fragility and unique cultural aspects of this region. The Trans Himalaya
is widely different form all the other biogeographic zones including the main Himalaya on
the other side of the divide, and adequate expertise needs to be developed in terms of
research and human resources to develop specific strategies for this region. These could be
with respect to key aspects such as the management of human-wildlife conflict, ecotourism
and heritage based conservation, sustainable use, etc. or for the management of species and
ecosystems that are unique to the region. There should also be separate database and
clearing-house mechanisms for the Trans Himalaya. Similarly, at the moment, inter-
institutional collaboration is lacking in the region. Therefore, would also be useful to
develop a dynamic network of institutions involved in this region.
Sources of Information
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NBSAP – Documents
1. Gori River Basin Sub-State BSAP 2003. Full citation. Foundation for Ecological Security
(FES). 2003. A Biodiversity Log and Strategy Input Document for the Gori River Basin.
Western Himalayan Ecoregion, Dst. Pithoragarh, Uttaranchal. A substate process under the
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Consortium India Ltd., funded by the Global Environment Facility through the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
3. Lahaul ad Spiti Sub-State BSAP 2002. Full citation. Tribal Development Department, H.P
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GoI, New Delhi.
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India.
Websites
http://www.pragya.org/nwproar.htm - Pragya website accessed on 9 September 2006.
http://projecttiger.nic.in/BCRLIProject.htm
http://www.ansab.org/cp_VES.php
http://www.biodiv.org/doc/world/in/in-nr-me-en.doc accessed on 30th August 2006.
http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/himalaya/
http://www.conservation.org/xp/Hotspots/himalaya/
http://www.mtnforum.org/resources/library/ganga02a.htm accessed on 25 August 06
http://nrdms.gov.in/NRDMS_vision_doc.pdf (Accessed on 9 Sept 06).
http://nrdms.gov.in/
http://projecttiger.nic.in/BCRLIProject.htm
Questionnaire Responses
We received 28 responses to the questionnaire from various stakeholders working in Himalayas and
Trans Himalayan Region – 6 from the Forest Department, 13 from Government Institutions and
Authorities, 2 from Educational Institutions, 5 from Research NGOs and 2 from Advocacy NGOs.
Interviews and Expert Questionnaires
The following individuals were asked for their opinions and views for the Himalayan and Trans-
Himalayan region – Dr. Ashwini Chhatre (Duke University), Mr. Rohit Devlal (Appropriate
Technology, India), Dr. Joseph L. Fox (University of TromsØ, Norway), Prof. Brij Gopal
(Jawaharlal Nehru University), Dr. P.K. Joshi (Indian Institute of Remote Sensing), Dr. C.P. Kala
(National Medicinal Plants Board), Dr. R.K. Maikhuri (GBPIHED), Charudutt Mishra (NCF-
Mysore and International Snow-Leopard Trust), Tsewang Namgail , Dr. M.C. Nautiyal, Dr.
Sanjeeva Pandey (Winrock International and Forest Department), Dr. K. Ramesh (Wildlife Institute
of India), Dr. K.S. Rao (CISMHE), Dr. G.S. Rawat (Wildlife Institute of India), Vinay Tandon
(Winrock International and Forest Department), Rajesh Thadani (CHIRAG) and Rinchen Wanchuk
(Snow Leopard Conservancy).