Music and Nationalism Chap - Forgotten Books · PREFACE books in o n e; ﬁrst, a st u dy o f the...

MUSIC

AND NAT IONALISM

A STUDY OF ENGLISH OPERA

CECIL FORSYTH

MACM I L L A N A ND CO , L IM IT E D

S T . MA RT I N ’

S STREE T ,LO N DO N

1 9 1 1

PREFACE

To t ho se w ho a r e fam i l i a r w i th t h e b road pa ths of

Mu s i cal H i s tory , a n d more par t ic ula r ly wi t h t h a tn ar row byway

,Eng l i s h O pera

,t h i s book m ay seem

to cal l , perh ap s no t for a n apo logy,b u t a t a n y ra t e

for a n expl a n a t io n . So fa r a s I am awa re,n o book

h a s b ee n w ho l ly devo t ed e i t h er to g iv i n g a naccou n t of t he forces w h i ch h ave i n fl ue n ced t h eMu s ical S tage i n E n g l a n d

,or eve n to d rawi n g

up t h a t ca talogu e of O pera t i c n ames,d a te s

,a n d

p l ac e s w h i c h , w i t h a few perso n al l i ke s a n d d i sl ikes

,ge n eral ly doe s du ty i n t h i s cou n t ry for a

ser iou s aest h e t i c .

I t i s a s a fi rs t a t temp t to fi l l t h e form er gap th a tt h i s book h a s b ee n w r i t te n . M y o r ig i n a l i n t e n t io nwas m ere ly to m a rk wh a t I m ay ca l l t h e h igh a n dlow-wa t e r m arks of our E n g l i s h Opera t i c ac t iv i ty .

Bu t,i n t ry i n g to br i n g t h em i n to som e sor t of

co-o rd i n a t io n w i t h our ot h er n a t io n al ac t iv i t ies,so

m a n y d iffi c ul t ies arose,

s o m a n y per plex i n g a n dappare n t ly i n exp l i cab le p h e n om e n a came to l igh t

,

t h a t I wa s compe l led to go o u t s ide t h e n arrowl im i t s w h i c h I h ad se t my se l f a n d to s tudy t h emore ge n eral re l a t io n sh ip s of Na t io n a l l i fe a n dMu s i ca l P rodu c t iv i ty .

I m u s t,t her efo re

, ofl'

er my readers t h i s expla n

a t io n for prese n t i n g to t h em wh a t i s r ea l ly two

1 6 12 3 419 ?

A h fl fi fl fl fl

PREFACE

book s i n o n e ; fi rs t,a s tudy of t h e re l a t io n sh ip

be twee n Nat io n a l i sm a n d Mu s i c— th a t i s to say , as tud y o f t h e d e te rr i n g a n d fo ste r i n g i n fl ue n ce sw h i c h a n a t io n i s ab le t o exer t 0 11 i t s com posersa n d n ex t

,a more pa r t i cul ar ized accou n t of t h e

m a n n e r i n w h ic h th e d eter ren t force s h ave affec t edt h e produc t io n of O pera i n E n g l a n d . To t h ese Ihave added c h apt e r s deal ing wi t h t h e a r t i s t i c a n dsoc i a l co n d i t io n s o f ou r n at ive compose rs a n dexecu ta n t s . These co n d i t io n s

,wh i c h a re m a t t e r s

of p a i n ful da i ly expe r i e n ce to E n g l i s h m u s ic i a n s ,a re

,I t h i n k

,l i t t le k n ow n to t h e pub l ic

,a n d eve n

amo n g mu s i c i a n s t h e co n sc iou s n e ss of t h e i r p re ssu reh as o n l y come in r ece n t y ea r .s I m ake n o apo logyfor t h e fra n k d i scu s s io n of t h e se top i c s

,as i t i s

p rompted o n ly by a s i n ce re be l ief i n my fe l lowcom poser s a n d a very ear n es t h ope fo r t h e fu tu reof E n gl i sh Opera .

O n o n e po i n t I take pr id e i n l ay i n g c l a im to som eor ig i n a l i ty

,— for I s u ppose I m ay say

,wi t hou t fea r

of co n t rad i c t io n,t h a t I am o n e o f t he few l iv i n g

b e i n gs who h ave n o t o n l y talked of b u t ac tual lyrea d

b

[115 w orks of t/2 5 p oet 8101 71 .

I ca n n o t e n d t h i s p refac e wi thou t exp ress i n g myth a n ks to m y fr i e n d , M r . A lle v ne I r e l a n d , w hosel i fe—lo n g study of co lon i a l expa n s io n a n d adm in is

tra t io n g ives h im a u n iqu e a u t ho r i ty on m a n yq ues t io n s to w h ic h I h ave al l uded i n my fi rs t t h reec hapter s . Th e sugges t io n t h a t t h e key of Mu s icalH i s to ry m igh t be fou n d i n Sea-Powe r came or ig i na l ly from h im

,a n d

,t ho ugh I t h i n k t h a t ex

p l a n a t io n ca n o n l y be m a i n ta i n ed wi t h rega rd to

t h e M o der n Pe r iod,i t n ever th e le s s gave m e a

h i n t . The key,so to speak

,o n ly n eeded fi l i n g

dow n to a ske le to n i n order to ru n smoot h ly i n

PREFACE v i i

t h e lock . I g l ad ly ack n owledge my i n deb ted n e s s ont h is po i n t .To M r . A rt h u r I . E l l i s

,of t h e Br i t i s h Mu s eum

,

I a lso wi s h to offe r m y t h a n k s for m u c h k i n d h e lpex te n ded to me w h e n t rudg i n g alo n g t h e du s tyroad s of e igh tee n t h c e n tu ry t hea t r i cal—pamph le tl i tera tu re .

CECIL FORSYTH .

LONDON,S eptember , .

1 9 I I .

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

I . H ISTOR ICAL Q UEST ION S

I I . NATIONA L AND A RT I ST IC COMPAR ISON S

I I I . THE INFLUENCE OFWORLD-POWER ON MU S IC 4 6

T H E EIGHTEENTH CENTURY AND A FTER

V . T O-DA Y IN LONDON

V I . OPERA BOOKS

V II . T H E ENGL I SH LA NGUAGE AND OPERAT I CSI NG ING

V I I I . OPERAT I C TRANSLATION

T H E COMPOSLR A ND H IS PUBL IC

( I ) The Pub l ic( 2 ) The Com pose r ’s Con d i t ion s(3) :Fonfign In fluen ces

(4 ) Ma ter i a l Nec e ss i t ies

BI BL IOGRAPHY

INDEX

M r . Cha dba nd :“Ca n we fly, my fr i en d s ?

We c an n o t . W hy ca n w e no t fly,my

fr i en ds E” M r . Sn agsby ven t u re s t o ob se rv ei n a ch ee rfu l a nd ra t h e r kn ow i n g ton e

,

“NO

win gs , ” bu t i s immed i a te l y frown ed down byMrs . Sna gsby.

C HARLI S D ICKENS,B/f a é Home.

CHAPTER I

H I STOR ICAL Q UE ST ION S

TH E h i sto ry of E n gl i s h Opera beg i n s n ea r ly 2 50

yea r s ago .

I t i s a h i s tory of w h i c h w e h ave no grea t reaso n tobe p roud

,fo r i t s mo st perm a n e n t c h a rac ter i s t i c i s a n

i n ab i l i ty to expre ss e i t h er th e stre n gth or t h e pu rposeof our race . I t i s

,i n fac t , a h i s to ry of hes i ta t io n

,

of i n te rm i t t e n t effor t,a n d of ac k n owledged fa i l u re :

a n d i t i s t h e refo re w e l l wor t h s tudy , becau se fa i l u redem a n d s a ph i lo sop hy by w h i c h to expl a i n i t se l f

,

Wh i l e succes s cal l s o n ly fo r a c h ro n o logy of p ra i se .We m u s t

,howeve r

,remember th a t n e i t h er mu s i c i n

ge n eral no r t h e spec i a l form of m u s i c w h i c h w e a red i scu s s i n g—Opera—ca n be profi tab ly st ud ied as a ni so l a ted m e n tal ac t iv i ty detac hed from eve ry o t h e rform of hum a n e n deavou r . The a t temp t to regardcomposer s a s w r i t i n g

,so to speak , i n a hermet ical ly

sealed vacuum free from o u t s ide pre ssu re m u s t re su l t,

a n d ac tual ly does re sul t,i n a h i s to ry w hose d e ta i l s

may t h em se lves be accu ra t e,b u t wh ic h a re n o n e t h e

less i n exp l icab le i n t he i r r e la t io n sh ips to eac h o th e r .In order to co n st ru c t a ph i lo sophy wh ic h w il l expl a i na n d h a rmo n ize t hese d eta i l s i t i s t h e refore n ec es saryto co n t ra s t our ac t iv i ty i n t h i s o ne d i rec t io n wi t h a ll

tho se o th er ac t iv i t ie s,a r t i s t i c

,soc i a l

,commerc i a l

,a nd

2 MUS IC AND NATIONAL I SM CHAP .

po l i t i cal,wh i c h m ake up th e sum of our n a t io n a l

i n h er i ta n c e .

Beg i n n i n g,t h en

,wi t h t he d ays of th e S eco n d

Ch ar le s,w e fi n d t h a t i n 2 50 year s E n gl a n d h a s p ro

duced a cou n t le s s a n d g lor ious ho s t of grea t m e n .

There h a s b ee n sca rce l y a n y emergen cy i n h er h i s to ryi n w h i ch she h a s no t bee n ab l e

,by a n a lmost in

c r ed ib le m ag i c,t o embody i n some one o r o th er

o f he r son st3

tha t q ual i ty o f n ob l e pers i s te n cy wh ic hc h a rac t er izes t he rac e . G rea t poets a n d pa i n te r sscho l ar s a n d d iv i n e s so ld iers

,e n g i n eers

,a n d stude n t s

of n a tu re t h e grea te s t sa i lor of al l t ime : p io n ee rs,

adm i n i s t ra to r s,a n d sta t e sme n : t h ey p ass i n a lo n g

a n d i l l u s t r iou s l i n e,a n d

,i n pass i n g

,have exal ted t h e

E n gl i s h n ame a n d c h a n ged t he i r t i n y i s l a n d—hom ei n to a VVo rld—Power grea te r t h a n a ny s i n c e t h e day sof t h e Rom a n Emp i re .

I n m us ic alo n e,a n d espec i al ly i n Opera t ic m u s i c

,

E n gl a n d h a s fa i led . A sc h o l ar m ay,i n deed

,cou n t

to h e r c red i t a so l i ta ry ar t i s t i c figu re 1 w hos e ge n i u si l lum i n a ted t h e fi r s t d ay s of he r O pera t ic h i s tory

,bu t

h i s n am e a n d h i s work s a re now almost as l i t t l e i nher m emory a s t ha t of t h e b u i lde r o f S to n e h enge .

Nor,of al l t h e wor ks w r i t te n S i n ce h i s d ea t h

,ca n w e

recko n more th a n two wh i c h sh e s t i l l h ea rs wi t hpl ea su re ; a n d , w he n w e qual i fy ou r recko n i n g by t heco n s ide ra t io n t h a t t h e se two work i n t h e i r t h r eadbare pover ty , now exc i te o n ly h er l a n gu id a t t e n t io n

,

w e m ay safe l y say t h a t n o s i n gle E n gl i sh Operaex i s t s i n w h i c h t h e E ngl i sh peop le recog n ize a n y ful lexpress io n o f t h em se lves

,of t h e i r a sp i ra t io n s

,or of

t h e i r n a t io n a l ge n i u s .1 H en ry Pu rce l l .2 Th e B r i t i sh Mu seum ca ta l og u e h a s 14+ e n t r i e s u nd e r t h e t i t l eBoh em i a n G i r l ” a nd 1 2 3 u nde r t h a t of Ma ri ta n a .

”

H ISTORICAL QUE STIONS 3

The co n tras t b e twee n t h i s e n ormou s a n d m a n ys ided ou tpu t of e n ergy o n th e on e h a n d a n d appa re n tbar re n n ess on t h e o t her seem s , a t fi rs t s igh t

,i nex

p l i cab le bu t i t i s es se n t i a l to a proper u ndersta n d i n gof the q u e s t io n t h a t w e s h ou ld v i ew i t as a co n t ras tof rem/ts o n ly . For

,i f we com pare t h e a mount of

ac t iv i ty expended in a n y o n e fi eld of n a t ion a l en

dea v o ur wi t h t h a t expe n ded on O pera we sh al l beforced to t he co n c l u s io n t ha t t h e d iffere n c e i s n o tvery grea t . I t i s t rue t h a t suc h a co u n t ry a s I tal yha s produ ced a m u ch grea te r qu a n t i ty of O pera t h a nE n gl a n d

,b u t

,a s 1 s h al l S h ow

,t h i s wa s due t o t h e

fac t t h a t O pera was su sta i n ed i n I taly by t h e w ho l eco n sc iou sn e s s of t h e people . In E n gl a n d t h e n a t io n alm i n d was sp l i t up

,u n der t h e s t re s s of adver se

ex te r io r co n d i t io n s,i n to t h ree d i s t i n c t cu rre n t s

,a n d

of t h ese o n l y o n e flowed—perh aps I sh o uld sayt r i ckl ed— in t h e d i r ec t io n of n a t io n al Opera . O n lyon e t h i rd of t h e n a t io n a l e n ergy a v a i la l l fo r m u s ica n d t h a t t h e poorest i n po i n t of m a t er i a l weea lthwas

,t herefo re

,fr ee to exerc i se i t se l f i n t h e p roduc t io n

of n a t io n a l Opera ; a n d , a s w e shal l see , t h a t t h i rda t tempted aga i n a n d aga i n t h e mos t d iffi c u l t of al l taskst h e over t h row of a fo re ig n a rt- form suppor t ed by an a t ive ca s t e

,a n d t h e subs t i tu t io n of ano th er w h i c h

shou ld b e t ru ly n a t io n al,a n d t herefore sa t i sfac tory .

Mak i n g th i s al lowa n ce,t he n , w e m ay re tu rn to

our com par i so n a n d adm i t t h e expe n d i tu re i n Engl andof co n s ide rab le e n ergy o n bot h s id es . I f

,however

,

we tu r n to t h e rem /15 of t h i s en e rgy,we see a t o n c e

a s t r i k i n g difiference,a n d i t i s t h erefore al l t h e more

importa n t for u s t o e n qu i re i n t o t h e cond i t io n s u n derw h ic h t h e e n ergy was app l i ed , for w i t hou t suc h a ne n qu i ry our h i s to ry m u s t rem a i n a mere ca talogu e o fda te s a n d perso n a l prefere n ces . I n to t h ese co n

4 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH A p .

dit ion s I i n t e n d to go som ewh a t c lose ly i n th e fo l lowi ng pages , b u t for m y prese n t pu rp ose I o n ly wi s h tod raw a t te n t io n t o two po i n t s i n w h i ch t h e p u re lymu s i cal d i ffe r from al l t h e o t h er n a t io n al ac t iv i t i es .I n t h e fi rs t p l ace

,we fi n d a v io le n t co n t ra s t i n the

ac tu al qua li ty of bra i n a n d wil l- power emp loyed i nt h e two cas e s . I t n eed s n o more t h a n a mome n t ’ scfi

'

ort to recal l t h e n ames of t h e m os t d i s t i n gu i s h edEngl i shmen m o ther t h a n m u s ic i a n s —of a n y ge n erat io n

,a n d t he n to co n t rast t h e i r perso n a l i ty

,a n d

con sequ e n tly t h e i r ac h i evemen t s , wi t h t h e perso n al i tya n d ac h i evemen ts of t he co n tem porary E n gl i s h com

posers . Th i s me l a n c ho ly compar i so n m ay be profitably ex te n ded to th e l abou r s of tho se u n d i s t i n gu i sh edge n t lem e n w ho

,fo r t he fi r s t 2 00 y ears of o u r Opera t i c

h i story ,we re u n for tu n a te ly alway s a t h a n d to supply

ou r com pose rs w i th t h e i r n ec es sar y l i terary ma te r i a la nd t h e compar i son Wi l l i n ev i tab ly lead to t h e sameresul t . O n t h e one h a n d

,amo n g t he E n gl i s h poe t s

,

pa i n t ers,s ta t e sme n

,sa i lors

,exp lorers

,adm i n i s t ra to r s

,

a n d so o n,we fi n d me n w hose i ro n Wi l l , fa r—see i n g

wi sdom,a n d i n ca r n a t e im ag i n at io n

,p l ace t h em above

a nd i n fro n t of t h e i r Eu ropea n c o n t emporar ies o nt h e o th e r

,we see t h e ra n ks of t h e O pera t i c composers

a nd D ram a t i c poet s fi l led by a s t ra n ge flabby-m i n dedrace of d umm i es , w hose almost u n ear th ly wa n t of

cou rage a n d im ag i n a t io n condem n s t h em i rrevocab lyto a pl ace be h i n d a nd be n ea t h t h e i r ow n ge n era t io n .

The d i sm al d e ta i l s of t h e i r l ives a t p rese n t do du ty forE ngl i s h O pera t i c H i s tory , b u t t h ey a re real ly o n ly of

i n te res t w h e n,m assed toge th er

,t h ey g ive u s a c l u e

b y w h ic h to exp l a i n t h a t h i s to r y .

There i s a seco n d po i n t i n wh i c h w e ca n n o te adi fTe rence be twee n t h e wo rk i n g of t h e m u s i cal a n dth e n a t io n al m i n d . I f w e take a n y lo n g—co n t i n u ed

H I STORICAL QUESTIONS 5

l i n e of ac t iv i ty— other t h a n m u s ic—w e h ave n o diffic u l ty i n t rac i n g th rough t h a t l i n e a d i s t i n c t connectedness of cfl

'

ort . O n e ge n e ra t io n takes up t he bu rd e nl a id dow n by a form er ge n era t io n

,b u t take s i t u p

s t re n gth e n ed a n d i n sp i red by t h e ideal s a n d su cce sse sof i t s p redece ssors . I n t h e m a te r i a l opera t ion s ofm a n u-fac tu r e a n d m ac h i n ery—fac tu re t h i s connectednessi s,of cou r se

,t h e fi r s t e s se n t i a l t o progres s . Bu t i t

i s by no mea n s co n fi n ed,a s a n i n t r i n s i c fac tor of

su cc ess,to ma te r i al t h i n gs . \V e ca n t race i t i n t h e

gradu al,s low proces s b y wh i c h w e h ave b u i l t up a

c omp lex a n d vary i n g system of co lo n i al a n d A s i a t icadm i n i s t ra t io n . We ca n t rac e i t i n t h e evo l u t io n ofour n aval met hod s . We ca n t race i t i n ou r l a n guagea n d i t s form s a s developed by ou r poet s a n d p ros ew r i t e rs . F i n a l ly

,le s t i t s hould be suggested t ha t

mu s i c alo n e i s o u t s ide th e pale of n a tu ral l aw , w eca n t rac e i t i n al l t h e grea t co n t i n e n tal sc hoo l s ofOpera t ic compos i t io n .

In E n gl i s h m us i c , a n d espec i a l ly i n E n gl i s h Opera ,We ca n fi n d n o t rac e of t h i s “ co n n ec t edn ess of

t hough t . We h ave i n deed ou r purp l e— o r a t a n yra t e our d u l l m auve—pa tc he s

,b u t o n exam i n a t io n

t h ese p rove to b e,n o t t h e we l l ‘ c hose n o rn ame n t s of

a beau t i ful garm e n t,bu t o n ly t h e d eco ra t io n s o f Tom

Foo l h i s j a cket . Pu rce l l,A r n e

,B i s hop

,Wal l ace

,

Ba r n et t , t o n ame o n ly a few ,w ro t e successful operas .

Bu t t h ese m e n do n o t fo rm a sc hoo l,a n d n o o n e of

t hem h ad a n a r t i s t ic su cces so r i n a n y b u t a pu re lyc h ro n o log ical se n s e . Eac h m a n

,l abou r i n g u n d er

imposs ib l e ar t i s t i c co n d i t io n s,s ta rted afre s h

,oft e n i n

t h e hope of fo u n d i ng a n a t io n a l sch oo l . Bu t t heco n d i t io n s i n eve ry case forbade progress

,a nd t h e

co n seq uen ce i s t h a t t h e groups of Opera s,w h ic h form

t h e so - cal led “ E ngl i s h Sc hoo l,ar e as i so la ted a n d

6 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM C H AP .

i n exp l icab le to a l ayma n a s t h e row s of spec ime n s i na geo log i c al m u s eum .

Before leav i n g t h i s a spec t of t h e h i stor ical prob lemI m u s t po i n t ou t t h a t t h i s di seo nnectednes s ca n n otposs ib l y be a n egl ig i bl e ch a n c e ” o r s port i n ou rar t i s t i c r ecord . I t i s too per s i s te n t a n d u n vary i n g toleave u s t h a t easy exp la n a t io n . A s a m a t te r of fac t

,

i t i s bo u n d u p wi t h the n a t io n al h i s tory,a n d i s a t

o n c e a n i l l u s t ra t io n a n d a re su l t of our n a t io n a lco n d i t io n s . To t hese m a t te r s I sh a l l prese n t ly m ak efu l l er r efe ren ce

,bu t m ea n w h i l e

,i f t h e r eade r h a s a

c lea r id ea of t h e s tra n ge d iffere n ces t ha t l i e b e twee nou r m u s i cal a nd o u r o t h er n a t i o n a l ac t iv i t i es

,h e m ay

be expec ted to tur n t o o ur O pera t ic H i s tory a n d askt h e q ue s t io n Wh y .

P’” U n for tu n a t e ly,t h e Mu s e

o f O pera t i c H i s to ry h a s very l i t tl e o f so l id to a n swe I

to t h i s ques t io n,sh e be i n g fo r t h e m os t pa r t e n gaged

i n po l i t e ly d i sc ree t d esc r ipt i o n s of Opera-p lot s w h i ch

1 Th e re i s n o d i ffi cu l ty in ga t he r i ng from ou r h i s t or i e s t h ec au se s o f i n d i v i d u a l Ope ra t i c fa i l u re s . Am on g s u c h ca u se s w e find“ t h e i n te rfe re nce of a ce r ta i n c l a s s o f c r i t i c s

,

” “ t h e u n for t u na t econd i t i o n s of E n gl i s h Ope ra

,

”a nd eve n “ t h e s i z e of t h e s tage ”

bu t a l l su c h rea son s a re m e re l y “ pro x ima t e,

”a nd h e l p u s v e ry

l i t t l e wh en we come t o s t u dy t he qu e s t i on why t h e n a t i on a t l a rgeh a s no t been a b l e t o d eve l op a n a t i on a l sc h ool of Op e ra . See t h eve ry i n con c l u s i ve rea son i n g 0 11 t h i s po i n t i n G ro ve ’s Di ctiona ry( I s t ed . vol . i i i . p . wh e re i t i s a s s umed th a t i t wa s pos s i b l efo r H an d e l t o fou n d a n E n gl i s h S chool by produ c i ng I t a l i an a nd

Ge rman w ork s befo re a n E n gl i s h a u d i en ce,a nd t h a t t h e Sch oo l

d i ed ou t pa r t l y beca u s e A rn e a nd h i s c on tem pora r i e s we re n o t

s u c h gre a t m en a s H a nd e l,a nd pa r t l y bec au se S t ora c e

,Dibdin ,

H oo k,a nd Sh i e l d

,S ‘Io n ed a n

“ a lmos t t o ta l a b sence of d rama t i cpowe r ! I‘i f ‘lseu hcm t h e Engl i s h fa i l i n e t o bu i l d on P u rce l l ’ sfou nd a t i o n Is me i e ly c h ron i c l ed a lmos t a s i f i t w e re se l f ex pl a n a tory( l’urce ll s wor k “

w a s n o t s u cc e ssfu l ly fo l lou cd u p,G IOv e , i i .

p . or t h e t ro u b l e i s p u t down t o t h a t we l l known m u s i ca lwh i pp i ng -h or se H a nd e l ’ s powe rfu l pe r son a l i ty ” (Ma r kh am Le e ,'

1'/1c Sfory o/

‘

Opcm , p .

H I STOR ICAL QUE STIONS 7

sh e occas io n al ly co n desc e n d s to embe l l i s h W1thportra i t s of s tou t

,m idd le- aged sop ra n o s a n d wiggy

look i n g te n ors .O n t h i s po i n t I t h i n k w e h ave a fa i r gr ieva n c e

agai n s t h e r,for

,i f no t ac tual ly care less , s h e i s wi t hou t

doubt l azy a n d supe rfi c i a l . I ndeed,h er fr ivo lo u s

m a n n e r of a n swer i n g our quest io n“Why 9 wo u ld

no t be to l e ra ted were i t app l i ed to t h e so l u t io n of anyot h er importa n t p rob lem . There a re a t h ou sa n d a n done su c h q u es t io n s to wh ic h m e n expec t ( a n d rece ive )reaso n ab le p h i losoph i c al a n swe rs . If they a sk why therear e alkal i work s a t V V

idne s a n d n o n e a t Dork i n g,i t i s

no t suffi c ie n t to reply th a t t h e peop le of D ork i n ghave no e n t h u s i asm fo r soap . They m u s t b e s h ow nt h a t W id n e s l i e s m idway be twee n two a rea s o f coa la n d sal t

,a nd t h a t t h erefo re

,u n l ike Do rk i n g

,sh e h a s

a p le n t i fu l a n d c h eap supp ly of t he two sp ec i a l raws tuff s wh i c h are esse n t i a l t o alkal i m a n ufac tu re . I f

,

aga i n,t h ey a s k w hy t h e I s le ofW igh t appare n t ly fi t s

i n t o t h e m a i n l a n d a n d ye t i s no t j o ined to i t , th ey w il ln ot b e sa t i sfi ed u n les s t hey are take n to Lu lwo rt hCove a n d t h ere show n t h e same phys ica l c au ses produ ci n g the same resu l t s to—d ay i n Dor se t s h i re a s t h eyprodu c ed age s ago i n H ampsh i re

,—t h e wa t e r ea t i n g

out th e ba n d of soft s ton e to t h e n o r t h a nd i so l a t i n gt h e sou t h er n ba n d of ha rd rock . These a re b u t twoexamp le s take n a t ra n dom

,a n d I h ave pu rpose ly

refra i n ed from c i t i n g i n s ta n ce s of ca u s e a n d effec t 111; bu t i t m u s t b e 1 em embe1 ed th a t a ll 1 1 t1s t 1c qu es

t io ris depe n d,i n t h e lo n g ru n

,fo r t he i r a n swe rs 011

exac t ly s im i l a r fac to rs,ra c ia l

,c l in1 a t ic

,a nd geograph ica l ;

a n d i n deed rec e ive t h e i r a n swers i n every d ep ar tme n tbu t th a t of m u s i c

,n o t by a n u n i n te l l ig ib le s t r i n g of

d a te s,bu t by a d educt io n from these very fac tors .

The spec i a l qu e st io n,t h e n

,wh i c h I w i s h to a sk i s

8 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM C HAP

t h i s Why h ave t h e E n g l i s h peop le n ever bee n ab let o deve lop a sc h oo l ofNa t io n a l Opera 9 ” Now

,i t i s

q u i te obv iou s t h a t,i n a n swer i n g t h i s qu e st io n

,we ar e

n o t mere ly faced by t h e n eces s i ty of exp la i n i n g an a tural o r acqu i r ed d i s tas t e for t h e t hea t re . TheE n g l i s hm a n

,a n d espec i a l ly t h e Lo n do n er

,h as alway s

bee n a n e n t h u s i a s t i c t h ea t re -goer,a n d

,i n t h e cou r se

of h i s e n th u s i asm , h as ma n aged to p rod u ce t h e grea t e s tof al l t rag i c poe t s . Nor ca n we c h a rge h im wi t h a n ypa r t i cu lar d i s ta s t e fo r Opera . H e h as i n deed sh ow na deep- roo ted a n d h eal t h y d i s l i ke ofOpera a s evo lvedab road

,b u t

,a s I h ave a l ready rem arked

,t h a t h as

no t preve n ted h im m ak i n g co n t i n ual effor t s t o prod u c e a type of Opera bet ter su i ted to h i s own

tas tes . We ca n,t h e n

,adm i t n o ge n eral or par t icular

d i s l ike of t he t h ea t r e , a n d i t i s t h e refore n ece ssa ryfor u s to go beh i n d t h i s qu e s t io n al togeth er a n d ,leav i n g Op era ou t of acco u n t for t h e t ime

,e n deavou r

to ob ta i n a V i ew of the reaso n s wh ic h h ave p reve n tedor fu r the red t h e r i se of t h e Eu ropea n “ Sc hoo l s of

Mu s i c .B u t i t i s j u s t w h e n w e com e to s tudy th i s q ue s t io n

from th e ge nera l m u s i cal po i n t of v i ew , a s oppo sed tot h e pu r e l y Opera t i c

,th a t we fi n d t he Mu se almos t a s

h e lp le s s a s s h e wa s before . Fo r,i f w e cal l 0 11 h er to

j u st i fy her ex i s te n c e by h er ph i losophy,w e fi n d h e r

o n l y t oo ready— i t i s t ru e —to take u p h e r sc ro l l a n drec i t e to u s

,b u t her rec i ta t io n i s n o t w h a t we hoped

fo r i s i n deed n o more t ha n a bew i lder i n g ca talogu eof “ S c hoo l s of Compos i t io n

,eac h o n e of w h ic h

seem s to pop up i n i t s p l ace l ike a co n j u re r s puppe t ,u t t e r i t s we i rd l i t t le sc reec h , a n d th e n d i sappea r i n tot h e baske t wi t h ou t apparen t rhym e o r reaso n .

These “ Po lypho n i c,Mo n od ic

,D ram a t i c

,a n d

I n s t rume n tal ” Schoo l s of Compos i t io n a re arra n ged

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

1 0 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CHAP .

co n t i n u ed to e xi s t,a n d lf5’m i t sudd e n ly c eased to

ex is t ? The reader wi l l ea s i ly be ab l e to p u t suc hqu est io n s a s t h ese i n to co n cre te form . H e m ay a s k— a n d p rob ab ly ofte n h a s a sked —why i t i s t h a t from1 370 to 1 52 0 t h e m u s i c of Eu rope wa s d eve lopedso le ly by t he i n co n s iderab le peop le of a n i nco ns iderable s ta t e

,—F l a n ders

,a n d w hy i t s com poser s

(almost wi t h ou t exc ep t io n ) recog n ized i t a s a ne sse n t i a l p re l im i n ary to th e i r a r t i s t i c l i fe th a t t he ysh ould leave t h e i r n a t ive cou n t ry a n d

,aft e r

a pe r i lou s j o u r n ey,take u p t h e i r res ide n c e m a n y

h u n d red s of m i le s aw ay i n Rome he m ay ask w hyi t i s t h a t t h e E n g l i sh

,wi t h th e i r imme n se reserve of

m a ter i a l,me n tal

,a n d moral e n ergy

,h ave ac h i eved so

l i t t l e i n the pa s t 2 50 year s wh i l e t h e Ge rm a n s , wi t ha ve ry s im i lar n a t ion al s tock—ih- t rad e ” h ave ac h i evedso m u ch ; h e m ay a sk why i t wa s t h a t t h e Spa n i a rdco n que red t h e I tal i a n i n ar t u n t i l h e h appe n ed to

co n qu e r h im po l i t i cal ly,a n d w hy

,a t t h a t p rec i se

mome n t,h e cea sed to b e h i s ar t i s t i c sup er io r .

The read er m ay we l l emp lo y hal f a n ho u r i nco n s ider i ng th e poss ib i l i ty of a sa t i sfac to ry a n swer tot h e se q ue s t io n s . Mea n w h i le le t u s a t leas t p ay th eMu se o i s to ry t h e c ou rte sy of a n i n ter roga t o ry v i s i tto h e r s h r i n e ; s h e m ay h ave som et h i n g to t e l l u s .I n deed sh e h a s ; u n hap p i ly , h ow ever , her m e n taleq u i pme n t

,lo n g devo ted to a n swe r i n g th e qu es t io n

,

H ow P! works som ewh a t ru s t i ly wh e n we po se he r

t h e m o I e d iffi cul t q ues t io n Why .

P

He r a n swe r,as n ew ly a s I ca n p iec e i t t oge th e r

from m a n y s e tttc 1 ed u t te ra n ce s,ge n e ral ly take s one

of t h 1 ee form s .

( 1 ) We m a y be i nfo rmed t h a t a t suc h a n d such at ime

,a n d i n su c h a n d su c h a cou n t ry t he re wa s a

grea t a r t i s t i c aw ake n i ng Th i s a n swer—a favou r i t e

H I STORICAL QUESTIONS 1 1

one wi t h h e r , a s i t le n d s i t se l f to flo r id d e ta i l— seems ,however

,o n co n s i dera t io n to be n o more t h a n a n

affi rm a t ive re—s ta tem e n t of our q ue s t io n . I t i s a s i fwe h ad e n q u i red why m a n y h err i n gs a re to b e fou ndon t h e Dogger Ba n k ” a n d n o n e i n t h e “ NorwayDeep

,

’ a n d we re to ld t h a t i t i s becau s e q ua n t i t ies oft h ese fi s h ex i s t i n t h e fo rm er p l ace a n d n o n e In t h el a t t e r .

( 2 ) Nex t we m ay be a n swe red by th e sta teme n t ofsom e tr iv i a l c i rc umst a n c e o r

“ cau se,su ch a s t h e

ex i s te n c e of a cer ta i n amou n t o f weal t h o r le i s u re i nsuc h a n d suc h a pl ac e

,o r of a cer ta i n fi n e c hu rc h o r

t h ea t r e ad ap ted to t h e S i n g i n g of ma s se s or Operas .Bu t h ere aga i n on a c los e exam i n a t io n we sh a l l a lwaysbe f01ced to co n c l ud e e i t h er t h a t t h e cau s e i s m ere lyp roxim a t e or t ha t perh ap s i t i s n o t eve n a p rox i

m a t e c au se,

” bu t o n ly a c i rcumsta n ce . I t m ay i n d eed—a s i n t h e ca s e of m a ter i a l p rosper i ty~ - pa r t i a l lygove r n t h e d eve lopme n t of t h e a r t i s t i c impul se

,o r i t

m ay—as i n th e ca se of opera hou se s,o rc h e st ras

,a nd

so on —be t h e d i rec t resu l t o f th a t impul se ; b u t i nn e i th er cas e does i t exp l a i n t h e impu l se ; a n d w eh ave o n ly to form a n easy paral le l to eac h c ase—a

paral le l i n wh i ch t h e same m a ter i a l c i rcumsta n ces d idnot produ c e a n y a r t i s t ic deve lopme n t

,t o see t h e fal l acy

of t h e log i c .W i t h t h e l im i ted space a t m y d i spo sal for t h i s

p re l im i n ary s t ud y I m u s t leave i t to t h e reader toframe t hese paral le l s for h imse l f

,o n l y a s su r i n g h im

th a t h e wi l l fi n d n o ca s e i n w h i c h i t i s imposs ib le .

A s a n example of t h e ( appare n t l y) ideal m a te r i a lco n d i t io n s for t h e produc t io n of a Na t io n a l Sc hoo lh e m ay stud y t h e pos i t io n of Rome down to t heear ly par t of t h e s i x tee n t h c e n tu r y

,a nd n o t ice th a t

,

desp i te t h ese co n d i t io n s,h er m u s ic wa s t h e crea t io n

1 2 MU S IC AND NATIONAL I SM CH AP .

of res ide n t fo re ig n e rs . I t wou ld be d iffi c u l t t o m akea com p l e te l i s t of al l the proxim a t e cau se s ” w h ic hh ave b ee n sugges t ed to ac cou n t fo r t h e deve lopm e n to r n o n -d eve lopme n t of Mu s i c

,bu t I ca n n o t om i t to

m en t io n t h e commo n es t of al l,— t h e perso n a l pred i

l ec t io n s of Ki n gs a n d Pr i n ce s . Fo r wh e n w e a skour q u e s t io n

,Why ? we oft e n rece ive som e suc h

a n swer a s t h a t “ P h i l i p of B u rgu n dy wa s a grea tpa t ro n o f t h e ar t s

,t h a t “ Ki n g C har le s th e Seco n d

l iked Fre n c h Mu s i c,

o r t h at “ t h e Dukes of

C h a n dos a n d Devo n sh i re j o i n ed Geo rge t h e F i rs ti n h i s apprec i a t io n of H a n de l . ” 1 These a n swe rs

,

of cou r se,te l l u s n oth i ng

,for

,t h ough a Pr i n ce

m ay b e a grea t a n d pat r io t ic ru ler, o r t h e reve rse ,

h e h a s n o more powe r to ch a n ge t he h ea r t s a n dm i n d s o f h i s su bj ec t s t h a n t h e co lou r of t h e i r sk i n sor t h e sh ape of t he i r h ead s . I f t h ey bege t t h eac t iv i ty h e m ay h e lp o r re ta rd i t s b i rt h a n d deve lopm e n t ; b u t t ha t i s al l h e ca n do . I n d eed

,t h e wi sdom

or u n wi sdom of P r i n c es i n t e res ts u s o n ly i n t h ei n d iv idua l b iograph ie s of a r t i s t s . I n t h e ge n era lph i losophy of race s a n d of t h e m e n w hom t h eserace s p rod uc e to i l l u s t ra te t h em se lves

,o n ly t h ose

few P r i n ce s cou n t w ho sum up i n t h em se lves th eexpres s io n of t h e i r peop l e . Eve n the n t h e P r i n ce i s110 more t ha n t h e p i c tu re o r symbo l of h i s peop le ’sa sp i ra t io n s : o n e ca n n o t exp la i n Phe idia s by Per ic le s ,

1 “ I t h a s be en t h e m i sfor t u n e of E ngl i sh m u s i c t o s u ffe r moret h an on c e from po l i t i c a l e ven t s . Th e V IOlen t i n t e rru pt i on s ca u sedby t h e Refo rma t IOn a nd t h e G rea t Re be l l i on w e re a s dISa s trousin t h e i r effec t s u pon l a t e r s c h oo l s o f E ngl i s h m u s i c a s we re t h eWa r s of t h e Rose s u pon t h e Sc hoo l of l ) u 11 5table . M ore pea cea b l y ,bu t n o l e s s u n for t u n a te l y

,t h e adven t o f t h e H a nove r i a n dyn a s ty

,

w i t h i t s G e rma n com t a nd I t a l i a n o pe ra , c r u s h ed t h e s c h oo l o fEngl Ishope ra wh i c h I’urc e l l fou nd ed ” (G I Ov e

’

s Di cti ona ry, I st ed .

vol . i v . p . 6 2 0,mo

H I STOR ICAL QUESTIONS I 3

Shakespea re by E l izabeth Tudor,

o r Wag n e r byLudwig of Bava r i a .

(3) The t h i rd a n swer w h ic h w e ar e l i ab le to ge tto our que ry ge n eral ly takes a fo rm wi t h w h ic h w ea re pa i n ful ly fam i l i ar i n t h i s cou n t ry . I t i s t h a tsu c h a n d su c h a race i s o r i s no t

“ m u s i cal . Now

t h i s a n swer,i n vo lv i n g a s i t doe s a c ha rge of d efi c i e n t

m e n tal i ty agam st l arge n umbers o f peop le,i s of

muc h grea t er i n te re s t t h a n e i t he r of t h e o t h eran swers a n d cal l s fo r c lose r exam i n a t io n . To th eE n gl i s hm a n who h a s ha d to face t h i s c h arge t imeout of m i nd t h e po i n t a ssumes a n exaggera tedimpor ta n ce : i n deed , i t i s almos t l ud i c ro u s to ohserv e h i s dumbfoundedn es s w he n fou n d gu i l ty on

t h e swor n s ta tem e n t t ha t h e does no t (ofte n ) p rodu ce com poser s . H e i s too m uchof a s imp leto nto prot es t t ha t t h i s ev ide n c e i s i n adm i s s ib l e : he i sse n te n ced

,a n d ha s n o t h i n g wi t h wh ic h to co n so le

h imse l f b u t t h e knowledge o f h i s own i n n oce n ce .Solazz

'

tur ridcndo.

W e m ay, however , wi t h ou t ho ld i n g a n y br i ef fort h e E n g l i s hm a n

,as k ou rse lve s t h e se que s t io n s :

F i rs t,i s i t po ss ib le to prove t h e ch arge of “

no t

be i n g m u s ical ” aga i n s t a n a t io n ? Aga i n,i s i t

po ss ib le to a ss er t t h a t o ne n a t io n i s more m u s i calt h a n a n o t h er ? I n bo t h c a se s t h e a n swe r i s a p l a i n“ No .

” The fo lk—so n g of t he Ru s s i a n mouj ik i s110 be t te r a n d n o worse t ha n th a t of t h e Greekfi s h erm a n : t he I tal i a n w i n e -pres se r h a s h i s tu n e

,

a n d i t sta n ds 0 11 equal terms w i t h t h a t of t h eSomerse t farmer : t h e I r i sh m a n m ay p ut i n to h i sso n g th e wild poet ry of h i s roc ky n or th-w e s t coa s t

,

t h e te n der n ess o f h i s pu rp l e h i l l s ides,a n d t h e sudde n

awe of a gl impse ac ro ss h i s lakes i n to t h e u n see nwor ld t ha t l i e s beyo n d

,b u t i t i s n e i t h er grea t e r


nor le s s grea t t h a n t h e u p l i ft i n g re l ig iou s so n g of

t h e Germ a n peasa n t . Add to t h ese w h a t n ames youw i l l

,Sca n d i n av i a n

,Sp a n i sh

,S co t t i sh

,eve n Pers i a n

a n d H i n du ; m i x a nd com pare t h em a s you l ike ;a n d t h e u tm os t of d iffe re n ce wil l b e t h i s

,—t h a t i n

som e c a ses t h e g lea n e r s h ave com e l a t e i n to t h efi e ld

,a n d con sequ e n t ly t he i r ga th e r i n gs a re sca n ty ;

a n d th i s,too

,

—t h a t t h ere m a y be som e d i ffere n ce oft h e t h i n g expre ssed

,some d iffere n c e of mou n tai n a n d

p l ai n,of sea—coa s t a n d u p la n d

,o f v i n e a nd h ea t he r

, of

su n - baked o r wa ter logged a tm osph ere . B u t w e ca n n o t

(wi t hou t b l asph emy to t h e G iver of a ll t h i n gs) p l acei n a scale e i t h e r t h es e d ifferen c e s of n a tu r e or t h eco rre spo n d i n g d iffere n ce s w h i c h th ey p rod uc e i n m a n .In a word

,w h erever t h ere i s a ray of su n l igh t to

s t r ike th e grou n d a n d a h um a n be i n g to look for h i sexi st e n ce to these two t h i n gs , w e sh al l fi n d t h e sameforc e a t wo rk a n d the same deep sea t ed wa n t c ry i n go ut fo r sa t i sfac t io n

,a n d the resul t of bo th i s SO NG .

Bu t,t h i s be i ng so

,does i t n o t fo l low t h a t al l

n a t io n s a re equal ly mus i cal ? There ca n be o n lyo ne a n swe r to t h i s q u e s t io n . They ar e al l equal lym u s ical . H ow

,t h e n

,ar e w e to explai n t he un

dou b ted fac t th a t t hey ar e n o t al l equal ly p roductz'vca n d eq ual ly dev elop ed ? Why i s i t t h a t o ne n a t io nsudden ly fi ar e s u p i n to a r t i s t i c b r i l l i a n ce

,a n d t h e n

fl ic kers bac k in to d a r k n e ss,wh i l e i t s n e igh bo u r i s

al l t h e t ime mov i n g i n a tw il igh t t h a t seem s to grown e i t h er darker n o r b r igh te r ? M e re m a ter i a l pro sper i ty can n o t exp la i n t h i s co n t ra s t

,no r ca n th e

adva n ce of n a t ion al ar t co rrespo n d alo n e wi t h t h eadva n c e of n a t io n al pro sper i ty .

l I f i t d id,we s ho u ld

1 I t m u s t b e rem em be red t h a t m u s i c,u n l i k e some ot h e r a r t s ,

doe s n o t d epend i n t h e l a s t re so r t 0 11 a ny ve ry e x pen s i ve o re xcept i on a l ma te r i a l p roce s se s . A s h i l l i n g ’ s wor t h of wood ca n

H I STORICAL QUE STIONS 1 5

expec t to fi n d a n a t io n a l m u s i cal awake n i n g i n I talyof the fou r tee n t h a n d fi ft ee n t h ce n t ur ies , i n E ngl a n dof th e seve n t ee n t h a n d e igh tee n t h c e n tu r i e s , 111 t h eU n i ted S ta t e s of Amer ica of th e n i n e tee n t h ce n tu ry ,

a n d t h e se a re j u s t the ca se s w h ere we do no t fi n d i t .There m u s t su rely b e som e fac to r o r fac tor s he re

wh i c h we h ave n o t h i th e rto ob se rved . Before wesearc h fo r t h i s fac to r we m u s t a s k ou rse lve s w he th e rt h e d iffe re n ce b etween a n a t io n ’ s “ mu s i cal i ty a n di t s m u s i cal p rod u ct iveness ” i s a d iffe re n ce

,n o t of

degree,bu t of k i n d . Ca n i t b e t ha t t he two do no t

,

a s i t were,m arc h arm i n arm

,bu t t h a t t h e o n e l i e s

deeper a n d pr ior to t h e o th e r ? Ca n i t he t h a t t h eform er i s alway s p rese n t a s a fu n dame n tal c h aracteri s tic of h um an i ty , a n d t h a t i t d epe n ds fo r i t st ra n sm u ta t io n i n to t h e l a t t e r

,no t o n t h e pe tty

c h a n c e s of ex te r ior c i rcumsta n ce,

no t o n t h e l ike sa n d d i s l ikes of P r i n c e s

,n o t 0 11 t h e s ize a n d su i t

ab i l i t y of ho u se s,no t 0 11 t h e ta s te s a n d d i s ta s te s o f

c r i t i cs,b u t o n som e force wh i ch gover n s a n a t io n ’ s

ac t iv i ty,a n d wh i c h i t se l f depe n d s for i ts ex is te n ce

or non—exi s te n c e ( as al l o th e r n a t io n al force s d epend)on S impl e d iffere n ce s of rac e

,of c l im a te

,a n d of

geograph i cal pos i t io n ?Let u s s ee . Ou r m a i n obj ec t i s t o ob ta i n a n

a n swer to t h e q u est io n,

“ Wh y h av e t h e E n g l i s hpeop l e n ever b ee n ab le to deve lop a sc hoo l ofn a t io n a l opera ? ” I n orde r to do t h a t we have h adto go ou t s ide t h e quest io n a n d i n d i ca t e a s t i l l l a rgerque s t io n

,Why does o n e n a t io n d eve lop m u s i cal ly

,

be made u p in t o a pl aya b l e v i o l i n ; a nd even in t h e ca s e o f acompl e x i n s t rumen t

,s u ch a s t h e m ode rn p i an o

,t h e m a t e r i a l i s

ea s i l y come by in a lmos t eve ry cou n t ry in t h e worl d,a nd i s u sed

in quan t i t i e s wh i ch wou l d be rega rded by man y o t h e r wo r ke r s i nwood a nd me ta l a s m i n u te .

I 6 MUS IC AND NATIONALISM CHAP .

w h i le a n o t h er r em a i n s m u s i cal ly u n deve loped Aso l u t io n of t h e l a t te r q ues t io n w i l l probab ly g ive u sa key to th e fo rm er .Let u s th e n tu r n t o o ur bewi lder i n g l is t of Sc h oo l s

of Compos i t io n,

” a n d e n deavou r,i n t h e fewe s t

poss ib le wo rd s,to de scr ibe w h a t h a s ac tual l y happe n ed

i n Eu rope s i n ce t h e d ays of W i l l i am th e Co n quero r .I n do i n g t h i s w e m ay perh aps d i scover t h e n a tu r e oft h e fac to r wh i c h h a s a t a n y t im e preve n t ed a n a t io n—t h a t i s t o say

,a n orm al ly m u s i cal n a t io n—from

deve lop i n g i n to a n ar t i s t i cal ly produ c t ive n a t io n .

I n tabula t i n g th ese fac t s I,of cou r se

,co n fi n e myse l f

so le ly to wha t i s m a t te r of u n d i spu t ed h i s to ry . Th ereader mu s t rem ember

,however

,t h a t I am deal i n g

o n ly wi t h t h e b road es t a n d most com preh e n s ive ph a sesof n a t io n a l ac t iv i t y . I n suc h ca se s th e effec t of afo rc e does not b ecom e V i s ib l e u n t i l lo n g afte r i t sfi r s t appl i ca t io n ;

1 a n d th e same force seems to

per s i s t p erh aps fo r year s afte r i t s v i tal i ty h a s c eased .

2

The p rec i s e d a te s of i n d iv idu al a r t—wo rk s,a n d eve n

th e l ive s of t h o se i so l a ted com posers 3 who do no t

ex i s t a s l i n ks i n a sc h oo l,ar e t h erefore almost val u e

les s a s t h e ba s i s for a n a rgume n t .

( 1 ) There i s good m a n u sc r i p t ev ide n ce to sh owt ha t

,from t h e beg i n n i n g of t h e e l eve n t h

t o t h e beg i n n i n g of th e fi ft ee n t h c e n tu ry t h emos t adva n c ed a n d tec h n ical ly perfec t m u s i ci n Eu rope wa s E n g l i s h .

“

1 Eg . G e rma n Ope ra a s ba sed on I ta l i a n .

2 E gg. Th e “ Polyp hon i c s ch oo l o f I ta l y , wh i ch con t i nu edto decay in pu b l i c l on g a fte r 1 6 00 .

3E .g . Pu rc e l l .‘ Eg . t h e W i n ch e s t e r “ T ropa r i um n ow in t h e Bod l e i an a t

O xford (d a t e , ci rca 1000) t h e MS . in t h e H a r l e i an co l l e c t i on a tt h e B r i t i sh Mu se um con ta i n i n g two 3-pa r t An t i ph on s , on e a-pa r t

1 8 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CHAP

fore ig n mu s i c co n t i n u e s to be perform ed a n dadm i red . )

( 6 ) F lore n ce , V e n i ce , Ma n tua , a n d Nap l es , becom eth e l ive—axle o f t h e m u s ical wo rld .

( 7 ) A n umber of (ofte n sm al l a n d i so l a ted ) tow n sa n d s ta t es of t h e ( p rese n t) Germ a n a n dAu s t r i a n Emp i re s p rodu ce i n Cen tra l a n dEa s t e r n E u rope a p u re ly Teu to n i c sc h oo l ofm u s i c . (Th i s sc hoo l h a s i t s fi r s t m om e n tumfrom I tal y ,

bu t,wh e n o n ce i t i s s tar ted

,i t owe s

i t s d eve lopme n t so le ly to G e rm a n e n erg i es . )( 8) A Fre n c h sc h oo l i s b u i l t up o n s im i l a r I tal i a n

fou n d a t io n s . U n l i ke t h e Germ a n sch ool,

however,i t i s ce n t r ed i n one tow n—Pa r i s

a n d i s d eve loped a n d gu ided a t i t s c r i t icalmome n t s no t o n ly by Fre n chme n

,bu t by

acc l im a t ized Germ a n s a n d I tal i a n s . 1

( 9 ) A n umber of peopl e s (Ru s s i a n , Sca n d i n av i a n ,a n d F i n n i s h ) beg i n to p roduc e n a t io n al m u s i c ,ge n eral ly u nd er t h e i n i t i a l i n fl ue n ce of Ge rm a n y . (Th i s m u s i c i s , esp ec i al ly 111 t h e case ofRu s s i a

,so m i n u t e i n qua n t i ty w he n compa red

wi t h s ize of popu lat io n a s to b e n eg l ig ib le . )I n t h e se few se n te n ce s I h ave sta ted

,i n t h e

b roade s t way pos s i b le,th e fac t s of E u ropea n m u s i cal

h i s to ry . I f t h e reade r i s i n c l i n ed to wo n d er a t t h eb read t h e i t h e r o f s ta t eme n t o r of om i ss i o n

,h e should

reflec t t ha t som e per son s i n every n a t io n a r e a t almosta ll t imes w r i t i n g m u s ic , bu t t h a t t h i s u n ive rsala c t iv i ty i s (more oft e n t h a n n o t ) o n ly a forl l zcz/z

'

ty th a texi s ts a s a k i n d of sub -co n sc io u s p ro test w h i c h an a t io n m akes aga i n s t i t s ow n p roh ib i t ive a r t i s t i cc o n d i t io n s . A r igo ro u s se l ec t io n ha s th e refo re to bem a de

,a nd t h e c r i te r i o n by w h ic h we mu s t m ake suc h

1 E .g . Lu l l i , G l u c k , M e) erbe er, Ross i n i , Offen ba ch , e t c .

H I STOR ICAL QUE STIONS 1 9

a se lec t io n ca n on ly be th a t of n a t io n al me n tal p rogre ss . Th i s Is t h e sol e way i n w h ic h we ca n arr ivea t a sa t i sfac tory reco rd of ar t i s t i c d eve lopme n t , b u ti t m u s t no t be over looked t h a t i n d iv idu al ar t—work sm ay have a val u e to imci ozz ca /z z

'

c/z p roduces c/zem

qu i te d iffe re n t from th a t w h i c h t h ey h ave to t h e wo rlda t l arge . On t h i s po i n t

,a s i t affec t s t h e Spec i a l ca s e

of Opera i n E n gl a n d,I S h al l dwel l in a la te r c h apt er .

Now ,i f w e take th e above reco rd of m u s i cal

d eve lopme n t a n d con s id er i t a s w ho l ly de tac h ed fromevery ot h e r fo rm of n a t ion al a n d i n t e r n a t io n a l ac t iv i ty

,

t h ere Is n ot h i n g th a t cal l s for exp l an a t io n . H i s t o r i a n shave ga t h ered for u s a n e n ormou s m a ss of ea s i lyava i l ab l e m a teria l i n w h ic h t he fl ow of m u s i caldeve lopme n t i s as p l a i n a s t h e c ou rse of t h e Thamesfrom B at t e r sea Br idge to Che l sea H o sp i tal . I t i so n ly w h e n w e a t t empt to co rre l at e t h e h igh a n d lowt ides of m u s i cal ar t wi t h t h e ebb a n d flow of t h e o th e ra r ts a n d of our genera l n a t io n a l l i fe th a t we fi n dou r se l v es fac ed b y s er io u s d iffi cu l t ie s a n d con t rad i c t io n s . Mu s ic

,however

,i s a facul t y o f th e h um a n

m i n d w ho se exerc i se i s gover n ed b y exac t ly t he sameco n d i t io n s a s t h e exerc i se of a n y other fa cu lto say , t h a t t h e ou tward co n d i t ion s (of race , of

geograph i cal a n d po l i t i cal e nv i ro n me n t) b r i n g th esame pre s su re to bear 0 11 t he exerc i se of t h e o n efacul ty a s 0 11 t h e exe rc i s e of t h e o ther s . The qu est ion

,

t h e n,rem a i n s to be a sked w h et h er t h e m i n d i t se l f

respo n d s i n t h e same w ay wh e n work ing i n a mu s i calas i n a n y o th er m ed i um . In o t h e r wo rd s

,we m u s t

ask ou r se lve s wh et he r,eve n w i t h ide n t i cal co n d i t io n s

,

t h ere i s n o t some fu n d ame n tal d iffe re n c e betwee nmus ica l a n d a n y o the r m e n tal ac t iv i ty .

Ou r obj ec t m u s t t herefore be to exam i n e t h eb road fac ts of m u s i cal h i s to ry

,a s g i v e n above

,i n t h e

2 0 MUS IC AND NATIONAL I SM CH AP . I .

l igh t of t h e equal ly b road fac t s of n a t io n a l h i s t ory,

so th a t we m ay be ab l e to d i scover t h e “ lea s tcommo n - d e n om i n a to r ” whose p rese n c e i s t h e p rev en ti v e fac to r i n n a t io n al mu s ica l p rodu c t iv i ty .

We shal l t h e n b e able to app ly th i s k n owledgeto t h e spec i a l ca se of arr e s ted m u s ic al deve lopm e n ti n E n gl a n d .

Now ,i t i s qu i te p la i n t h a t a n y su c h d i scovery i s

imposs ib le u n l e s s w e fi rs t asc er ta i n w heth er a na rgume n t ba sed 0 11 su c h a n exam i n a t io n i s equal lyappl i cab le to m u s i c a n d to t h e o th e r ar t s ; for , i fw e find t h a t m u s i ca l ac t iv i t i es proceed toget h e r

,s t ep

by s tep,wi t h t h e o th er ac t iv i t ie s , w e ca n c l a im tha t

ide n t i cal cau s es a n d co n d i t io n s h ave produced ide n t icalresul t s . I f, 0 11 t h e o t h er h a n d

,w e fi n d th a t t h e

fl owi n g t i de a n d t h e h igh—wa te r m ar k of developme n ti n va r i ab ly d i ffer a s be twee n m u s i c a n d t h e o th e rar t s

,w e s h al l be forced to exp la i n t h i s d i scre pa n cy by

som e fu n d ame n tal d iffere n c e i n t h e men ta l p roce ss e srequ i r ed . I n t h e l a t te r c a s e we sh ould p robab l yobtai n a c l u e to h e lp u s in our s earc h fo r wh a t Ihavecal l ed “ t h e lea st—co rnmon—de n om i n a to r

,

! a n d w eshould expec t to fi n d t h e pe rp lex i n g a n d appare n t lycau se less p h e n ome n a o f m u s ical h i s to ry fa ll ing i n tot he i r p l ace s a s o rdered par t s of a log i ca l deve lopme n t .I m u s t

,however

,m ake i t c lea r t ha t , a s I wi s h to

apply t h e resu l t s o f t h i s i nves t iga t io n sp ec i a l ly toE n g l i sh m u s ica l h i s to ry

,I am l im i t i n g m y se l f more

p ar t i c u larly to a s t udy of th e fac to r w h i c h p rev entsm u s i c a l deve lopm e n t

,a n d am o n ly i n c ide n tal ly co n

s idering t h o se o th er fac tors w h i ch fu rt h e r i t s adva n ce .

I t wou ld,I t h i nk

,he n o more d iffi cul t to d i scover

th e l a t te r t h an the fo rmer , b u t i t s full d i scu ss io n i sn ot po ss ib l e ou ts ide the l im i t s o f a vo l ume devoted tot h a t pu rpo se .

CHAPTER I I

NAT IONAL AND ART I ST IC COMPAR I SON S

LET u s beg i n by im ag i n i n g a c h rono log ical ch ar tof Eu ropea n h i s tory from th e year 1000 to t h epre se n t d ay .

1 O n i t w e p la ce th ree d i st i n c t set s of

en trres

( 1 ) N ames of me n , p l aces , o r e v e n t s wh ic h serveas symbo l s of grea t n a t io n al moveme n t s .

( 2 ) Names w h i c h sta n d i n a s im i l a r re l a t io n s h ip tosc ie n ce

,to m an u fac tu re

,to l i te rature

,a n d to

a ll t he a r ts exc e pt m u s i c .

(3) The grea t rep re se n ta t ive n ames of m u s ic .

From su c h a char t two co n c l u s ion s ca n be d raw nw i t hou t d ifficul ty

( I ) The deve lopm e n t of m u s ic h a s bee n la te compared w i t h eve ry o t h er sor t of deve lopm e n t

,

w het h e r sc ie n t ifi c,ar t i s t ic

,or po l i t ica l .

( 2 ) Na t io n a l deve lopm e n t h as a lway s m a rc h edw i t h d eve lopme n t i n every form of ar t b u tmu src .

I n t h e fi rs t co n c l u s io n I am n o t i n ter e s t ed a t t heprese n t mome n t

,t h ough i t offer s a tempt i n g subj ec t

for spec u la t io n . I t s proofca n be see n i n t h e en ormou sl i s t of pa i n ter s

,scu lpto rs

,poe ts

,exp lor ers

,s ta te sme n

,

1 A ch a r t of t h i s sor t,b u t con fi n ed t o t h e con t ra s t o f “ M u s i c

w rthSc i en ce,L i te ra t u re

,a nd t h e o t h e r A r t s

,

” i s t o be fou nd a tpage 2 6 4 ofMr. Wa l l ace ’ s Toe T/nes/zo/d q nsic .

2 2 MUS IC AND NATIONAL I SM C HAP .

a n d so o n,w ho se ac t iv i t i es w e re d eve loped a n d

perfec ted before H ayd n wa s bor n .

I t i s wi t h t h e seco n d co n c l u s io n tha t I wi s h todea l more exp l ic i t l y h ere

,a n d the most s t r ik i n g way

i n wh i c h we ca n e n force i t s l esso n I s to im ag i n e wh a tou r h i sto ry wou ld b e i f m u s i c did ac tual ly co i n c id e Ini t s p rogre ss w i t h th e adva n c e of n a t io n s a n d of t h e i ra r t s . To do th i s w e m u s t fi rs t l ay as id e our h i s tor icalkn owledge , a n d e n deavou r to fi t m u s ic i n to t h e p l ac ew h ic h

,cl p riori , w e s hould su ppose i t ough t t o occupy

I n t h i s wa y we sh al l see how gro tesq u e ly fal se i s oura s s um p tro n .

S uppose,t h e n

,t h a t w e secu re t h e serv i ce s of som e

imag i n a r y a n d de tach ed be i n g from Ma rs . Wepresu ppo se i n h im th e powe r of reaso n i n g

,bu t not of

d i s t i n gu i sh i n g to n gu es ; we h a n d over to h im our

c h ro n o log i cal ch a r t,h av i n g fi r s t e ra sed from i t a ll t he

m u s i cal n ames we p rov ide h im wi t h und a ted l i s t s oft h e mu s i c al ac t iv i t ie s of Eu rope

,a n d a sk h im to e n t e r

t h em i n t h e c har t o n t h e suppo s i t io n t h a t m u s i caldeve lopme n t ha s alway s p roceed ed h a n d i n h a n d wi t ht h e deve lopme n t of t h e n a t io n a n d of t h e o t he r a r t s .We sha l l fi r s t h ave to i nform h im tha t

,for s om e

u n k now n rea so n,he mu s t n o t beg i n h i s e n t r i es before

1000 A . D . t h a t,a t t h e ou tse t

,al l t h e E u ropea n

n a t io n s a re equal ly m u s i ca l a n d eq ual ly u n deve lopedt h a t t he fo lk—so n g ex i s t s everyw here , b u t n oth i n g e l s eexcep t per h aps h ere a n d th ere a n ec ho in t h e C h u rchof bygon e d ays ; t h a t we m u s t n o t a t tem pt to e n te ra n yt h i n g aga i n s t t h e grea t i n t e r n a t io n al ou tpou r i n g oft h e Cru sad

o

e s,b ecau se

,t h ough 0 11 our hypothes i s t h i s

m u s t h ave prod u c ed a s im i l ar (a n d perh aps i n t e rn a t io n al) m u s i cal awake n i n g , 110 suc h ge n e ral Eu ropea nre n a i s sa n c e appear s i n h i s l i s t of mu s ica l ac t iv i t ies

,

a n d t ha t,t herefore

,h e m u s t fi l l i n t h e c h ar t i n t h i s

11 NATIONAL COMPARI SONS 2 3

p lace wi t h a Wh a t sor t of h i s to ry w i ll be comp i le u nder t h e se fa n ta s t i c co n d i t io n s I take i t t h a tIt m igh t read somet h i n g a s fo l low s

( 1 ) Betwee n 1 000 a n d I 300 the wor ld—powe r i s tot h e Papacy . I t i s i n Rome

,t h e refore , a n d

not i n E n g l a n d t h a t t h e fi r s t feeb l e s ig n s ofm u s ic a l l i fe beg i n to s how t h em se lves .Ho n es t Joh n of Forn sete becomes a n ear lyI tal i a n mo n k

,a n d “ Sumer i s icumen i n ” a n

ear ly I tal i a n m ad r igal .

( 2 ) Betwee n 1 2 6 5 a n d 1 32 5 th e grea t po l i t i cal a n da r t i st i c awake n i n g i n I taly produces Da n t e

,

G io t to,Pe t rarch

,a n d Boccacc i o . Sh e h as

,

t h erefor e,t o take her Oppor tu n i ty of b ui ld i n g

up t he fi rs t d eve loped sc hoo l o f ar t i s t ic m u s i c,

a n d In do i ng th i s s he prod uc es Pal es t r i n a w h od i e s abou t 2 00 year s before h e was bor n .

(3) The th i rd per iod ( from 1 380 to 1 500) i s aga i ni n t h e h a n d s of I taly

,fo r i t i s betwee n t h o se

da te s t h a t al l t h e grea t e s t I tal i a n t h i n ker s a n da r t i s t s w ere bor n . The l i s t b eg i n s wi t hBru n e l lesc h i

,Do n a tel lo

,a n d Fra A n ge l ico ,

a n d goe s on t h rough Bot t i ce l l i a n d Leo n ardod a V i n c i to Mac h i ave l l i

,Mic hae l A n ge lo

,

Ar ios to,T i t i a n

,Raph ae l

,a n d Be n ve n u to

C e l l i n i . Th i s i s,t h e refor e

,al so t h e grea t

p er iod of I tal i a n m u s i cal a r t . She fo u n d sOpera w i t h Per i a n d Cacc i n i

,e l abora t e s i t wi t h

Mo n teverde , Ce s t i , a n d Caval l i , sys tem a t ize si t wi t h Sca r l a t t i

,a n d perh ap s b r i n gs i t to a

culm i n at i n g po i n t wi t h Lu l l i . Thu s Operar eac hes i t s fi rs t grea t c l im ax abo u t 100 y ear sbefore i t s (ac tual ) i n ve n t io n .

(Th e E n gl i sh , t h e Spa n i s h , t h e Por tugu ese ,th e F lem i n gs

,t h e Du tch

,a n d t h e i n h ab i ta n t s

2 4 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH AP .

of t h e prese n t Germ a n Em p i re t ake n o pa r ti n e i th e r of t h e se m oveme n t s . )I n 1 4 9 2 Amer i ca i s d i scovered . The M ed ite rra n ea n cea ses to b e the ocea n a n d becom esa n i n l a n d sea . Slowl y b u t i r res i s t ib ly t h efac e of E u ropea n c iv i l iza t io n i s al t e red . Theeye s of t h e wor ld b eg i n to tu r n we stward

,

a n d,a s t h ey tur n

,t h e re l a t ive impor ta n ce of

Eu ropea n n a t io n s beg i n s to a s sume n ew a n ds t range sh ape s . A t o n ce t h e bu rd e n of d i scov ery a n d em p i re i s take n u p a n d co n t ro l ledby th e two most i n co n s iderab l e of wes ter nn a t io n s . Amo n g th e La t i n peop le s i t i s t h emos t w es ter ly o n l y , t h e Spa n i s h a n d t h ePo r tugu ese

,t h a t j o i n i n t he rac e for em p i r e .

Th e effec t of t h e d i scovery does n o t beg i n t ob e fe l t t i l l t h e l as t ha lf of t h e s i x t ee n t hce n tu ry . From th a t t ime o n wa rd s w e ca nsee i t s r esu l ts i n a n e n orm ou s out- reac h i n gbo th ea s t a n d we s t , a n awake n i n g of d i scov ery, of co n q u es t , of t rade , a n d of emp i r e .From abo u t 1 550 ,

t h e n,t o t h e prese n t d ay

t h e m u s ica l ac t iv i t ies of t h e wor ld m u s t b eappor t io n ed

,n o t to t h e Germ a n s , t h e Fre n c h ,

a n d t h e I tal i a n s,to w hom t h ey r igh tfu l ly

be lo n g,bu t t o t h e Du tc h

,t h e Spa n i sh

,t h e

Portuguese , a nd p re—em i n e n t ly t he E n g l i s h .

How exac t ly ou r “Ma n from Mar swould d iv id e up th ese ac t iv i t i e s i s m a t t e rr a t h e r of ch a n ce t h a n of log i c . Suffic e i t tosay t h a t every grea t n ame of moder nE u rop ea n m u s i c m u s t appea r to t h e c r ed i tof o n e o f t h e fou r cou n t r i es w h ic h I h aven amed

,a n d t h a t E n gl a n d ’ s s h are i n t h i s

,as

i n o the r t h i n gs,m u s t b e t he l io n ’ s s h a re .


O pera t i c h i s to ry fr om A r n e to th e prese n td ay .

I taly,for so lo n g a co n fu sed j umb le of

wa rr i n g sta te s,cou ld h ave n o t h i n g t i l l h e r

s udd e n po l i t ical u n io n i n th e n i n e tee n t h

by som e su c h i so l at ed ge n i u s a s H e n r i coP u rcel lThe moder n F l em i n gs— t h e Be lg i a n s

m igh t be pu n i sh ed for t h e i r deed s 111 t h eCo n go by t h e p re se n t of Bal fe a n d t he poe tBu n n .

H ere , t h e n , we h ave a sketch of m u s ical h i s toryd raw n up o n t h e a s sumpt io n t h a t n a t io n al a n d mu s ica l

ac t iv i t ie s co i n c id e . I mu s t l ay s tr e s s o n t h e fac t t h a t ,however grotesq u e a n d r id i c u lou s t h i s Sketc h m ayappea r to a reade r w i t h a n y h i s tor i cal k n owl edge

,t h ere

i s n ot h i n g ct p riori improbab l e abou t i t . O n t h eco n t rary i t offer s a fa i r s ta tem e n t of w h a t

,on ou r

a ssumpt io n,m u s ical h i s to ry ough t to be

,bu t ac tual ly

i s no t . We m u s t al so rem embe r t h a t,i f w e h ad

erased from o u r c ha r t no t o n ly t h e m us i cal n ames bu tal l t h e e n t r i e s exc ep t t ho se o f t h e grea t n a t io n al wor ldmo v eme n ts

,a n d h ad t h e n h a n d ed to o u r Ma n from

Mars ” u n d a ted l i s t s of poe ts,pa i n ter s

,sculp tors ,

s tude n t s of n a tu re,merch a n t s

,so ld i er s

,sa i lo rs

,ex

plorers , adm i n i s tra to rs , a n d so 0 11,he wou ld h ave had

no d iffi c u l ty i n e n ter i n g t h e se n ames 0 11 t h e c h a r t sot ha t t h ey co rre sponded rough ly wi t h t h e ac t ual i t ies ofh i s tory . I d o n o t say

,of cou r se

,t h a t ( u n der th e

fa n c i ful co n d i t io n s w h ic h I am im ag i n i n g) h e wouldh ave e n te red t h e co rrec t n ames

,b u t I do say t h a t h e

wo uld h ave bee n ab le to al lo t to eac h era o f n a t io n a lmoveme n t i t s q uo ta o f grea t repre se n ta t ive m e n i nevery fo rm of ac t iv i ty excep t m u s i c

,a n d t h a t t h ese


e n t r i es wou ld,i n a broad se n se

,tal ly wi th know n

h i s tor i cal perso n ages .Ou r own h i s to ry , w h ic h h a s been a co n t i n u al reco rd

o f ex te n s io n S in ce t h e d ay s ofE l izabe t h Tudor , offersu s as good a n examp l e as a n y o t her .F i r s t we h ave th e grea t n a t io n a l awake n i n g a t t h e

t ime of t h e Armada,a n d a co rre spo n d i n g over- seas

ac t iv i ty i n Amer ica a n d th e Eas t I n d ies . 1 A t h om eth i s movem e n t fi n d s i t s co u n t e rpar t i n t h e sudde na n d u n expec ted b l aze of t h e E l izabet h a n d ram a .

I n t h e su cceed i n g ce n t u ry th e n a t i o n a l v i tal i ty,no t

co n te n t wi th i t s d reams of We st er n Emp i re , tu r n stowa rd s t h e Eas t

,a n d fi n d s a n ou t le t for i t s t rade i n

I n d i a a n d Nor t h e r n Afr ic a .

2 A t h om e we h av e t h elong l i s t of Jacob ea n sc h o l ar s

,p h i lo soph ers

,a n d

d iv i n es , a t l eas t two grea t poet s , m a n y grea t p rosew r i t er s

,scu lp tor s

,med al l i s t s a n d b u i lders of t h e fi rs t

ra n k,as well as t h e n ames t h a t rep rese n t t h e fo u n d i n g

of moder n sc ie n c e i n Ch arle s t h e Seco n d ’ s re ig n .

I n t h e n ex t c e n tu ry—t h e e igh tee n t h— t h e n a t io n alappet i te for exp lo ra t io n a nd co n que s t seem s t o be n o tsa t ed b u t s h arpe n ed . I n d i a

,Ca n ad a

,t h e Sou t h S ea s

are al l v i s i t ed a n d brough t who l ly or pa r t ly u n der t h esway of E n gl a n d

,a n d t h i s d esp i te the fac t t ha t a l arge

pa r t of t h e n a t io n a l r esou rc e s h a s to be co n t i n ua l lyemp loyed i n E u ropea n wa rfare .

3 A t home w e fi n dsu c h rep re se n tat ive n ames a s Pope

,Add i son

,Gray ,

1 Dra ke ’ s voyage round t h e Wo r l d, 1 57 7 Ra l e i g h in V i rg i n i a ,

1 584 ; Pa t en t gran ted to t h e E a s t I n d i a Com pany , 1 6 00 ; H aw k i n sa t the Cou r t of t h e G rea t Mogu l

,1 6 09 .

Q Jama ica t a ken , 1 6 56 ; S . C a ro l in a se t t l ed , 1 6 6 9 ; Da r i en expedi t ion , 1 6 98

- 1 7 00 ; Tang i e r pa s sed i n t o E n g l i s h h an ds a s t h edowry ofC a t h e r i n e of B ragan za

,wi fe ofCha rles the Secon d Se cond

E a s t In d i a Comp any,1 6 98.

3G i b ra l ta r t a ken,1 70 4 ; S . Sea B u bb l e , 1 7 2 0

- 1 7 2 1 Georg i aco lon i zed

,1 7 32 ; An s on ’ s Voyage s

, 1 7 40—1 7 44 ; C l i ve i n I n d i a

,

2 8 I\I U SIC AND NATIONALI SM C H AP .

Go ldsm i t h,S tee l e

,She r id a n

,Be n t l ey

,Porso n , Joh n

so n,New to n

,Rom n ey

,Ga i n sborough

,Rey n o lds

,a n d

Co n s tab l e .

I n t h e n i n e tee n t h ce n tu ry we ca n o n ly m ake a h a s tyrefere n c e t o th e lo ng ca talogu e of E n gl and ’ s over—s ea sac t iv i ty . I t i n c l udes th e com p lete subj uga t io n a n dco n so l id a t io n of t h e I n d i a n Emp i re

,t h e co n ques t of

Bu rm a,t he dom i n a t io n of t h e Fed era ted Malay S ta tes

a n d Sarawak,a n e n ormou s ex t e n s io n of t err i to ry i n

a l l par t s o fAfr ica,a n d t h e acqu i s i t io n of a la rge n um

ber of sm a ll s ta t i o n s w hose geograph ical pos i t io nm akes th em i n t egra l fac tors i n o u r Emp i re . A ll t h et ime t h a t E n g l a n d i s car ry i n g ou t t hese e n te r pr i sess h e i s faced wi t h lo n g a n d expe n s ive Co n t i n e n tal wa r sa n d w i t h a con t i n u al dra i n o f h er c h i ldre n to t h eCo lo n i e s . Th u s sh e lo se s i n two way s : F i r s t , t h eprod u c t ive e n e rg i e s of a l a rge n umbe r of h er p eop lew h o e i t her per i s h i n ac tual warfare o r a re compe l ledto devot e th e i r l ives to prov id i n g th e n eces sa ry fu n d sfor t h a t warfa re ; a n d , S eco nd , t h e e n e rg i e s of h erem igra n t s

,who e i t h er devo te t h em se lve s to t h e i r own

w e l l—be i n g i n o n e of h er Co lo n i es,l eav i n g her to

face t h e pr ob l em s of Emp i re u n a ided,o r e l s e take

themse lve s a n d t he i r p roduc t ive power s i n to a fo re ig ncou n t ry . The total of n a t io n a l v i tal i ty w h i c h i sp re supposed by t h i s s ho r t summ ary i s

,of co u rse ,

e n ormou s,a n d t he wo n der rem a i n s t h a t s h e i s ab l e to

m i r ro r i t s s ize a n d com p lex i ty i n he r hom e—ac t iv i t ie s . 1

1 7 50- 1 7 6 0 ; Wa r w i t h Fr an c e i n N . Ame r i c a , 1 7 54 ; P l a s sey ,

1 7 57 ; Wo lfe a t Q u e be c , 1 7 59 Conqu e s t of C an ad a com pl e t ed ,1 7 6 9 ; Coo k

’s voyage s, 1 7 7 0

- 1 7 7 9 ; Wa rren H a s t i ng s in I nd i a ,1 7 7 2

- 1 7 85 ; Ame r i can \Va r,1 7 7 5

- 1 783 ; E l l i o t a t G i b ra l ta r,

1 7 7 9- 1 7 82 Wa rs w i t h T i ppoo Sa i b , 1 7 83

—1 7 99 ; C ape of Good

Hop e t a k en,1 7 95 Sp i ce I s l a nd s ta k en

,1 7 9 6 .

1M a l ta t a ken , 1 800 ; I\/Iahra t ta w a r,A s saye

,1803 ; Mad e i ra

ta k en,180 7 ; I on i an I s l a nd s (Col l i ngwood ) , 1 809 ; A l g i e rs bom


There i s 110 d iffi cu l ty , however , i n prov i ng tha t , s o farfrom showi n g s ig n s of fa t igue

,th e ou t pu t of ove r- sea s

e n ergy o n ly i ncreases h e r p roduc t iv i t y a t h om e a n dto real iz e t h i s we n eed on l y gl a n ce a t a l i s t of su c hn am es a s Word sworth

,Byro n

,Kea t s

,Sh el ley

,Te n n y

son ,Brow n i n g

,Tu r n e r

,Mil l a i s

,Ro sse t t i

,Bu rn e

Jo n es,Darwi n

,Li s te r

,D ic ke n s a n d Th ackeray .

1

F rom th i s ha s tv sket c h t h e reader w il l b e ab le toj udge how u n i fo rm l a1 s b ee n ou r ac t iv i ty i n everydepa r tm e n t of pub l i c l i fe bu t mu s i c a n d

,Ifhe wi sh e s

to e n force t h e a rgume n t,h e ca n take a ny n a t io n

wh i c h h a s s how n a n ove r-seas ac t iv i ty s im i l a r to ou rown

,a n d m a rk h ow ( a s i n t h e ca se of Ho l l a n d ) i t i s

ac compa n i ed by a s im i lar p roduc t ive n ess i n pa i n ter s,

carve rs,metal-workers

,e n g i n ee rs

,s ta te sm e n

,so ld i er s

a n d sa i lor s—b u t no t i n mu s i c i a n s . e w il l al so b e ab let o see tha t

,wh e n w e re tu r n t o our o r ig i n al que st io n

,

why the Engli shpeop le h ave no t b ee n ab le to prod uce aNa t io n a l Schoo l of O pera , we sh al l no t be ab le to fi n da n easy a n swe r i n t h e oft e n repea t ed sta tem e n t th a tt h ey h ave always b ee n too b u sy do i n g someth i n g

0e l se . For i t i s q u i t e p l ai n t h a t,h ow ever bu sy t h ey

ba rd ed,

181 6 ; Pa r ry ’ s voyage s , 181 9 ; B u rme seCh i n e se op i um w a r

,1 839

—1 84 2 A fgh a n 11 a,r 1838

- 1 81 2 ; Wa ri n Sc ind e

,184 3 S i kh wa r s

, 1 84 5—1 81 9 I\ a f1i 1 wa r s

,1 84 7

B u rme se wa r,1 852 ; An n ex a t i on o f Oud e

,1 856 ; Ab ! ss in i a n e .\

p edi t io n ,1 86 8 ; a s we l l a s m ore re cen t a cq ti i s i t ion s, by wa r o r

o t h e rw i se,in a lmo s t eve ry pa r t o f Afr i ca .

1 From t he se l i s t s o fw e ll—kn ow n n am e s , t a ke n a lmos t a t h aph aza rd ,I h ave pu rpose l y ex c l u ded a l l sa i l o rs

,s o l d i e r s

,e x p l ore rs

,adm in is

tra tors a nd eng i n ee r s , bec au se t hey may be con s i d e red t o bemore e x ac t l y t h e a c t u a l

, a nd,a s I t we re

,p rox ima t e m a ke r s of

Em p i re . I t wou l d n o t,t h e refore

,be ge rma n e t o my a rgumen t t o

i n c l ud e t h e i r n am e s i n a l i s t of t h e o th e r a c t i v i t i e s wh i c h a ccom pan yn a t i on a l m ovemen t s .

Q In h i s l e c t u re “ Abou t de l i ve red a t B i rm i n gh am i n

1888,S i r A r t h u r Sul lrv a n sa i d : “ I w i l l n o t go i n to t h e ca u se s

30 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH AP .

h ave bee n,t h ey h ave a lway s fou n d t ime to p rod u c e a

m u l t i tude of grea t m e n a n d grea t a r t i s t s,who may

,

perhap s,fi n d th e i r cau se i n t he Wor ld—Emp i re

,bu t

w ho ca n n o t be said to b e d i rec t ly u sefu l t o t ha tEmp i re excep t a s a n i l l u s t ra t io n .

Bu t t here i s a n o th e r , a n d st i l l m ore importa n tco n c l u s io n to b e draw n from our com par i so n of

m u s i cal a n d n a t io n a l ac t iv i t i es,for

,i f we co n t ra s t t h e

o r ig i n a l h i s to r i cal ch a r t wi t h th e c h ar t a s fi l led i n byo ur im ag i n ary “Ma n from Mar s

,

” we ca n n o t h e lpn o t ic i n g tha t n o t o n ly do t h e m u s i cal e n t r i es fa i l total ly wi t h t h e o t h e r e n t r ie s i n a ge n e ra l way

,b u t t h a t

t h ey a re i n eve ry case p rec i se ly oppo sed to eac h o th e r .Where we m igh t h ave expec ted m u s i c

,t h e re i s n o n e

w h er e we m igh t h ave expect ed n o m u s i c,t h e re i t i s .

I n ot he r word s,a s soo n a s a n at io n beg i n s to ex tend

a n d ex te r io r iz e i t s e l f i t c ea se s to d eve lop i t s m u s ical,

t h ough no t n ec e s sar i ly i t s o th e r ar t i s t i c,facul t i es . I n

wh i ch fo r n ea r l y 2 00 yea r s mad e u s l ose t h a t h i gh pos i t i on ,a nd

t h rew u s i n t o t h e h an d s of t h e i l l u s t r i ou s fore i gn e r s,H ande l

,H aydn

,

S poh r , Mend e l s soh n ( s o l ong th e fa vou r i te com pose rs of t h e Engl i s h ) a nd o f t h e I ta l i an Ope ra

,wh i c h e x c l u s i ve l y occu p i ed t h e

a t t en t i on of t h e fa s h i on a b l e c l a s se s , a nd, l i k e a grea t ca r of J ugge rn a u t

,o v e r rod e a nd c ru s h ed a l l eff or t s mad e 0 11 beh a lf of n a t i ve

m u s i c . My éc/i ef i s t/tczt tlri s cc'czs Mtge/y due to f/J c ent/J nsz

'

czsm w i t/z

conic/1 com/net cc cons pursued, a ndMe ex t/ no; ri ft/my a ny in coni c/1 relig ions

a nd po/i ticczl strngg/es , a nd, inter pm cti cn/ science, l mz re a ésoréed our

c i te/g i f t .

” B u t t h i s be l i e f seem s t o h a ve 110 grea t va l u e a s a ba s i s ford edu c t i on

,for

,q u i t e a pa r t from t h e fac t t h a t ( i n E ngl a n d , a t a ny

ra t e ) t h e m os t c omme rc i a l p l a ce s (c g . Sou t h La n es,B i rm i ngh am

,

a nd York sh i re ) a re a l so t h e m os t m u s i ca l , i t i s obv i o u s t h a t non e o ft h e pu rsu i t s n am ed ca n poss i b l y p rec l u d e g rou ps of i ndi v idua ls fromma i n ta i n i n g a t ru l y n a tro n a l a rt by mea n s o f n a t i ve p rofe s s i on a lm u s i c i a n s . N e i t h e r F ra n ce n o r G e rma n y s h ows a ny l ac k of comme rc ia l , re l i g i ou s , po l i t i ca l , o r s c i e n t i fi c en e rgy , bu t t h e fa c t rem a i n st h a t t h ey h ave be en a b l e t o comb i n e t h e se a c t i v i t i e s w i t h a pu re l yn a t i on a l m u s i ca l d eve l o pmen t . Th i s a rgumen t i s , t h e re fore , u s e l e s s ,a nd we a re forced to l oo k fo r t h e d i ffere n t i a t i n g fa c t o r e l sewh e re .

11 NATIONAL COMPARI SONS 3 I

a broad se n se,a n d wi t h some ve ry S l igh t mod ifi ca t ion s

of p l ace a nd oc cas io n,t h is i s a h i s to r ical fac t . I t i s

t h erefore i n t h i s o n e fa ctm world-power , w h i c h i s a tt he prese n t day very m u cht h e same th i n g a s seapowe r—t ha t w e ca n fi n d a n exp l an a t io n of t h eperplexi n g ph e n ome n a ofm us ica l h i s tory .

“ Bu t,

” t h e read er m ay w e l l ask,w h y i s i t t h a t

th e se va s t sem i - co n sc iou s n a t ion al movem e n t s s h o uldno t h ave t h e same effec t 011 t h e p rodu c t io n of m u s ica s t h ey have 0 11 t h e p rodu c t io n of a n y ot h e r a r tsu ch a s t h a t of t h e pa i n ter , t h e scu lpto r , or t h e poetTh i s i s a rea so n ab l e q u est io n a n d

,s i n ce we m u s t acc e p t

th e d iffer e n ce of effec t as m a t te r of u n doub ted h i s to ry,

w e mu s t e n d eavo u r to fi n d a sa t i sfac to ry a n swer b yco n t ras t i n g th e ar t s of poe try

,pa i n t i n g

,a n d scu l ptu re

w i t h t ha t of m u s i c,a n d so ar r iv i n g a t som e fu n da

me n tal d iffere n ce betwee n t h e two .

Th a t som e su c h fu n dame n ta l d i ffe re n ce ex i s ts wem igh t b e l ed to gu es s by m ere ly look i n g a t t h e facesof h al f a doze n r eprese n ta t ives o f eac h of t h e a r t sw h i c h I h ave n amed

,fo r w h i le i t wou ld be m ere

m a t te r of gu es swork to t el l th e pa i n te r from th esculp tor

,or e i t h er from t h e l i te ra ry m a n

,n o one

would h ave a n y d iffi cul ty i n p i c k i n g ou t th e m u s i c i a n .Th i s i n deed i s m a t t e r of commo n speec h

,for eve n i n

t h i s cou n t ry,where s u c h ph y s ica l m a rks as long h a i r

are almost u n k n ow n,a m a n i s spoke n of a s “ look ing

l ike a m u s i c i a n,

” w h erea s 110 on e ever m akes a s im i l a rgu ess a t a sculptor ’ s or a pai n te r ’ s ide n t i t y

,u n l e ss

i t b e t h a t h e j udges fromhi s w h i te smock o r p ai n tbox .

Now,t h i s superfi c i al d iffe re n c e of a s pec t i s a n effec t

caused by a s imp le bu t fu n dame n ta l d i ff ere n ce ofme n tal proces s . I t ca n n o t

,i n deed

,be doub ted t h a t

t h e ac tual t ec h n i cal prob lem s prese n ted to t h e i n d iv idual poet

,pa i n ter

,scu lptor

,a n d mu s i c i a n a re t o b e


so lved by a n app l i ca t io n of t h e same m en ta l processesi n al l fou r ca se s , a n d t h a t t h e same m e n tal p roc e ssapp l i ed i n t h e same way prod u ce s ide n t ical r esu l t s i nal l t h e four ar ts bu t

,on th e o t h er h a n d

,i t i s equ al ly

beyo n d doub t t h a t,i n i t s i n c e pt io n

,t h e mu s i ca l

ac t iv i ty d iffer s from th e o ther ac t iv i t i es no t i n degreebu t i n k i n d .

The poe t,t h e pa i n te r

,a n d t he sc u lptor d epe n d

,i n

t h e fi rs t p l ac e,so le ly o n ex t er n al s t im u l i . I n t h e ca s e of

t h e scu lp tor t h e s t imu l u s i s t h e form,w h ic h a ppear s

to h im a s a n ac tual ly exi s te n t obj ec t app rox im a te lyrep rod u c ib le i n wh a t eve r m at e r i a l he m ay h ave toh a n d i n t h e c a se of t h e p a i n t e r t h e st im u l u s i s t h eva r i a t io n of co lou r—m as s w h i c h he ca n par t i al ly reprod u ce by mea n s of pai n t . Th e poe t

,for h i s p ar t

,

d epend s 0 11 a— to h im— l ess s ta t io n ary,bu t no

les s ex te r n al,se r i es of s t im ul i

,fo r ( u n le ss h e i s

m ere l y a r hym i n g ph i lo soph er ) h e m u s t fi rs t rec e iveth rough h i s se n se s th e impres s io n s of me n

,p l aces

,

a n d eve n t s .Now

,t h e a r t o f t h e com pose r d iffer s fu n dame n tal ly

from al l t h ese . I t i s,of cou rs e

,l ike th e ot he r t h ree

a r t s,a n expr e ss io n of t h e emot io n s i n terpret ed i n

t e rm s of t h e i n te l lec t,b u t

,u n l i ke t h em

,i t depe n d s

fo r i t s i n cept io n o n 110 ex te r n a l s t im u l u s w h a tever ;a n d t h i s fac t i s of far—reach i ng impor ta n ce w h e n w ecome to co n s ide r th e l arge r q u e s t io n of n a t io n a l i nr e l a t io n to m u s i ca l deve lopmen t . I do n o t say t h a tt h e ac t ual cunning o f t h e m u s i c i a n d iffe rs from t ha t oft h e pa i n te r

,t h e scu lp to r

,o r th e poe t . They al l m ake

t h e same u se of h i s to r ical form s o f expres s ion ,of idea

assoc i a t io n s,a n d o f emot io n a l exper i en ce s . I n a ll

fou r ca ses t h e a rt wo rk ough t to re prese n t to u s as um o f t h e a rt i s t s emot io n al exper ie n ce s , t h oughsomet imes— i n a r t i s t s Of a low emot io n al i n d ex— it

34 MUS IC AND NATIONAL I SM CH AP

i n t h e a r t s of t he o t h e r t h ree,t h e two a rm s of t h e

sc al e a re almost i n eq u ipo i s e .The m i n d of t h e com poser

,t hough s t ra n ge ly com

p l ex w he n dem a n d i n g t h e i n s t rume n tal r eal iza t io n ofh i s co n cep t io n s

,moves

,a t t he i r c rea t io n

,almost un

h ampered by phy s i cal co n d i t io n s . The s im p l e m a t h em a t ica l fac t s wi t h regard to a ya rd of ca tgu t a n d a n

ope n p ipe a r e h i s o n ly pos tu l a t e s . I t i s t h e moren eces sary to i n s i s t on t h i s co n t ras t b ecau s e m a n ypeop le

,i n com par i n g th e ac t iv i t ie s of t h e m u s i c i a n

w i t h t ho se of o t he r a r t i st s,a r e led i n to t h e fa l l acy of

suppos ing t h a t h i s va s t a rray of i n s t rume n t s a n dvo i ces are a n alogu es

,i n h i s a r t

,t o t h e m u ch va s t e r

ex te r n a l sys tem w h i c h s t im ul a t es t h e imag i n a t io n oft h e p oe t

,t h e sc u lp tor

,a n d t h e pa i n t e r . Bu t su c h a n

a n alogy i s b ased who l ly on a co n fu s io n betwee n t h eac t of c rea t i n g a n d t h e ac t of exh ib i t i n g t h e c rea t io n . 1

I f,i n deed

,w e w i s h ed to a t t em p t t he ( impos s ib l e)

tas k of fi n d i n g a n a n alogy to m u s i c al c rea t io n i n t h eo th er a r t s

,w e sh ou ld h ave to i n v i t e t h e pa i n ter to

p rod u ce a p ic tu re of t h e law of grav i ty,

or thesc ul p tor to express i n c l ay t h e fac t t h a t two par t s ofhyd roge n a n d o ne of oxyge n comb i n e toget h er tom ake wa te r

,or t h e poe t to w r i te a d ram a on t h e

subj ec t of Twic e two i s fou r . O r,i f we wi sh ed to

tu r n t h e a n alogy rou n d t he o t her way we s hould h aveto a s k t h e m u s ic i a n to w r i te i n s t r ume n t al m u s i c w h i c hwou ld be u n der s tood a s represe n t i n g Ba t ter sea Br idge

,

or She l l ey ’ s bod y a t V i a Regg io , o r t h e Dea t h of

Tybal t : no t mere ly th e emo t io n s cal led up i n h i s

1 Th e reade r may n o t e in pa ss i ng t h a t,t h ough t h e c re a t i on of

m us i c i s a ve ry S im pl e a nd i n e x pen s i v e a ffa i r wh en com pa red w i t ht h e c rea t i on of p i c t u re s o r s ta t u a ry , t h e two l a t te r t u rn t h e tab l e sve ry m u c h i n t h e i r ow n fa vou r wh en i t c ome s t o exh i b i t in g t h efi n i sh ed c rea t i on .

11 NATIONAL COMPAR I SONS 35

m i n d by t hese subj ec t s ,—t h a t 13 commo n to al l fou ra r t s—nor t he rep rodu c t io n s of a n y p hy s ical sou n d sw h i c hhe m ay as soc ia t e wi t h t hem ( su c h as t h e eve nflow of t h e r iver , t h e b ea t i n g of waves

, or t h e a n grysou n d s of qua rre l a n d m u rde r) ; bu t mu s i c- p i c tu re swh ich

,i n c l ud i n g p erha p s th e emot io n s a n d t he a ssoc i

a t ed idea s,a t t h e same t im e co n ta i n recog n izab l e

sta teme n ts of t h ese ex te r ior obj ec ts .We n eed not e n t e r i n to t h e q uest io n of p rogramme

m u s i c to s e e tha t al l t h e se t h i n gs ar e impo ss ib le .

The pai n t er ca n d raw New to n wa t c h i n g th e app lefal l : t h e scu lp tor ca n mode l t h e form of t h e ch em i s t

,

t h e tes t- tube,a n d eve n t he d rop of wa te r : t h e poe t

ca n w r i t e hi s d ram a i f you g ive h im two me n a n dtwo wome n to m ake h i s fou r . They ca n a ll p u t i n tot h e i r a r t Wh a t eve r emot io n t h ey a r e capab le of

,b u t

t h ey al so b eg i n a n d e n d wi t h t h e ac tual t h i n g a s t h eyt h i n k i t exi s t s o u t s ide t h em se lves . The m u s i c i a n

,

o n t h e o th er h a n d , t hough he ca n dep i c t t h e emot io n scal led u p i n h i s m i n d by a n id ea or obj ec t

,ca n n o t

i n c l ude t h a t idea or obj ec t i n h i s m u s ical s ta teme n t .The o t h ers m ake t h e wi n e

,a s i t w ere

,a n d pou r

i t i n to bot t les,w h i le t he composer pres ses out h i s

grape s o n ly on t h e s t r i n ge n t a n d seem i n gly u n ea r t h lyco n d i t io n t h a t t he wi n e ca n n ever be v i ewed t h rought he d ark gl as s of hum a n i ty . Th a t h i s wi n e i s t hepu r er

,t h e more e l eva t ed

,a n d th e more sp i r i tual

,for

th i s d eep a n d ab id i n g co n d i t io n of i t s m ak i n g ca n n o tb e de n ied

,b u t n ever t he les s i t pay s t h e p e n al ty of i t s

remova l from al l ex t er ior r e la t io n s h ip s i n t h a t t h eart-work i t sel f becomes sepa ra ted from th e ge n era lt re n d of n a t io n al t h ough t

,

1 w h i le t h e ar t i s t i s forc ed1 In t h i s con n ec t i on i t i s i n t e re s t in g t o n ot e t h e e x t reme difficu l ty t h a t compose rs h ave a lway s fe l t l n r i s in g ” t o a ny n a t i on a loccas i on Su c h oppor t u n i t i e s oc cu r t o t h em in common wi t h


i n to a po s i t io n w h i c h e i t he r exal t s h im u n du ly aboveh i s more qu i esc e n t co u n t ryme n or e l se d ep res se s h imbe low t h e ge n era l im ag i n a t ive leve l of h i s age .

Now,i t i s t h i s s imp le b u t importa n t d iffere n c e be

twee n m u s ical a n d al l o th e r form s of ar t i s t ic c rea t io nth a t fu rn i sh e s us w i t h a c l ue to wh a t I have cal ledth e leas t—c ommo n—de n om i n a tor of mu s ical a n dn a t io n al ac t iv i ty .

W e m u s t rem ember th a t t h i s one overm as te r i n gco n d i t io n— t h e n ec e ss i ty of ex ter n a l s t imu l i to everya r t excep t m u s i c—gove r n s t h e c rea t ive im pul se of

al l o t he r a r t i s ts a n d exerc i se s a s t eady pre s su re on

t h e i r e n erg ie s . Th e resul t of t h i s co n d i t io n i s t h a tm u s i c

,a s com pared wi t h t h e ot he r ar t s

,fo l low s a

pa t h of i t s own tha t beg i n s i n a d iffe re n t p l ace,ru n s

b e tw ee n i t s own h edges , a n d m akes for a t o tal lyd iffere n t spo t . I t i s no t

,however

, w i t h t h i s co n t ra s tt h a t w e ar e spec i a l ly co n ce r n ed h er e

,for our obj ec t

i s t h e l a rge r one of br i n g i n g m u s i c al h i s tory i n tosom e sor t of h arm o n y wi t h n a t io n a l h i s to ry .

I f we n ow go b ac k to our or ig i n a l h i s to r ic al c h ar t,

pa in te r s , s c u lp to rs , poe t s , a nd bu i l de r s ; bu t wh i l e t h e la t te rrecogn i ze t h em a s pa r t a nd pa rce l of t h e i r bu s in e ss, a nd a reord i n a r i l y s u c cessfu l in d ea l i ng w i t h t h em ,

t h e a t temp t of t h ec om pose r t o wor k t o o rd e r i n va r i a b l y end s in fa i l u re . Th i sin d i ca te s a n a ccu ra t e , i f un con sc i ou s, know l edge of t h e con d i t i on su nd e r wh i ch a l on e h e ca n produ ce or i g in a l wor k . Th e hi s t ory oft h e wor ld

,from T roy t o Pa a rdeberg , c a n ve ry we l l be read in i t s

poe t ry a nd sc u l p tu re , b u t eve ry h i s to r i ca l an a logy t eac h e s u s t ha t ,i f w e cou l d re cove r t h e m u s i c of t h e pa s t 5000 ye a r s a nd e x am in ei t i n t/i e lig/zt of lz irtorim/ m ent;

,w e s h ou l d g a i n n o t h i ng bu t a

fe e l ing o f con fu s i on a nd s u rp r i se a t i t s m i s l ead ing a nd i n adequ a t ec h a ra c t e r . Th e reade r may ve ry w e l l e x am in e , from t h e h i s t o r i ca la nd n o t t h e s t r i c t l y m u s i ca l s tan dpo i n t , t h e com pos i t i on a nd

con ten t s of s u ch wor k s a s “Th e D e t t in gen Te Deum,

” “Th eReforma t i on Sym phony ,” Wagn e r ’s fo rgo t t en occ a s i on a l p iec e s,a nd even t h e E ro i ca Sym phony .”


we sh al l a t o n ce be s t ruc k by t he fac t t h a t,a s t h ere

i s a fu n dame n tal d ifferen c e betwee n t h e two form s ofar t is t ic ac t iv i ty

,so ther e i s a s im i l a r d iffe re n ce wh i c h

d iv ides a ll n a t io n a l ac t iv i ty i n to two b road fi e ld s .Th i s d iffere n ce

,w h i c h i s i t se l f c au sed by rac e a n d

geograph ic al pos i t io n,i s n o t eas i ly exp re ss ib le i n a

s i n gl e E n gl i s h word . Pe rh aps t h e d iffere n c e be twee nt h e Saxo n word s “ ou tward n ess a n d “ i n ward n es s

,

”

or t h e La t i n ext e r io r iza t io n a n d i n te r ior iz a t io n,

wi l l g ive som e i dea of t h e t h i n g wh i c h I p ropose toexp l a i n .

We mu s t fi rs t a t t emp t to take a broad , ge n eralv i ew of Eu rop ea n h i s to ry , leav i n g ou t en t i re lyth e i n t erm i n ab le pet ty sq uabb l es w h i c h h ave bee nfome n t ed b y p r i n ce s for t h e i r own e n ds , leav i n gou t al so a ll t h e b i t te r a n d u s e less b loodshed of

t h e Chu rc h e s,a n d t h e i n co n c l u s ive m a rchings a n d

cou n t er-ma rchings of armed m en to a n d fromfore ign te rr i to r ies . I n do i n g th i s w e S h al l be forcedto recog n ize t h e ex i s t e n ce i n Eu rop e of two d i s t i n c ta t t i tude s of m i n d w h i c h d iffe re n t i a t e o n e n at io n froma n ot h e r j u s t a s mu s i c i s d iffe re n t i a ted from t h e o t h e rar t s .O n t h e on e h a n d we h ave n a t io n s (of w h i c h Ger

m a n y dow n to t he l a t te r e n d of t h e n i n e tee n t h ce n tu ryi s a typ e ) s i t t i n g w i t h i n t he i r own bord ers

,t h e i r

backs,as i t we re

,tu r n ed to t h e i r fro n t ier s

,a n d t he i r

eye s t u r n ed i n ward s . I n su ch a n a t io n t h e re i s n on a t io n al proj ec t io n of e n e rgy ou twa rd s

,b u t t h ere i s

a n i n te n se a n d c her i s h i n g sp i r i t of n a t io n al pr id ei n ward s—a sp i r i t wh i c h oft e n p rod u c e s a s tu rdydefe n s ive m i l i tar i sm a n d w h ic h t i e s up t h e w ho len a t io n i n to a ba n d of brot h erhood . The commo nimpul se , however , w h i ch u n i t e s su c h a ba n d of

brot hers , i s no t (a s in t h e case Of t h e V ik i n gs , t h e

38 MUS IC AND NATIONAL I SM C H A P .

Norm a n p i ra tes,a n d t he E l izabe t h a n bu cca n ee rs) a n

impul se Of adve n tu r e,o f acqu i s i t io n

,a n d of n a t io n a l

ex ter io r iza t io n,bu t a n impul se of commo n sym pa t h y

i n defe n ce,of t e n ac i ty to id eal s a t h ome

,a n d of

co n se rva t io n of t he n a t io n a l e n e rgy .

Of t h e seco n d a n d p rec i se ly oppos i t e type of

n a t io n al m i n d th e bes t examp le s ( i n two veryd iffere n t way s ) a re Rome dow n t o abou t t h e t imeof t h e d i scovery of Amer i ca

,a n d E n g l a n d from

E l izabe t h ’ s d ay t i l l now . I n a n a t io n of t h i s typew e fi n d i t s c i t ize n s perpe tual ly sta n d i n g

,a s i t were

,

i n a s ta te of eager n es s a n d t e n s io n,t h e ir eye s s t ra i n ed

o u tward s to a n d beyo n d th e i r fro n t iers . Th e w ho l en a t io n seems ready to spr i n g a n d

,w herever po ss ib le

,

doe s sp r i n g beyo n d i t s bord er s . Th i s impul s etoward s n a t io n al proj ec t io n m ay becom e

,a s i n t h e

ca se o f E n g la n d,t h e o ne absorb i n g pa s s io n of

c e n tu r i es,a n d m ay re sul t

,as i t ha s wi t h h e r

,i n t h e

acqu i s i t io n of a grea t Wor ld—Emp i re . I h av e,how

eve r,spec i a l ly me n t io n ed Rome a s a n i n s ta n c e of

t h i s m e n tal a t t i tude bec au s e I w i s h to m ake i t c lea rt h a t

,t h ough t h e te rm wor ld—powe r ” m ay be con

v en ien tly u sed t o descr ibe the ( pos s ib le) re su l t s of

suc h a p roce s s of ex t e r io r iza t io n , i t i s n o t t h e ac tualga i n o r posses s io n of terr i to ry

,or eve n t h e pow er

spr i n g i n g from t h ese ga i n s,w h ic h i s of impor ta n c e i n

t h i s co n n ec t io n,b u t t h e co n t i n u al proj ec t io n of t h e

n a t io n a l m i n d ou tward s wh i c h l ie s b eh i n d a n dperh aps cau ses t h e se ga i n s .Th i s ca n be see n p l a i n ly i n t h e u n iq u e ca se of

Rome,wh o i n h er lo n g te n u r e Of wor ld—power

ga i n ed almost n o th i n g i n t h e way of ac tual t err itoria l posses s io n s . Yet s h e rem a i n s t h e grea t l iv i n gexamp le of a S ta t e whose e n e rg i e s were w ho l lydevo ted t o ex te r io r iza t io n , fo r , t h ough i t i s a


commo n say i n g th a t “ al l road s lead to Rome ,we mu s t ( i f w e are to u n ders ta n d t h e m e n tal a t t i tud eof t h e med i aeval Roma n Chu rc hm a n ) p u t ou rse lve si n h i s p l ace i n Rome from wh i ch al l r oad s lead . Weca n t h e n see h im l ike a sp ider—I say i t w i t h ou tm ea n i n g a n y offe n c e—s i t t i n g i n t h e m idd l e of a vas tn e twork of i n ter n a t io n a l ac t iv i t i e s , wi t h h i s gazealway s ru n n i n g ou twa rd s alo n g som e l i n e o r o t h er ofh i s w eb . H i s Obj ec t i s t h e ex t e n s io n of t h e Rom a npowe r a n d t h e Rom a n ideal s , j u s t as t he prese n t-dayE n g l i s hm a n ’ s obj ec t i s t h e ex te n s io n of h i s own

powe r a n d h i s ow n ideal s . The Obj ec t a imed a t a n dth e h ab i t of m i n d w h ich g ive s t h e a im i t s po s s ib i l i tyof suc cess are t h e same i n bo th ca ses : t h e m e thodof execu t io n a n d t h e re sul t s a re , of c our se

,q u i te

d iffere n t .Now

,i f we com pa re a n y two n a t io n s of t h e se

oppos i n g types —t h e ex t e r ior iz i n g a n d t h e i n ter ioriz ing—we ca n see t h a t , t hough t h ey bo t h Offe r i nd iverse ways a n ou t l e t fo r t h e im ag i n a t ive e n ergy ofth e i r peop le

,th e co n d i t io n s b u i l t u p wi t h i n eac h S ta te

mu s t b e exac t ly co n t rary to eac h o t h e r . O n t h e o n eh a n d there i s a n a tmosphere of co n t e n tm e n t

,of

peacefu l co n tem p l at io n a n d refl ec t io n,of l e i su re

,a n d

of co n c e n t ra t io n : on t h e o th er,of ( n eces sary ) d i s

co n te n t, of n ervou s a n x i e ty , of co n t i n ua l mot io n , a n d

of expa n s io n . I t i s o n ly w h e n we real ize t h e gul ftha t d iv ides th ese two t ype s of soc i e ty t h a t we ca nbr i n g t he i r depe n de n t m u s i cal ac t iv i t i es i n to h i s to r i calfocu s . For n o n a t io n h a s eve r bee n hi n dered i n i t smu s i ca l deve lopm e n t by t h e fac t t h a t i t wa s “ bu sydo i n g someth i n g e l se a n d to prove t ha t o ne haso n ly to se lec t a n y deve loped n a t io n a l schoo l O f m u s i ca t ra n dom

,Germa n

,V i e n n ese

,F lore n t i n e

,V e n e t i a n

,

F lem i sh,Fre n c h

,o r I tal i a n , a n d se t dow n aga i n s t i t s

40 MU S IC AND NATIONALI SM CHAP .

h i s tory i t s n a t io n al reco rd of co n tempo rary wars,

i n va s io n s,exped i t io n s

,po l i t ic al a n d dy n a s t i c turmo i l s

,

i t s bu i ld i n gs,p i c tu re s

,a n d sta tua ry

,i t s poet ry a n d

p ro se , i t s e n g i n eer i n g a n d i t s commerce .

Ou t s ide c h ro n i c poverty t h ere i s,i n deed

,o n ly one

fac to r wh i c h ca n h ave a n y det er re n t effec t o n n a t io n alm u s i ca l d eve lopme n t

,a n d tha t i s t h e acqu i s i t io n o f

wor ld—power . Co n s ider for one mome n t w h a t i s t h epressu r e o n a r t of t h i s co n t i n ual a t t i tud e of ex t e r io riz a tion . To t h e poe t , th e pa i n t er , a n d th e sc u lp to r ,w h o al l re ly o n ex te r n a l s t im ul i for t h e i r c r ea t iveimpul s e s , t h i s a t t i tude i s no t o n ly no t a h i n dra n c e , i ti s a n adva n tage . The world of new s igh t s

,of n ew

sou n d s,a n d of s t ra n ge co n c ep t io n s

,w h i c h comes to

t h em from over th e sea s,s t i rs th e i r m i n d s a n d fi re s

t h e i r im ag i n a t io n s . A n epoc h of grea t n a t io n al ou tr eac h i n g

,or a mome n t w he n som e m igh ty ou tbu rs t

of e n ergy occu r s,always fi n d s i t s i n t el lec tu al a n d

ar t i s t i c cou n t e rpa r t a t h om e i n ar t . The form take nby t h i s a r t i s

,o f cou r se , a m a t te r of c i rcum sta n c e

ofte n a m a t te r of mere phy s i cal c i rcumsta n c e i t m aybe scu lp tu red m a rb l e

,a s a t A t h e n s i t m ay be pa i n t

a n d a rc h i t ec tu re,a s i n I taly or i t m ay be d ram a

,a s

i n E l izabe th a n E n gl a n d bu t t h e on e fo rm w h i c h i twi l l n o t take a n d n ever h as take n i s d eve loped m u s i c .Th ere m ay be a n acce ss io n of weal t h su ffi c i e n t ly

grea t to m ake t h e fou n d i n g or deve lopm e n t of am u s i c sch oo l perfec t ly easy o n i t s m a t e r i a l s ide

,a s

wa s t h e cas e i n m id—V i c tor i a n d ays : t he re m ay before ig n m u s i c i a n s of t h e grea tes t d i s t i n c t io n r es ide n ti n t h e S ta te

,as wa s t h e case i n George t h e F i r s t ’ s

d ays ; bu t al l t h ese t h i n gs avai l t h e n a t io n n o th i n g ,t h e m u s ical facul ty wi l l r em a i n ster i le

,o r wi l l p roduc e ,

a t m o st,a s t i l l—bor n Offspr i n g . A n d t h e reaso n i s t h e

very S imp le o ne t h a t the m u s i c i a n d epe n d s for h i s

4 2 MUS IC AND NATIONAL I SM CHA P .

d i s t rac t ed ly for a t h i rd . Eve n i n sp i te of h imse l f,th e E n g l i s hma n h a s bee n ab l e to p rod u c e one or two

me n of firs t- c l as s ab i l i ty,b u t t h e d i s h ea r t e n i n g r ecord

of t h e i r i so l a t io n h a s h ad i ts n a tu ra l resul t a n d,a s w e

n ea r t h e n i n e tee n t h ce n tu ry,w e fi n d t h a t

,t h ough

E n g l a n d ca n e n t e r two suc h “ w r i te rs a s Rober tCl ive a n d Wa rre n H a s t i n gs toher Eas t I n d i a n S e rv i c e , in h er Mu s i c al Ser v i ce s h e ca n o n ly m a tc hBee th ove n w i t h B al fe a n d B ishop .

I t m u s t n o t be im ag i n ed th a t t h i s t e r r ib l e we igh tof ex te r n al i ty

,w h i ch h a s c h ecked th e d eve lopm e n t

of m u s i c i n E n gl a n d for 300 year s , i s fe l t le s s bym u s ic i a n s i n th e aggrega t e t h a n by t h e i n d iv idualm u s i c i a n . I n deed

,i t i s fe l t m ore

,a n d i t s effec t s a re

to be see n m uc h m o re c l ear ly i n a b road study of

h i sto ry t h a n i n t h e re cord s of separa t e compo se rss t ruggl i n g a ga i n s t i t s overpowe r i n g i n flue n c e . Th i si s o n ly wha t

b

we m igh t expec t,u n l es s we w ere w il l i n g

to degrade t h e ar t to t h e leve l of a t r iv i a l am u seme n tu n re l a t ed to a n y form of n a t io n al e n deavou r .Ou r Obj ec t

,t he n

,m u s t b e to take t h e key w h ic h

h a s be e n fo rged for u s b y t h e a r t o f m u s ic i t se l f,a n d

a t t em pt to op e n w i t h i t t h e com p lex lock of h i s to ry .

SO far from t h i s b e i n g a d iffi c u l t task,w e sh al l fi n d

w i t h su rpr i se t h a t eve ry ward Of t h e k ey,so to speak

,

fi t s i n perfec t l y wi t h t h e de l i ca te m echa n i sm of t h elock . A l l t h e perp lexi n g fact s of m u s ical h i s to ry

,

w h i ch h ave h i t h e r to bee n m a t te r of mere b ewilderm e n t

,a t o n c e fal l i n to t h e i r expec t ed p l ace s

,a n d t h e

seem i n gly co n t rad i c t o ry m e n tal a t t i tude,w h i c h pro

d u ce s i n a n a t io n every fo rm Of e n ergy bu t m u s ic ,n o t o n ly cea se s to perp lex u s

,b u t exp l a i n s i tse l f

almost au tom a t ica l ly .

B u t befor e I deal i n ou tl i n e wi t h t h e i n fl u e n ce ofwor ld -powe r on m u s i c , I m u s t gua rd th e reader

I I NATIONAL COMPARI SONS 43

aga i n s t two fal se d edu c t io n s . M y Obj ec t i n t hesech ap te r s i s to fi n d ou t t h e n a tu re of t h e fac to r w h ic hha s always p reve n ted t h e deve lopm e n t Of m u s i c i nn a t io n s w hos e co n d i t io n s w ere o t herwi se we l l su i te dto i t s p rod u c t ion , a n d t he n , i n my sub seq u e n t c h apte r s

,to apply t h i s k n owl edge to t h e spec i a l case of

E n g la n d . We m u s t n o t,howeve r

,suppo se t h a t th e

mere abse n ce of th e n a t i o n al ou t s t re tch i n g toward swor ld—powe r i s suffi c i e n t to m ake t h e p roduc t io n Ofm u s ic a cer ta i n ty . I t s p re se n ce

,so to speak

,always

ster i l ize s,t hough i t s ab se n ce doe s no t n ec es sar i ly

fer t i l ize the m u s ical facu l ty . Th i s i s o n ly w h a tm igh t be expec ted

,for t h e re a re m a n y o t he r pos i t ive

fac tor s a n d c i rcumsta n ces o f m a te r i a l a n d geogra phical co n d i t io n wh i c h m u s t he m a sor t of equ ipo i seb efore we c a n get a “ n es t suffi c i e n t ly warm a n dwe l l prot ec ted for t h e l ay i n g o f t h e m u s ical eggs .These fac tors a n d c i rc ums ta n c e s co n n o t e

,n ot w h a t 1s

commo n l y cal l ed a “ m u s ica l a tm osph ere,

! mea n i n gdeveloped m u s ic al c o n d i t io n s

,bu t t h e m u c h s imp le r

a n d more e leme n ta ry fac tor s of ea rt h,a i r

,a n d wa te r .

I t i s qu i t e obv iou s tha t ( t h ough al l peop les areequal o r ig i n al ly a s m u c h for so n g a s for S peech) i f an a t io n i s p l aced so th a t for h al f t h e year i ts popu lat io n i s e i ther froze n (a s i n Sca n d in av i a) , or p arc hed

( a s i n Spa i n ) , or i n t i n y compar tm e n t s sep ara ted bymou n ta i n barr ier s ( a s In Swi tz er l a n d a n d Greece ) , o ron l a n d so bar r e n t h a t i t s popula t io n i s n eve r fa rabove t h e s tarvat io n l i n e (a s i n nort h er n Sco t l a n d a n dpar ts of Ru ss i a ) , or i n tow n s s u ch a s Lo n do n , 1 w heret here i s a n ab se n c e of su n l igh t a n d pu re a i r

,i t ca n n o t

d evelop t h e ph y s i cal n ec e s s i t i e s fo r m u s i cal cul tu r e .

I t m ay eve n b e th a t t h e n a t io n a l i n dex of we l l-be i n g1 London seem s t o h ave been a lmos t t h e on ly spo t in wh i c h

Wagne r w a s un ab l e t o wor k wi th ea se .


i s so low t h a t a suffi c i e n t ly l arge n umber of perso n sca n n o t b e re l ieved from phys ic al to i l t o form a profes s io na l m u s i cal c l as s .There m u s t b e

,a s I h ave sa id

, a n eq u ipo i se of

n a tu ral co n d i t io n s before m u s i cal deve lopm en t ca nbeg i n

,b u t

,i n s tudy i n g t hese (pos i t ive ) fac tor s , i t i s

i n t er e st i n g to n ot e how r igorou s a n d i n var i ab le i s t h eac t io n of t h e ( n ega t ive ) l aw of ex t e r ior iza t io n . Wefi n d

,i n deed

,n a t io n s a n d powe rs

,suc h as med i aeval

Rome,ideal l y s i tua t ed

,o n t h e m a t e r i a l s ide

,for t h e

p roduc t io n of m u s i c , a n d ac tu al ly suppor t i n g n umber sof m u s ic i a n s

,a n d ye t u n ab l e to p rodu c e n a t io n al

m u s i c . We fi nd o t h er n a t io n s,suc h as t h e Po rtu

guese , t h e seaboa rd D u tc h , a n d t h e E n gl i s h , sudden ly profi t i n g by t h e c h a n ged co n d i t io n s of t h emoder n wor ld

,so as to acq u i re e n o rmou s weal t h

ye t,l i ke med i aeval Rome

,u n ab l e to p rod u ce n a t ional

m u s ic . O n t h e o t he r ha n d,w e h ave sm al l com

mun it ie s,s u c h a s t h o se i n t h e va r iou s Germ a n a n d

A u s t r i a n S ta t e s of t h e seve n tee n t h a n d e igh t ee n t hce n tu r i e s , w hose p eop le , n e i t her

“ b le ss ed ! wi t hgrea t w eal t h

,n o r overw h e lmed by t h e d i s t rac t io n s of

Emp i re,we re t h e refore ab le to fou n d a n d perfec t a

n a t io n a l sc hoo l Of m u s i c .The seco n d fal s e ded u c t io n aga i n s t w h i ch I wi s h

to war n t h e reader i s t h a t t h e ac tual m a t e r i a l posse s s io n Of wor ld—power c a n re tard or p reve n t m u s i cald eve lopm e n t . Th a t t h i s i s a fal l acy ca n be see n froma co n s id era t io n o f t h e fac t t ha t m u s i c i s t h e resul t ofa n emot io n a l a n d a m e n tal p roce ss

,a n d the refore i t s

n a tural d eve lopm e n t ca n n o t be h i n de red exce p t by ahard- se t

,a n tago n i s t ic n a t io n al h ab i t e i t h e r of t h e

m i n d o r o f t h e emot ion s . I t i s no t,t h e n

,t h e m ere

h o ld i n g i n fee of so m a n y squ are m i le s o f t e rr i to ry ,o r t h e su bj ect io n of so m a n y m i l l io n al i e n s , b u t t h e

I I NATIONAL COMPAR I SONS 4 5

n a t io n al grasp i n g ou tward s i n t h e d i rec t io n of t he seobj ec t s w h ic h co n s t i tu t es t h e b ar to m u s i cal progres s . 1

W i th t h ese two prov i s io n s i n our m i n d s to gua rdu s aga i n s t h as ty ge n eral iza t io n s , we m ay take u p our

c h ar t for t h e t h i rd t ime , a n d e n deavou r , wi t h t h e a idof t h i s n ew fac tor, t o br i n g t he fac t s of m u s ica l a n dof n a t io n al h i s to ry i n to t h e i r t rue re l a t io n s h ip .

1 In t h i s c onn ec t i on i t i s a n in t e re s t ing spe c u l a t i on a s t o wh a tw i l l be t h e cou rse of m u s i c a l h i s t ory in a n Em p i re l i k e t h a t ofEn g land . By t h e m ere e x h a u s t i on of pos s i b i l i t i e s t h e t ime c an no tbe fa r off wh en t h e Em p i re w i l l rea c h a po in t wh e re t h e re ca n beno fu r t h e r e xpan s i on . G i ven s u c h a ca se , wh e re t h e n a t i on h a s a ton c e grea t wea l t h a nd t h e oppor t un i ty of pea cefu l refl ec t i on

,t h e

m u s i ca l re s u l t s s h ou ld be on a s ca l e of s t ran gen e s s a nd immen s i t yh i t he r to un k nown . On e m u s t

,howeve r

,con fe s s t h a t , t hough i t

may be pos s i b l e for t h e n a t i on t o come t o s ome s u c h pe r i od of

men t a l c on t en tmen t a nd con cen t ra t i on a s far a s i t s wh i t e Em p i rei s c on ce rn ed

,su c h a s ta t e of m i n d se em s fu ndam en ta l l y im poss i b l e

so l on g a s t h e anx i e t i e s i n vo l ved i n i t s d om in a t i on over a l i en ra ce srema i n .

CHAPTER I I I

TH E IN FLU ENCE OF WORLD - POWER ON MU S IC

P R E L IM INA RY

TH E reader m u s t fi r s t of al l rem ember t h a t,howeve r

fragm e n ta ry i s our k n owl edge of mu s i cal d eve lopme n t before t h e t ime of C h r i s t

,w e k n ow t h i s fac t

,

t h a t t h e Greeks p er h aps i n ve n t ed a n d cer ta i n lye l abora ted a m i n u t e system of theoreti ca l m us ic .Th i s sy s tem poss ib ly

,t ho ugh n ot p robab ly

,m ay h ave

bee n a mere “ paper sy st em w h i c h d iffered fromou rs i n preced i n g

,not fo l lowi n g , ac tual m u s ical

pra ct 1ce .

A t a n y ra t e t h e who le of Greek m u s i c,t h eo ry a n d

prac t i c e,p as sed w i t h t h e res t of G reek cu l tu r e i n to

t h e h a n d s Of t h e Rom a n s abo u t t h e m idd le of t h eseco n d ce n tu ry B. C . We are , t h erefo re , appare n t lyfaced by two d i ffere n t p rob lem s ; fo r, i n add i t io n t oe n q u i r i n g w hy su c h a n d suc h n a t io n s h a v e b ee n unab l e to deve lop th emse lve s m u s ica l ly 1n com para t ive lymoder n t imes

,w e a re fo rc ed to a s k h ow i t i s t h a t n o

p rac t ica l or t h eo re t i ca l adva n ce too k p l ace d u r i n g t hefi rs t 1 000 yea rs o r so of our e ra . Bu t

,h owever wide ly

d i ffere n t t he se two prob l em s appea r to b e a t fi r s t s igh t ,t h ey mu s t b e e s se n t i a l ly th e same p rob lem

,for t he

very s imp l e reaso n t h a t t h e fac to rs i n th e two ca sesca n n o t al te r a n d

,t h e refore

,u n le ss we are wi l l i n g to

CHA P. ] I I INFLUENCE OF WORLD-POWER 4 7

i n ve n t t h e wi ld exp l a n a t io n of a c ha n ged p sycho logyor p hys ique m t h e mod em wor ld , i t i s i n som e o ne

or o t h er of t h e se commo n fac tor s t h a t we m u s t s eeka so l u t io n of t h e prob l em .

I n order to d i scu s s t h i s q u es t io n from th e po i n t Ofv iew wh i c h I have al ready i n d ica ted -t h a t i s t o sayby mea n s of a compar i so n be twee n t h e n at io n al a n dt h e m u s i cal ac t iv i t i e s of a n y g ive n t ime—we m ayco n ve n ie n t ly d iv ide th e Ch r i st i a n era i n t o fou rper iods . The l im i t s of t h e se p er iod s ca n n o t

,of

cou rse,be s ta ted a rb i t rar i ly i n da t e s

,b u t i t i s impor

ta n t to no t i ce t h a t,t h ough t h ey are i n a se n se mere ly

a r t i fi c i a l l i n es of separa t i o n,ye t i n eac h per iod we

h ave a perfec t ly d i s t i n c t type of soc i ety based on a nequal ly d is t i n c t ty pe of n a t io n al i n te r ior iza t io n o r

ex te r ior iza t io n . The da t e s se l ected ar e n e i t h e rm u s ical da te s nor (exc ep t In one c ase ) pu re ly h i s to r i cald a te s

,b u t w h a t I m ay cal l Mu s i co- n a t io n al da te s :

t h a t i s to say,t h ey m ark t h e t imes a t abou t wh ic h

th e c ha rac t er i s t i c forces of t h e p er iod i n qu est io n fi r s tb eg i n to s how t h em se lves .These fou r p er iods ar e a s fo l low s

( I ) The p er iod of t h e Rom a n Se t t leme n t,from I

to 400 A .D .

( 2 ) The pe r iod of t h e Dar k Ages,from 400 to

1000 .

( 3) The M ed i aeval Per iod , from 1000 to 1 500 .

( 4 ) The Moder n Per iod , from 1 500 to t he p rese n tday .

( I ) TH E P E R IOD OF T H E ROMAN S ETT L EM E NT( I to 400 A D ) .

From th e ea r l i es t d ays of t h e Ch r i s t i an e ra dow nto t h e beg i n n i n g of t h e Da rk Ages Eu rope p rese n ted t h e appea ra n ce of a s i n gle

,l arge

,a rmed camp

,


of w h ic h t h e h eadqua r te r s- te n t wa s t h e c i ty of

Rome . I t s wal l s,wh ich

, 7 50 year s b efor e Ch r i s t ,w e re o n ly a s imp le pa l i sade e n c lo s i n g th e seve n h i l l so f Rome i t se l f

,h ad bee n co n t i n u al ly pu sh ed out

ward s u n t i l now t h ey occu p i ed a lo n g,i rregu la r l i n e

d raw n,on t h e sou t h by t h e coas t of Afr i ca

,on th e

w e s t by t he A t l a n t i c O cea n , a n d on th e eas t a n dn o r t h by a n e n o rmou s a rmy perm a n e n t ly e n cam pedi n a huge c h a i n of fort s . 1

I n s ide th e va s t c i rcum fer e n ce of t h is fro n t ier t h eEmp i re e n j oyed t h a t fa i r m ea su r e of prosp er i ty wh i c hRom e always a s su red to h er su bj ec t race s by h ereve n - h a n ded a n d compreh e n s ive sy s tem of j u s t i c e .

1 Th i s m i l i ta ry d i s pos i t i on—kn own a s t h e “ha rd s h e l l a nd softk e rn e l —wa s m od ifi ed , a t t h e momen t of con fl i c t w i t h t h eba rba r i an s i n t h e fi ft h cen t u ry A .D .

,in favou r of a sys t em by wh i c h

l a rge st r i k in g force s of c ra c k t roop s w e re h e ld i n re ad in e s s w i th”t h e e x t e rn a l C i rc l e of d efen ce . Th i s ch an ge m i rro red t h e n ew

t ype of n a t i on a l ou t loo k . Wh en i t wa s effe c ted t h e Old fron t i e rs ta t ion s became no t h in g bu t (wea k ) ou tpost s of Em p i re , a nd t h eywe re ga r r i s on e d by t h e wors t pa i d a nd l ea s t ca red for t roop s i nt h e a rmy . Th e grea t difli culty of i d en t ify in g p l ace -n am e s i n A s i aa nd Afr i c a ma k e s i t im poss i b l e t o a s c e r t a in how many of t h esea rmed pos t s we re i n e x i s t en c e a t a ny on e t ime , bu t t h e n umbe rm u s t h av e been ve ry la rg e , a s we kn ow th a t , on t h e Dan ub i anfron t i e r a l on e (from La k e Con s t an ce t o t h e Bl a c k Sea ) t h e re w e re ,be s i de s sma l l e r a nd l e s s ea s i l y re cogn i zed ou t post s

,a t l e a s t 1 1 5

impor tan t m i l i t a ry s ta t i on s . S im i l a r i n forma t i on i s a cce ss i b l e w i t hrega rd t o t h e d i spos i t i on of t roops in Afr i c a

,bu t of t h e two g rea t

m i l i ta ry prov i n ce s of “G e rman i a ” on t h e R h i n e fron t i e r weh ave n o kn owl edge beyon d a l i s t of t roop s se rv ing und e r thecomman d ing—officer (“ du x a t Ma i n z . Th e se adm in i s t ra t i vede ta i l s h ave been pre se rved to u s in t h e Noti ti a Digni ta fum,

a fi ft hcen t u ry offic i a l doc umen t g i v ing a n a ccou n t of t h e gre a t Office rs ofSt a t e

,t h e i r i n s i gn i a , en t o u rage , a nd prov i n ce s , a s w e l l a s t h e n am e s

o fC i v i l Se rvan t s a nd ofOffice rs command i ng Ca va l ry a nd I nfa n t ry .

Th e whol e documen t h a s been ed i ted by Bec k in g ( 1834 ) t h e rei s a n im por tan t MSS . copy in t h e Bod le i an wh i chha s been co l la t eda nd pub l i s h ed by a Ge rman , O t to Seec k , i n Be r l in .


a s a culm i n a t i n g mome n t of pa i n fu l ex ter ior iza t io n .

O n eac h s id e of t h e fro n t i er s i t s a n a n x iou s,wa i t i ng

m u l t i tude : t h e Rom a n wat c h i n g t h e Barba r i a n,a t

fi r s t from a co n t i n u al h ope o f fro n t i er rec t ifi ca t io ni n h i s ow n favou r , a n d l a te r o n w i t h t h e ever-prese n tfea r Of i n va s io n : t h e Barbar i a n gaz i n g bac k a t t h eRoma n

,w i t h a b l ind

,reck less de term i n a t io n to break

th rough t he cordo n a n d p l under h i s way to th e c e n treof t h e wor ld : o n t h e one s ide

,t h e b lood th i r s ty a n d

l u stfu l hope of gai n : on t h e o th e r,t h e n ervou s

ap pre h e n s io n t h a t comes to a se l f-c e n t red S ta t eswo l le n by i t s dom i n a t io n over al i e n race s

,a n d so

d i seased b eyo n d hope of r ecovery .

Thu s w e arr ive a t a t ime wh e n t h e swo rd i s,as i t

were,po i sed i n t h e ai r . Rome i s s t i l l Rome wi t h

t h e p ro sper i ty a n d w eal t h t h a t sh e h a s h eaped up a sa n i n c ide n t of h er m i l le n n i um of co nques t ; bu t , w he ns h e ar r ives a t t h e c u lm i n a t i n g po i n t of Emp i re

,we

fi n d h er,n o t ( as E n g l a n d m ay perh aps be fou n d )

w i t h a grea t a rmy of se t t lers peac eful ly deve lop ingh er t rad i t io n s a n d co n so l ida t i n g her power i n a l lpar t s of t h e wo r ld , b u t wi t h a n ac tual m i l i ta r y armye n gaged in r ep re ss i n g her h al f- tamed s ubj ec t s

,a n d

wi t h a po l i t ical sy s tem so i n el a s t i c as to b e u n ab l e tosa t i sfy eve n t h e most e lem e n ta ry a sp i ra t io n s of h ersubj ec ts .The co n seq u e n c e of t h i s u n im ag i n a t ive r ig id i t y o f

s y s tem was t h a t,t hough 111 t h e ful n e ss of t ime

Eu1 o pe h ad come to a long per iod of repose , i t waso n ly a so rt o f a n aes t he t ized a n d u n n a tu ra l s leep .

The Rom a n wa s,i nd eed , freed for t h e fi rs t t ime

i n a t hou sa n d yea r s from t h e n ecess i ty of d ra i n i n gaway h i s b es t e n erg i es 0 11 fore ig n co n qu es t ; bu th e exc h anged h i s fo rm er s l avery fo r a wor se ser v it ude . Fo r

,exhau s t ed a s he was

,he fou n d h imse l f

I I I INFLUENCE OF WORLD-POWER 51

compe l led,

no t o n ly to guard h i s Emp i r e fromex te r n al a ssa ul t

,bu t a t t h e same t im e to keep a

h eavy a n d s leeples s wa t c h over h i s own wide lysepara ted sub jec t s .Th u s to one lo n g per iod of s imp le ex t er ior iza t io n

from Rome ou tward s—“ succeeded a seco n d a n d morecomp lex per iod i n w h ic h th e Emp i r e a s a w ho lelooked a n x iou s ly a t t h e Barba r i a n beyo n d her fro n t ie rs

,

wh i le s h e h erse l f wa s wa tc h ed a s a n x iou s ly by th em as t e rs—m i n d s i n Rome . Th i s l a t t e r pe r iod wa s , asI h ave said

,a t ime of deep t ra n qu i l l i ty w i t h i n t h e

Emp i re,a n d

,i f m u s ic i t sel f had no t g ive n u s t h e

c lu e to t h e o ne p reve n t i ve fac to r i n i t s deve lopme n t,

we should h ave im ag i n ed tha t t h e re was no per iod i nt h e wo r ld ’ s h i s tory i n wh ic h we cou ld so co n fide n t lyloo k for a grea t d eve lopme n t o f t h e a r t . W i thou tt h a t c l ue we m igh t h ave expec ted t o fi n d som e o ne

or o ther of t he med i aeva l d i scover i es i n m u s i c , wh i c hwe could se t Off aga i n s t th e m a n y i l l us t r io u s n ames i nl i t era tu re . 1 As a m a t te r of fac t

,110 per iod was ever

l es s adapted for m u s ical deve lopme n t,a n d

,wi t h t h e

1 Th e wr i t e r s of t h i s pe r i od a re gen e ra l l y c ompa red ve ry un

fa vou ra b ly w i t h t hose of t h e Augu st an age . We m u s t no t,how

eve r,ove r loo k t h e fa c t t h a t

,wh a teve r t h e me r i t s of i nd i v i du a l

a r t i s t s,t h e pos t-A ugu s tan wr i t e r s a s a whol e e x h i b i t a n a c t i v i ty

,a

b read t h of ou t l oo k , a nd a va r i e ty of t op i c wh i c h rep re sen t t h e i rown t ime s j u s t a s com pl e t e ly a s t h e poe t ry of Ve rg i l a nd Ho ra cee x empl i fi e s t h e grea t d ays of Au gu s t u s . Th e l i s t Of pos t-Augu s t anwr i te rs down t o 400 A .D. i n c l u d e s, no t on l y su ch we l l - knownpoe t s

,h i s t or i an s

,sa t i r i s t s

,ph i l osoph e r s

,ch u rc hmen

,b i og raph e rs

,

j u r i s t s,a nd gramma r i an s , a s j u ven a l , t h e Pl i n i es, Sen ec a , M a r t i a l ,

Ta c i t u s,Pe r s i u s

,Su e ton i u s

,S i l i u s I ta l i en s

,A u son i u s

,Lu can

P r i sc i an, Q u i n t i l i an ,

Te r t u l l i an,U l p i an

,G a i u s

, Mac rob i u s ,Cl au d i an , Amm i an u s , S t . Augu s t i n e ; bu t a l so t h e n ame s of l e s skn own wr i t e r s d ea l in g w i t h s u c h t op i c s a s Su rvey i n g (Ba lbus,Hyg i n u s , Siculus Fla ccus) , E ng i n ee r in g (Fron t in us) , M i l i ta ryTa c t i c s (V eget ius) , Geography ( Pom p . M e la) , H u sban d ry (Pa l ladiusRut i l ius Ta u ru s a nd Aggen us U rbicus) , a nd Med i c in e (Ce l su s ,

52 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CHAP .

excep t io n of a few vagu e,doubtfu l r umou rs con

nected wi t h t h e n ame o f S t . Ambrose,

1 we h aven o th i n g .

To expec t a n y one of t h ese d i scover i es to haveocc u rred i n t h e day s of t h e Emp i re ma y s eem afa n ta s t i c d ream to t h e stude n t of h i s to r i cal fac t sbu t t he re was n ot h i n g a priori to h ave preven t edm u s i c m arc h i n g forward i n s t e p wi t h t h e ot h e rRom a n ac t iv i t i e s i n l i t e ratu r e

,arc h i tec tu re

,e n g i n ee r

i n g,sta tu a ry

,a n d wa rfare

,

2 n ot h i n g,t h a t i s to say

,

Scribon ius, a nd Th . P r i s c i an ) . I t seem s t h a t t h e n a t i on a l a t t i t u d eof ex t e r i or i za t i on a s s umed in Augu s t u s ’ s day a n i n t en se ly con eentra ted p i c t u re sq u en e s s wh i ch afforded ( a s in t h e d ays of ou r ow n

E l i za be t h ) a n i d ea l so i l for t h e p ropaga t i on of t h o se a r t s wh i cha re p r ima r i l y d epen den t on ex te rn a l im pre ss i on s . In t h e 400y ea rs t h a t fol l owed

,t h e m en ta l a t t i t u d e of ex t e r i or i za t i on offe red a

l e s s s u i ta b l e fi e ld,bec au se i t w a s e x ten d ed ove r a w i d e r a rea a nd

w a s t h e refore l e s s v i v i d . Th e re s u l t wa s a c e r t a i n h a rass ed,

fa t i g u ed , a nd some t ime s d e spond en t con d i t i on of m in d w i t h in t h eEm p i re

,wh i ch

,t oge t h e r w i t h t h e m u ch l a rge r s pread of t h e

Roman en e rg i e s,i s refl ec ted in t h e ca t a logu e of wr i te rs g i ven

a bov e .1 In t h e l a s t q u a r t e r of t h e fou r t h c en t u ry A .D .

Q I t i s common know l edge t h a t t h e Roman cu l t u re wa s a n

offs h oot from t h a t of t h e G ree k s,a nd i t i s t h e refore con s tan t ly

refe r red to a s be i n g on a d i s t i n c t l y lowe r p l an e . Whe t h e r t h i si s s o o r n o t

,t h e Roman s a c t u a l l y man aged t o exp re s s t h e i r

n a t i on a l gen i u s sa t i sfac to r i l y i n va r i ou s w ays —in poe t ry,prose

,

s cu l pt u re,a rch i te c t u re

,s c i en c e

,a nd a l l t h e t echn i ca l c raft s w h i ch

we re n e ce s s i t a t ed by t h e i r grea t Em p i re . In t h e i r poe t ry i t i st r u e t h a t t h ey ad he red somewh a t c l o se l y t o G ree k mode l s

,bu t

t h i s wa s c h i efly in ma t t e rs of de t a i l , a nd n o t h i ng ca n be moreu nm i s t a k ea b l e t h an i t s s t rong Roman tan g . Th i s i s ev i d en t

,not

on ly in t h e poe t ry of t h e Augu s ta n a nd pre-Au gu stan pe r i od s,

bu t a l so i n t h a t o f t h e “ s i l ve r age,

” whose wr i te r s we re ve ryoften n o t even I ta l i an s . In t h e o t h e r a r t s t h a t Ihav e m en t i on edt h e a c t i v i ty of t h e Roman s h a s been l e s s often c h a l l en ged

,a nd,

a s a ma t te r of fa c t,in t h e i r p ro se a nd t h e i r sc u l p tu re t hey in ven t ed

o r ad ap t ed a con s i s ten t a nd h i gh ly r i go rou s n a t i on a l s ty l e wh i l ei n a rc h i t ec t u re , s c i en ce , a nd eng i n ee r i n g t h ey we re , of co u rse

,

m INFLUENCE OF WORLD-POWER 53

bu t t h e one fac to r t h a t t h e w h o l e wor ld wa s fac i n g ,no t i n wa rd s, bu t o u twa rd s ; a n d i t i s o n ly whe n w etake th i s fac tor i n to accou n t t h a t we ca n u n der s ta n dwhy th i s per iod was so l i t t l e ad apt ed fo r m us icaldeve lopme n t , a n d w hy , a s a ma t te r of fac t , n om u s ical deve lopm e n t of a n y so r t too k p l ace .

( 2 ) TH E P E R IOD OF TH E DARK AG ES (400 TO

1000 A D ) .

To t h i s fi r s t per iod succeeds a seco n d of i n fi n i t ecomp lexi ty h i s tor ical ly

,bu t

,from ou r po i n t of v iew

,

of ex t reme s imp l i c i ty . The sword , po i sed so lo n gi n t h e a i r

,ha s a t l e n gth fal le n

,a n d t h e fi rs t ba r

ba ria n s h ave m ade t h e i r way i n to I taly .

1

Then fo l low s a n e ra of tu rmo i l so ex t rao rd i n a rya s to be u n pa ral le led in h i s to ry .

2 The w ho l e wor ld

t h e p i on ee r s of E u rope . In m u s i c a l on e,j udg i n g from t h e l i t t l e

we know of t h e s t a t e of G ree k m u s i c a bou t 400 B .C . ,a nd i t s sta t e

a t Rome i n St . Ambro se ’ s t ime (400 AD ) , we c a n say th a t t h eyd i d n e x t t o n o t h i ng . Th e i r gen e ra l a t t i t u d e t owa rds i t seem s t oh ave co i n c i ded

,a t a ny ra te t o some degree , w i t h t h a t of t h e a v e rage

n in e t een t h cen t u ry En g l i s hman ; a nd t h e re spec ta b l e i nd i v i d u a lwho d ep lored t h e d egen e ra t e m u s i ca l t enden c i e s of h i s t ime app ea rst o h a ve ex i s t ed even i n t h o se fa r-off d ays . See Hora ce ’ s c om p l a in ti n t h e J r; Poeti to of wh a t w e s h ou ld c a l l no i sy mode rn orch e st ra t i on

,

” T i b i a non ut n u n c,

” e t c .1A . D.

2 Th i s pe r i od of wor ld-movemen t , o r, a s t h e Ge rman s ca l l i t ,fo l k -wan de r in g ,” l a s ted for some 500 o r 6 00 ye a r s . I t i n c l u ded( I ) t h e ma rch of t h e H un s (Mon go l s) in t o E u rope by a sou t hwe s te r ly rou t e from A s i a (A t t i l a d efea t ed a t Chal on s t h e i rin va s i on of t h e Byzan t in e Em p i re ( repe l l ed by B e l i sa r i u s( 2 ) Th e movemen t s of t h e Os t rogo t h s from S ou t h Ru s s i a (4 )a l on g t h e l in e of t h e D an u be a nd t h en in a s ou t h e r l y d i rec t i oni n t o I ta ly , a nd (h) s ou t hwa rd a c ro s s t h e B l a c k Se a t o Con s tant inop le, a nd so in t o A s i a M inor (Odoa ce r d efea t ed by Th eodore493, h i s su cc essor s com pe l led by B e l i sa r i u s t o l eav e I ta ly) . (3)Th e confl i c t of t h e H un s w i t h t h e O s t rogoth s in Sou t h Ru ss ia ;

MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH AP .

moves u n ea s i ly,l i ke a h eavy s leep er gradu al ly

awake n ed . Na t io n s a n d tr ibe s sudde n ly s tar t upto m arc h

,swo rd i n h a n d

,ac ro s s two co n t i n e n t s .

From th e u t te rm os t par t s of t h e ear t h t h ey com ei n a n ever—e n d i n g st ream , Va n dal a n d O s t rogoth ,Sarac e n a n d M o n go l

,al l dr ive n forwa rd i n fra n t i c

co n fu s ion by t h e b l i n d w h i p s of des t i n y . Som em ake for Rome or Co n s ta n t i n op l e i n lo n g m a rch est h a t l as t fo r n ear ly a ce n tu ry : o t h ers , fee l i n g o n lyt h e goad a n d h av i n g n e i th e r c u n n i n g to p l a n n ors tr e n gth to a c h ieve

,r i se u p a n d figh t t h e i r way

a im less ly from o ne pa r t of Eu rope to a n o t h er .I n t h i s way w h o le n a t io n s sp r ing up

,rem a i n for

a mome n t i n s igh t as s i n i s te r a n d b loody appar i t io n s,

a n d t h en sudde n ly d i sappea r . Suc h n a t io n s a re

t h e s u b sequ en t u n i on of t h e two peopl e s a nd t h e i r a t ta c k on t h eVi s i go t h s i n E a s te rn H un ga ry a nd Ruman i a . (4) Th e i r r u p t i onof t h e V i s i go t h s a nd Van d a l s i n t o I t a l y (A la r i c en te rs Rome(5) Th e we s twa r d w an de r ings of t h e (Ch r i s t i an i zed ) V i s i go t h si n t o G a u l a nd Spa i n beg in n i ng in 4 1 5 a nd end in g i n 6 2 1 w i t ht h e compl e t e a b so r p t i on of Spa i n e x cep t i ts n or t h -we s t co rn e r( t h e Su ev i ) . ( 6 ) Th e ove r t h row of t h e i r Em p i re by t h e Sa ra cen s

,

who m ove from A ra b i a p rope r ( a bou t 6 40) t h rou gh so u t h e rnA s i a M i n or

,Egyp t

,n or t h e rn Afr i ca , i n t o S i c i ly , Spa in ,

a nd t h esou t h o f Fran ce ( defe a ted a t t h e B a t t l e o f Tou rs , 7 32 , by Ch a r le sM a r te l

,t h e Fra n k i s h l e ade r ) . ( 7 ) Th e i r regu l a r m ov emen t s o f

t h e Van d a l s ove r a n a re a bound ed by t h e D a n u be,t h e E l be

,t h e

G uada lq u i v e r, a nd Roman C a r t h age ( in N or t h Afr i ca) (Gen se r i cs a c k s Rome (8) Th e i n va s i on s o f t h e Lomba rd s , fi rs t in aso u t h e r l y d i re c t i on t o t h e Dan u be , t h en d u e w e s t a nd sou t h i n t oI ta l y ( s i x t h cen t u ry ; d efea ted a nd t h e i r k i ngdom end ed i n t h ee i gh t h cen t u ry by P ep i n a nd Ch a rl em agn e ) . (9 ) Th e w and e r ing sa nd c onqu e s t s o f t h e Noun a n s ov e r a n a i e a bou nded on t h e n or t hby t h e Sh e t l a n d s a nd N o rway a nd Sw ed en

,on t h e e a s t by t h e

Dn e ip er, on t h e 11 e s t by E n gl an d a nd No rin a ndy, on t h e sou t hby S i c i l y ( n i n t h a nd t en t h c en t u r i e s ) . ( 1 0) Th e sma l l e r s o u t h e r l ym ovemen t s of Fran k s a nd B u rgu n d i an s i n t h e fift h cen t u ry . ( 1 1 )Th e i nc u r s i on s of the An g l e s a nd Sa x on s we s twa rd i n t o Eng la ndin t h e fi ft h cen t u ry .

111 INFLUENCE OF WORLD -POWER 55

p erh ap s t he more i n teres t i n g to u s,becau se i n t h em

w e ca n see how com p le te ly t h e idea of pu rpose les sex ter ior iza t io n h ad se ized t h e im ag i n a t io n of m a nk i n d . I n a word , t h e e ra of t h e d ark ages wa s t h egrea t i l l u st rat ive era of al l t ho se fo rces w h i c h h i n derm u s i ca l ar t . The h i s to ry of t h e ea r l i e r (A rya n )m igra t io n s i s k n ow n t o u s o n ly by et h n o log ica l a n dph i lo log i cal gu esswork

,b u t i n t h i s

,t h e sec o n d

k n ow n,m igra to ry per iod of t h e world w e h ave t h e

deta i led h i story,n o t mere ly of a n id ea l ash ed i n to

pa ss io n , bu t of t he pa ss io n i t se l f tak i n g ac tualphys ical sh ape i n va s t n a t io n a l movem e n ts a n dwa n der i n gs . 1

The resu l t i s a co n fu sed a n d p i t i ab le w el t e r of

co n que st a nd reco n q u e s t,i n c u r s io n a n d re t rea t

,

m a ssac re a n d re tal i a t io n w h i c h ce n t re s ro u nd,—no t

one c i ty a s i n t he great d ay s of Rome , n o r 1ounda doze n n a t io n s as In our own t ime —bu t rou n da m ul t i t ude of detac hed po i n ts

,eac h o n e of w h i c h

ex i s ts by v i rt u e of som e adva n tageo u s phys i cale n dowme n t of defe n c e or offe n c e .

Thu s,eve n tu al ly

,em erges t h e idea of t h e c i t y

s ta t e l ed a n d ru l ed ( for h i s own good ) b y pr i n c e ,b i s hop , or n ob lem a n . Thu s

,too

,u n d er t h e com

pe l l i n g m igh t or wi sdom of som e one su perm a n ,a n umber Of t he se c i ty s ta te s a re ea s i ly u n i ted i n toloo se groups

,a n d a s eas i ly d i su n i t ed w h e n the

m as terfu l gu id a n ce i s wi t h d raw n To su c h groupswe of to—day co n ve n i e n t ly app ly th e word n a t io n

,

bu t i t m u s t b e rem ember ed t h a t t h e word,i n t h e i r

ca se , doe s no t carry i t s p rese n t mea n i n g of ide n t i ty1 Th e e a r l i e s t i r ru p t i on of S cy t h i an s i n t o I n d i a seem s t o h a v et a ken p l a ce j u s t before t h e Ch r i s t i an e ra . N or t h e rn I n d i a w a sfi rs t ove r—run by th e H un s a t abou t t h e t ime wh en t h ey bega n t opre s s on the bounda r i e s of E u ropean c i v i l i za t i on . ( See B am pfy ld eFu l l e r , Studio; gf l fldimz life a nd rentiment, ch ap t e r i v . )

MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM C HAP .

i n l a n guage,t rad i t io n s

,a n d ideal s . The i r eq u i l ibr i um

i s,i n fac t

,u n s tab le ; th e i r fro n t i er s va ry co n t i n u a l ly ,

a n d,i n commo n w i t h t h e re s t of Eu rope

,t h ey a re in

a s ta t e of flux .

Th e po i n t t ha t co n cer n s u s most i s t h a t th erear e n ow , n o t o ne or two

,bu t some h u n dred s of

sm al l c i t ie s , eac h wa tc h i n g i t s n e ighbou r a n d kee n lyawar e of i t s own pos s ib i l i t ie s i n th e way of fu tu r eem p i re . The idea of a s i n gle c i ty vo l u n tar i lysubord i n a t i n g i t s i n t e res ts to t h ose of a n o the r fort h e sake of t he i r j o i n t we l fa re h a s scarc e ly d awn ed .

Ci t ies whose d i s ta n c e from t h e ce n t ral po i n t of

Ch r i s t i an i ty i s o n ly t h a t of a few day s ’ m arc hco n t i n ue to ex i s t

,perh aps for ce n tu r i e s

,w i t h i n s ight

of eac h o th e r ’ s wal l s,a n d ye t u n ab le to com e to

a n y n eare r term s of fr ie n d sh i p tha n t ho se wh i chb i n d t h e Red I n d i a n to t he w h i te se t tl er—t h e fearof co ld stee l .Every l i t t l e capta i n who ha s h acked out h i s r igh t

to t he t i t le of Com rade or“ Leader s i t s beh i n d

h i s wal l s eye i n g t he h i l l - for t oppos i te h im i n t h eh ope t h a t som e l u c ky m urde r or who le sale b u rgl arym ay cha n ge h i s ra n k to t h a t of “ F i rs t Ma n or

Ru ler . ” 1 To u s , far r emoved from t h e care s a n dpreoccupa t io n s of t h e t ime , t h e s i tua t io n s eem sdep lorab l e a n d pr eve n tab l e

,bu t

,i n j udg i n g t h e i r

s ta n dard s , we m u s t no t forge t t ha t w e are,a s i t

were , look i n g bac k ac ro ss t he ce n tu r i es t h rough t h ew ro n g e n d of t h e te lescope , a n d th a t t h e o n ly realdifl k ren ce be twee n u s a n d t h em i s t ha t we h avebee n ab le to scramb le up

— phys i cal ly—to a s l igh t lyh igher po i n t of v i ew

,a n d th a t t herefo re we h ave a

la rger fi e ld of v i s io n . To t h e te n t h ce n tu ry Eu ropea n t h e for t ified c i ty

,wi th i t s fiv e or t e n “ t h ou sa n d

1 “Come s ,” D u x,

” P r i n c eps,

”Rex.

58 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CHA P .

of b lood a n d fi re,bu t a t t h e al t ered co n d i t io n s

produc ed by the sum of t h e se eve n t s . Lo n g beforet h e e n d of t h e Da rk Ages

,Rome had lear n t th e

l e sso n t h a t t he st ro n g r igh t a rm,so fa r from be i n g a

n eces s i ty,wa s Oft e n a h i n dra n ce to Emp i re . We

acco rd i n gly find h e r s t i l l t h ro n ed on t h e M ed it e r ra n ea n

,b u t t h ro n ed

,i n comp ar i so n w i t h h e r fo rmer

s ta t e,almost u n a rm ed

, yet s t ro n ger by t h e pow e r ofh er b ra in t h a n a n y Cae sa r had bee n ab le to m ake herby t h e m igh t of h i s l eg io n s . How m arvel lou s ly sh eemp loy ed t h i s bra i n - power i n o rd er to keep clo se h ergra sp 0 11 t he d e s t i n ies of t h e wor ld ; how n ar rowlysh e wa tc h ed Eu rope for her own

,a n d for Eu rope ’ s

,

good ; 1 w h a t i n fi n i te cu n n i n g a n d cau t io n s h e sh owedi n a t tac k w h a t pa t ie n c e a n d de te rm i n a t io n i n defea thow every pos s ib i l i ty a n d every c i rcumsta n ce wa sp rov ided fo r ; how ,

i n a wo rd,h av i n g exc h a n ged

a n u n su cce s sfu l Caesa r for a succ e s sful Pope,

2 s h ep repa red

,by sh eer sub t l e ty of bra i n a n d fi n ger

,to

rega i n a n d remould to app are n t perm a n e n ce a n em p i rew h i c h sh e h ad n o t bee n ab le to ho ld by b lood a n di ro n

,ca n n o t b e mor e th a n h i n t ed h e re . I t i s

e n ough to say t ha t,by th e e n d of t h i s p er iod

,s h e

1 Th i s c a n be se en in t h e pu b l i s h ed e x t ra c t s from t h e Papa lRegrt ta , a se r i e s o f l edge rs a nd d ay - boo k s (n umbe r i n g 2 0 1 6

vo l ume s ) i n wh i c h we re pos ted u p t h e whol e of t h e d i p loma t i cc or re s pon d en c e

,re co rd s o f a ppo i n tmen t s

,i n d u l t s

,a nd d i s pen sa

t i on s,a s we l l a s t h e m i n u te s o f t h e Pa pa l Co u r t . Th e ea r l i e s t

vo l ume s of t h e se n t’

ffd l ’ozztifirzzm Roma /107 71 771,d ea l i n g w i t h t h e

pe r i od u n d e r d i sc u ss i on,a re l o s t bu t t h o se s t i l l in ex i s t en ce da t e

from t h e t ime o f Pope I nn ocen t III . ( A . D . a nd con t in u e t ot h e end o f t h e s i x teen t h cen t u ry . F rom t h em w e ge t a n amaz i ngi de a o f t h e we e k l y

,a lm os t da i l y comm u n i c a t i on t h a t t oo k p l a ce

be twee n R ome a nd h e r va ssa l—s ta t e s .2 It wa s t h e fou n d i ng of Con s ta n t i nop l e on t h e s i te of t h ean c i en t By z a n t i um (AD . 330 ) t h a t fi r s t gav e t h e b i s h ops of Romet h e po s s i b i l i ty of g rea t l y I n c re a sed pow e r

,bu t a l ready ( in 350 )

I I I INFLUENCE OF WORLD -POWER 59

wa s i n h er old,u n iq ue pos i t io n i n E u rope

,pu t t i n g

i n to p rac t ice th e le sso n s w h i c h sh e h ad lear n t d u r i ng6 00 years of i n tr igue a n d b lood sh ed .

(3) TH E M EDIA EVA L P E R IO D ( 1000 TO 1 500 A D ) .

The l i n e of d iv i s io n be twee n th e seco n d a n d t h i rdper iod s i s m u c h less c lea rly m arked t h a n t h a t be twee ne i t h er th e fi r s t a n d seco n d o r t h e t h i rd a nd fou r t h .

We ca n n o t l abe l t h e mome n t of c h a n ge w i t h t hen ame of a n y ca tas t roph e or d i scovery w hose fa rreach i n g effec t s—a s i n t h e ca s e of t h e b arba r i a ni n road s a n d t h e voyage of Co lumbu s w mould t h eh i s to ry of t h e su cc eed ing ce n tu r i es .Nevert h e l ess we a re ab le to t race i n t h i s per iod t he

grow t h of a n ew n a t io n al o u t look,brough t abou t by

t h e co n t i n u a l s low a sce n da n cy o f t h e o ne type offorc e

,t h e i n te r ior iz i ng

,over t h e o t h e r

,t h e ex te r ior

iz i n g . Suc h a profou n d c h a n ge in t h e m e n tal a t t i tudeof Eu r ope could n o t be begu n

,m u c h less carr i ed ou t ,

i n a few years . I n deed,t he con fl ic t b etwee n t h e two

type s of fo rce—t h e m u s ic—fo rb idd ing a nd th e m u s icfo ste r i n g—beg i n s w e l l 0 11 t h e o th e r s ide of the l i n e ,a n d co n t i n u e s fa r i n to t h e Midd le Age s .The fac t t h a t i s of importa n c e to u s , however , i s

t h a t E u rope i s grad ual ly coo l i n g OE afte r 6 00 year sof vo l ca n i c ac t iv i ty

,a n d th a t

,i n t h i s process of cool1ng

OE, sh e fu s es toget h er rac e wi t h race , a n d leaves 1nh er st i l l fl u id m as s l i t t l e h a rd k n o t s or co res wh i chwil l l a te r on grow i n t o w h a t we now cal l “ n a t io n s .The process i s

,a s I h ave sa id

,very s low

,a n d t h e

m a s s i s s t i l l flu id ; eve n t h e grea t Power s of t h et h ey we re in a pos i t i on t o v i e wi t h th e im pe r i a l h o u sehol d i nm agm ficen ce of re t i n u e a nd a ppo i n tmen t s (Amm i an u s x x v i i . 3J e rome , t om . i . p . Th e re s t r i c t i ve l aws of Va l en t i n i and i sa l lowed bequ e s t s t o t h e c le rgy

,a pr i v i l ege enj oyed by roterdoter

io’o/orum

,mzmi

,et a ur ig a e et reorto


ea r ly Midd le Ages—su c h as t h e Ca r lov i n g i a n a n dHo ly Rom a n Emp i res—ar e l i t t le more t ha n loose

,

u n s tab le group i n gs of subo rd i n a te S tat e s .We m u s t

,however

,n o te two impor ta n t po i n t s .

F i r s t , t h e who l e c h arac t e r of n a t io n a l ex ter io r iza t io nha s c h a n ged . I t i s n o lo n ger 1 a n ac tual p hys icalm a rc h i n g—ou t of a comp l e te peop le d e t erm i n ed t oforce i t s way to a n ew set t l i n g-grou n d . I t i s now

n o t h i n g bu t a ser i es of fora ys co n duc ted on a sm al lo r a l a rge sc al e

,a n d ex t e n d i n g ove r e i t h e r a s hor t o r

a lo n g per iod . I n a n y c ase th e rad ical d iffe re n ce i st h e ac k n owledged exi s te n ce of a c e n t re or n uc leu sfrom wh ichevery l i t t l e arm ed ba n d se t s out , a n d tow h i ch i t i n t e n ds to wi t hdraw . B u t i t i s no t o n lyt h e i n vader s who fee l t h e ex i s t e n ce of t h i s c e n t raln u c leu s ; i t i s al so t h e i n vaded . H ere w e ge t aseco n d importa n t fac t—th e fi rs t feeb le b eg i n n i n gs ofa n ac tu al p roc e ss of i n ter io r iza t io n

,t ha t i s to say

,of a

n a t io n tu r n i n g i n wa rd s 011 i t se l f a n d comme n c i n g tod eve lop i t s e l f soc i a l ly a n d po l i t i cal ly w i t ho u t r efere n c eto ex t e r n a l fac tor s .I t i s somew h ere i n t h i s vagu e t ime—pe rh ap s

betwee n 900 a n d 1 000— th a t t h e fi rs t a n d grea t e s t ofal l d eve lopm e n t s i n m u s i cal h i st ory take s p l ac e—t h ed i scovery of two—par t s i n g i n g . Th i s d i scovery , w h i c hp recedes a n d com preh e n d s wi t h i n i t se l f t h e poss ib i l i tyof al l l a t e r i n ve n t io n s a n d d eve lopme n t s

,i s too o fte n

m ade t h e subj ec t of id l e j es t a n d compar i so n but, i n

orde r to real ize i t s fu n d ame n ta l impor ta n ce,we m u s t

no t V iew i t from t he s ta n dpo i n t o f our own ce n tu ry,

b u t from t h a t of t h e c e n tu ry before w h i c h i t occu rred .

I t i s t ru e t h a t t h e n,a s now

,t h e a ccidenta l co inc i

d e n ce of vo ic e s s i n g i n g or sho u t i n g m u s t h ave b ee ncommo n bu t t h er e was abso l u te ly no t h i n g a p r iori

1 I om i t t h e que s t i on of Rome for the m omen t .

I I I INFLUENCE OF WORLD-POWER 6 1

to sh ow t h a t t hes e c h a n ce i n te r sec t io n s of speec h or

so n g could b e m ade t h e ba s i s of a n ew a n d compl exform of h um a n express io n , or , i n deed , t h a t t h ey cou ldbe u t i l ized at a ll i n a n y sor t of ar t . To a Eu ropea nof t he Dark Age s su c h a n id ea m u s t h ave appeareda s fa n tast i c a d ream a s i t wou ld be to u s i f w e wererequ i red to fo resee t h e deve lopme n t of a n ew a r t fromth e s imu l ta n eou s rec i ta t io n of two poem s

,o r from th e

h aphaza rd comb i n a t io n of perfumes,or from t he

s h ift ing movem e n t s of t h e kale idoscope,o r from ou r

se n se of t h e va ry i n g re l a t io n sh ips b etwee n t he p l a n e t s .The discovery

,t h e n

,of D i s—ca n t 1 i s o n e of t h e

grea t e s t s t ep s fo rwa rd ever take n by t h e hum a n m i n d .

I t i s no t to be compared wi t h su c h a mecha n i cali n ve n t io n a s t h a t of t h e locomot ive , bu t ra t her— ifcompa r i so n i s p os s ib le—wi t h some su c h fu n dame n tald i scovery a s t h a t of t h e whee l . I n bo th ca se s t h ed i scovery wa s probab ly n o t t h e work of on e m a n

,of

one grou p of me n , or eve n Of one age,b u t wa s

ach i eved by t h e s low eEort of m a n y me n a n d m a n yages afte r a despera t io n of pa i n ful t h ough t . Bu tt h ough w e ca n n ot e i th er ac tual ly da t e t h i s d i scoverywi t h a defi n i t e year , o r a sc r ibe i t to a n i n d iv id ual , i tprese n t s i t se l f to u s a s t h e subj ec t of t h ree broadh i s to r i cal co n n ec t io n s I ) t h e d i scovery was not m aded u r ing t h e p reced i n g 1000 years of Ch r i s t i a n a n d barba r i a n co n fl i c t

, ( 2 ) i t w a s m ade a s soo n as t h e fi rs tb eg i n n i n gs o f n a t io n al se t t l eme n t a n d s tabIl1ty appearedi n Eu rope ; (3) our ear l ie s t k n owledge o f i t s h is t o rycom es , c h arac te r i s t ical l y e n ough , from a F lem i n g .

We have th e n go t so far 111 ou r m u s ical h i s to ry ast he sowi n g of t h e seed . B u t i t i s n o t to b e supposed

1Wh i c h wa s d eve loped l a te r i n t o t h e recogn i z ed sc i en ce of

Organ um .

”

2 H ucba ld,fl . c i rca 900 .

6 2 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH AP

t h a t such a t e n d er flowe r a s m u s i c wa s to b u r s t for t hl u xu r i a n t l y i n t h e c h i l l i n g a tmosph ere of t h e ear lyMidd le Ages . I t wa s

,however

,n o lo n ge r gover n ed

by m ere ly n ega t ive co n d i t io n s,a n d t h e pec u l i a r i n tere s t

of t h i s p e r iod i s t ha t i n i t w e fi rs t fi n d t h e i n exorab lework i n gs of t h e ex ter ior iz i n g (a n d th erefor e m u s ical lyu n deve lop i n g) h ab i t of m i n d s ide by s id e wi t h th ei n t e r io r iz i n g (a n d t h erefore m u s i cal ly d eve lop i n g)a t t i tud e . Th a t t h e form er wa s t h e genera l Eu ropea nh ab i t of m i n d d u r i n g t h i s pe r iod i s a n u n do ubtedfac t

,b u t i t wa s now o n ly genera l no t univ ersa l , a n d

i t add s p iqua n cy to ou r s tudy wh e n w e ob serve t h a tt h e n at io n s who fi rs t d evoted t h e i r n a t io n a l e n e rg i e si n ward s

,a n d w ho appea red t h e l ea s t l i ke ly (on o t h e r

grou n d s) to d eve lop t h e a r t , ve t ac tu al ly d i d so ;

wh i l e t h e wor ld—powe r who alo n e (from m a te r i a lc i rcumsta n ces) seemed c apab l e of a grea t ar t i s t i cadva n ce r em a i n ed st er i l e for n ear ly 6 00 year s .I m u s t here som ewh a t mod i fy

,o r ra t h e r add to ,

m y fo rmer sta teme n t t ha t i n t h i s pe r iod t h e w ho l ec h arac t e r o f n a t io n al Eu ropean ex te r ior iza t io n h adch a n ged

,

” for,i n v i ewing th e h i s to ry of t h i s per iod

,

we ca n see two s tream s,a s i t were

,flowi n g p aral l e l to

eac h o t h er,bu t i n Oppos i te d i rec t io n s . The fi rs t of

t he se two c u r r e n t s i s t he Papacy , t h e seco n d th e re s to f Eu rope .

Seve ral h u n dred y ear s before t h i s per iod bega n,t h e

Pap ac y h ad seen t h e poss ib i l i ty of a wor ld-wideex t er ior iza t io n fou n ded

,n o t u po n a rm s

,

1 b u t u po n1 Th e q u e s t i on Of t h e t em pora l powe r

,wh a t eve r i t s h i s t or i c a l

im po rt a n c e,n eed n o t d e t a i n u s h e re . Th e Papa cy u n dou b ted ly

e x e rc i sed ve ry com p l e te powe rs o f go ve rnmen t t h rou ghou t E u rop ea t t h e beg i n n i n g of t h e M i d d l e Age s . A t t h e t ime of t h e fou r thCru sad e ( 1 2 04 ) t h e a c t u a l C h u rch -S ta te s ra n r i g h t a c ros s c en t ra lI t a l y i n a n i r regu l a r ob l on g

,a nd t h en rea ch ed a s fa r n o rt h on t h e

Ad r i a t i c c oa s t a s t h e G ulf of Ven i ce .

I I I INFLUENCE OF WORLD -POWER 6 3

b ra i n s a n d lo n g befo re t h e re s t ofEu rope h ad pa ssedou t of t h e e leme n tal s ta te of savagery s h e h ad l a idherp l a n s for t h e dom i n io n of Eu ro pe . Th u s we see hergo i n g from st re n gt h to s t re n gt h

,swi ft ly a n d co n

sc iou sly adopt i n g a n a t t i tude of ex te r ior iza t io n wh i c ht h e res t of Eu rope wa s s low ly a n d u n co n sc io u s l y d i sca rd i n g . I n t h i s com par i so n

,however

,i t m u s t n o t

b e overlooked t h a t t h e two typ es of ex ter ior iza t io nare d i s t i n c t . O n th e o n e h a n d i t wa s a p u re ly me n taltype whi c h Rome wa s adop t i n g 0 11 t h e o t h e r i t wa sa p u re ly p hys i cal type w h i c h t h e re st o f Eu rop e wasd i scard i n g . I t was a s i f Rome a n d t h e res t of t h ewor ld were ru n n i n g a race

,s tar t i n g from th e same

po i n t a n d mov i n g i n oppo s i te d i rec t io n s . How m u c hgrea t e r was t h e gro u n d cove red b y Rome 1n t he ea r l ie rs tage s m ay b e ga t hered from the fac t t h a t sh e h adreac h ed her grea t culm i n a t i n g po i n t o f powe r a t at ime 1 whe n E u rope a s a w ho l e h ad progre s sed sol i t t l e i n t h e d i rec t io n of i n te r ior iza t io n th a t t he o n l ypr i n c ip le wh ic h cou ld be m ade i n te r n a t io n al ly in te ll ig ib l e to h er wa s a pr i n c ip le ba sed so le ly 0 11 t h eco n trary idea of ex t er ior iza t io n .

2

We h ave t h e n t he spec tac l e of two co n t ra ry typesof evo l u t io n 0 11 t h e o n e h a n d

,Rome

,q u i c k to adap t

1 In t h e t ime of Pope In n ocen t I I I .

,1 1 98.

2 Th e fi rs t Cru sad e wa s p rea c hed by U rban i n 1 09 5, bu t i t wa snot t i l l afte r t h e secon d ( 1 1 38) t h a t t h e movem en t rece i ved t h eoffic i a l s u ppor t of Rome . Th e whol e movem en t w a s rea l l y a se r i e sof be l a t ed n a t i on a l e x t e r i o r i z a t i on s

, wh i c h h a d t h e i r beg i n n i ngsou t s i de Rome

,a nd wh i ch were l a rge l y ba sed

,n o t o n re l i g i on or

mo ra l i t y,bu t 011 i d ea s of wor ld -powe r . Th e ofli c i a l pa t ron age

wh i c h Rome ex t en ded t o t h e movemen t im p l i ed a n a t t i t u d e of

m i n d ou t of wh i c h sh e h ad l on g s i n ce grown,a nd wh i c h wa s

,a s a

ma t te r of fa c t,on l y forced on h e r by t h e re s t of Eu rope a s a con

d i t i on w i tho u t wh i c h She cou l d no t h a ve re t a i n ed h e r s u prema cy .

A s a re su l t t h e Cru sad e s we re u n i fi ed a nd t h e i r Obje c t s mad e pa r t ia l l y mora l a nd re l i g i o u s , bu t we m u s t n ot ove r l oo k t h e fa c t t h a t

6 4 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CHA P .

bygo n e forc e s to h er c h a n ged poss ib i l i t ies , r eco ns truct ing (wi t h appare n t succ ess) t h e o ld wor ld i n t h en ew 0 11 the ot h e r

,t he rest o f Eu rop e

,sca rc e ly ye t

awa r e t h a t a n y ch a n ge i s i n p rogress,e n deavou r ing

wi th i n fi n i t e d iffi cu l ty ( a n d appa re n t wa n t of success)to t h row off t h e n igh tm are of t he Dar k Ages a n d r i seto t h e l igh t of a n ew co n cep t io n . 111 t h e se two

oppo s i n g a t t i tude s of m i n d we see t h e rea so n s ( 1 )w hy Rome

,of al l p l aces i n Eu rop e t h e mos t id eal ly

c ircum s ta 11ced —i i1 po i n t of weal t h—for t h e d eve lopme n t of m u s ic

,produced n ot h i n g a n d ( 2 ) why t h e

seed of m u s i c,b low n hi t h e r a n d t h i t h er a ll over

Eu rope,co u ld ye t o n ly fi n d germ i n a t i n g ground in

two t i n y pa t c h es of so i l,E n gl a n d a n d F l a n ders .

To E n gl a n d wa s re served th e ho n ou r of m ak i n gth e fi r s t feeb l e s t ep s i n m u s i cal progre ss

,a n d i t i s to

E n g l a n d t h a t w e s ho uld n a tu ral l y look fo r t h e ( nowalmost eff aced) t rac es of t hese foot s tep s

,for i t wa s

wi t h i n th e n arrow bou n da r i e s of h er grey sea s t h a tme n fi r s t l ea r n t to dwel l t ogeth e r i n secu r i ty a n d tobu i ld up a n a t io n a l sy s tem of fr eedom a n d j u s t ic e foral l . I t was i n her i so l a t i o n t h a t t h e m i n d s Of me nfi rs t b ega n t o tu r n i n ward s on t h e ma n y obst i n a teque st io n i n gs t h a t a r is e i n m a n ’s d eal i n gs wi t h m a n

,

a n d i t wa s from her shore s t h a t Eu rop e fi rs t h ea rdth e vo ice of a n a t io n c ry i n g ou t , n o t fo r b lood a n dp l unde r

,b u t fo r a k n owledge of t h e r igh ts

,a n d a n

a l lev i a t io n of t h e su ffer i n gs,commo n to m a n k i n d .

The h i s tory Of E n gl a n d a t t h i s t ime i s ope n to al la n d i t s ac tual deta i l s a re o f n o importa n ce excep ti n so fa r as th ey S how t h e exi s te n ce of t h e c h a n ged

t h e me re offe r o f a re l i g i ou s ba s i s wou ld no t h ave been s uffic i en t t o“ u n i v e r sa l i z e ” a ny i n t e rn a t i on a l movem en t u n l e ss t h e sepa ra tea c t i v i t i e s a nd mod e s -o f-t h ough t on wh i c h i t depen ded h ad a l readybee n in e x i s t en ce .

6 6 MUS IC AND NATIONALISM CH AP .

t h a t m ark th e progre s s of h er peop l e,we s hou ld no t

b e ab le to d raw more t ha n our prese n t d ed u c t io nt h a t t h e two t h i n gs occu r red a t abou t t h e same t ime

,

a n d t h a t i t wa s i n ev i tab le,m u s i c be i n g wh a t i t i s

,tha t

t h ey s hould so occ u r .Bu t t h ough i t wa s g ive n to E n gl a n d to adva n ce

th e a r t i n i t s ea r l i e st a n d mo s t pr im i t ive s tages,far th er

s h e was forb idde n to go . The ou t b reak of t h eH u n dred Yea rs ’ Wa r i n 1337 m arked for h er t h ebeg i n n i n g of a n era i n w h i c h t h e w ho le n a t io n ale n ergy wa s absorb ed i n a n ew a n d st ra n ge ly u se les sfi e ld of ex te r ior iza t io n . L i ke t h e re s t of Eu rope sh ewas i n a co n d i t ion of wor ld- a tav i sm O 1I t h e o neha n d

,t h e mot ives wh i ch

,i n t h e prev io u s t hou sa n d

yea r s,h ad im pe l l ed who le peop le s to m arc h ou t to

n ew se t t l i n g—grou n d s exi s ted no lo n ger on t h e o t h er,

t h e mo t ives w h i ch were to c au se w ho lesale em igra t io ni n t h e fu tu r e h ad no t ye t com e i n to p l ay . I n s teadof t h ese we fi n d a t h i rd a n d i n t e rmed i a t e type of

ex t e r ior iza t io n i n w h ich th e n a t io n suppo r t s t h eamb i t io n s a n d i n t r igue s of pr i n c e s a n d dy n as t ie s

,no t

from a n y p ress i n g n ece ss i ty of i ts own exi s t en c e,bu t

from a so r t o f t h row i n g—b ac k of t h e n a t io n a lco n sc iou s n ess .H e n ce com e e n d less war s a n d exped i t io n s

,u n der

take n for no r easo n t h a t t h e peo p le ca n u n ders ta n d ,waged a t t h e expe n se of m uc h b lood a n d t rea su rewh ic h be lo n g to t h e peop le

,a n d re sul t i n g i n no ga i n

w h i c h t h e p eop le ca n se t OE aga i n s t t h e i r lo sses .Th i s type of n a tio n a l ex te r ior iza t io n , w h i c h i s commo nth roughou t Eu rope i n t h e Midd l e Ages , i s we l l represe n t ed by t h e h i s tory of ou r Fre n c h wars . To sumthese u p we m a y say t h a t a t t h e beg i n n i n g of th i sh i s to ry t h e E n gl i sh ow n ed E n g l a n d a n d t h e Fre n c how n ed Fra n ce t ha t t h e n a grea t n umbe r of E n g l i s h

111 INFLUENCE OF WORLD -POWER 6 7

me n a n d Fre n c hm e n s ho t a n d h acked eac h o t her top iece s : t ha t t h e g lo r iou s n ames of Crecy

,Po i t iers

,

a n d Ag i n cour t wer e added to t he b r i l l i a n t ro l l ofE n g l i s h v i c tor ie s , w h i le t h e no l ess glor iou s n ames ofPo n tval la i n

,Form ig n y

,a n d Ca s t i l lo n were added to

t h e equal ly br i l l i a n t ro l l of Fre n c h v i c to r ie s a n d t ha tt he e n d of t h e w ho le m a t t e r was t h a t th e E n g l i s h s t i l low n ed E n gl a n d a n d th e Fre n c h st i l l ow n ed Fra n ce .

B u t t h i s wa s n o t al l ; for a ce n tu ry of wa s t edn a t io n al l i fe wa s accompa n ied a n d su cc eed ed by a nera of deep popular d i sco n te n t , a n d ou t of t h i s grewa co n fu sed a nd m i serab l e se r i es of eve n t s—m u rd er s

,

i n su rrec t io n s,a n d so on —of w h i c h we m ay take Jac k

Cade ’ s Reb e l l io n a n d th e War s of t h e Rose s,i n

E n gl and,a n d th e J acquer i e , i n Fra n c e , a s typ es . A t

su c h a t ime a s th i s t h ere i s,of cou rse

,l i t t le hope of

co n s idered m u s i cal deve lopme n t i n E n gl a n d . H e rmome n t of po i se ha s go n e by

,a n d t h e n a t io n al m i n d

ha s to wor k u n der ex te r n a l co n d i t io n s a n t i pa th e t i c tom u s i c . We m u s t t h erefo re tu rn e l sewhere for th en ex t deve lopm e n t s i n t h e ar t . I t i s to Rom e t h a t wes hould n a tu ral ly tu r n i f mere weal th were t h e o n lyesse n t i al fac to r for t h i s d eve lopme n t . Bu t

,a s I h ave

al ready po i n t ed o ut , t hough we find i n Rome a ll t h em a t er i a l co n d i t io n s of prosper i ty

,t h ey a r e accomp a n ied

a n d i n deed c au s ed by a me n tal ex te r ior iza t io n wh ic ht e n d s to i n creas e j u s t a s t h e phys ical ex t e r ior iza t io nof t h e re s t of Eu rope te n d s to dec rea se . We m u s t

,

t h e n,look to Eu rope o u t s ide Rome fo r t h e n ex t

d eve lopm e n t i n m u s ic , a n d we m u s t t h ereforee n deav ou r to reco n s t ruc t , i n i t s bares t poss ib le form ,

t h e h i s tory of Eu rope from abou t 1000 to t h e ea r lyyea r s of t h e s i x tee n t h c e n tu ry .

A s I wr i t e I have befor e me a comp l ete h i sto ry of

t h e ex te r n al n a t io n al a c t iv i t ies i n Eu rope du r ing th e

6 8 MUS IC AND NATIONAL I SM CHAP .

500 year s u n der d i scu s s io n . Th i s l i s t—w h i c h ca n bedug out of a ny genera l h is tory— i s fa r too lo n g to

pr i n t h ere . I t s m ai n Ch arac t er i s t i c IS t h e sh edd i n g of

b lood by m ea n s of a n i n t erm i n ab le ser ie s of b l i n d a n dse n se les s fo ray s

,c iv i l wa r s

,feuds

,qua rre l s

,sea a n d

l a n d exped i t io n s,i n vas io n s

,cou n te r- i n va s io n s

,a t tacks

a n d rep ul se s,accom pa n i ed by every im ag i n ab le a n d

u n im ag i n ab le form of dece i t,i n t r igu e

,coal i t io n

,ly i n g

,

t reac h e ry,a n d m u rde r . Bes ide s t h e Cru sade s t he re

ar e c iv i l wa r s i n Spa i n,E n g l a n d

,D e n m ark

,a n d t h e

Ne th er l a n ds i n va s io n s of Fra n c e a n d Spa in byE n g l a n d

,a n d of I taly by Fra n c e , Spa i n , Germa n y ,

Swi tze r l a n d,a n d t h e Ho ly Rom a n Emp i re war s a n d

b a t t les be twee n Spa i n a n d Fra n c e,b e twee n Spa i n a nd

t he Moo rs,be twee n Fra n ce a n d E n gl a n d

,betwee n

Au s t r i a n s a n d Swi ss,betwee n Ve n e t i a n s a n d Tu rks

,

be twee n Ge n oese a n d Ve n e t i a n s,betwee n Germ a n s a n d

D a n e s war s of t he Holy Rom a n Emp i re wi t h Po les,

Bu rgu n d i a n s,Boh em i a n s

,H u ngar i a n s

,Turks

,Saxo n s

,

a n d w i t h the Lomba rd League coal i t io n s a n d quar re l sbe twee n Popes a n d Emperor s g lo r io u s e n t r i es of a ll iedforce s i n to var iou s tow n s ( abou t wh i ch e n t r i e s h i s to rysay s m u c h ) a n d t he i r subsequ e n t i n g lor io u s ex i t

( abo u t wh i c h h i s to ry say s ve ry l i t t l e) ; e n d less , hopel ess ta n g l e of i n t e r n a l warfa re i n I taly sack i n gs

,

p lunderings , p illag i ng s a n d bu r n i n gs of c i t i es i n aword

,a n almost com pl ete a n d ge n e ral ly u se les s

ab a n do n me n t to t h e idea of b lood , fi r e,a n d i ro n .

I say “ ge n e rally u s e less,becaus e of al l t h e se

expe n d i tu re s of n a t io n al e n e rgy n o t one i n fi fty hada n y l as t ing n a t io n al efl e .ct The i r type i s t o be see ni n t h e fou r tee n t h c e n tu ry Engl i s h i n te rfe ren c e wi t hF i a n c e a n d S pai n— i n te rferen ces t h a t b l ed a l l t h re ecou n tr i e s o f me n a n d t reasu re a n d left t h em a t th e e n dprec i se ly a s t hey were a t t h e beg i n n i n g . We ca n o n ly

I I I INFLUENCE OF WORLD -POWER 6 9

accou n t fo r t h e se ac t iv i t i e s as a k i n d of a tav i s t i c d e s i reto move ou twa rd s , a des i re w h i ch , i n t h e D ar k Ages ,wa s prom pted by t h e growi n g pres su re of popula t io n ,by the n eed of a l arger food supp ly or by th e th rea t e ni n gs of fore ig n 1nv a s io 11

,a n d w h i ch h ad now

,i n t h e

Midd l e Ages,i n gra i n ed i t se l f 111 t h e co n sc iou sn ess of

n a t io n s as a u se le ss a n d per n i c iou s h ab i t .I n a l l t h i s lo n g h i s to ry of a im le s s n a t i o n a l o u t

r eac h i n g o n l y t h ree mome n t s o f n a t io n a l pau s e ca nbe fou n d suffic i e n t ly lo n g to al low of m u s ical d eve lopme n t . These t h re e mome n t s are

,i n th e m a i n

,

a l l su bsequ e n t to t h e earl i e s t pe r iod of Engl is lip rod uc t iv i ty

,a n d t h e y occu r i n a s m a n y cou n t r i e s

Spa i n,Sca n d i n av i a

,a n d th e Net her la n d s .

(a ) I n Spa i n , towa rd s t h e end of t h e t h i r tee n t hce n tu r y

,t h e re wa s su c h a mome n t of t ra n qu i l l i t y i n

w h ic h a grea t adva n ceme n t of l ear n i n g took p lac eBu t

,i f we wi sh to fi n d th e rea so n w hy 110 m u s i c wa s

deve loped th ere a t t h a t t ime,we m u s t remember t h a t

t h e mu s i cal th ough t p roces ses ar e very s low a n d t ha tt h ey dem and

,for th e i r i n cuba t io n a n d d eve lopm e n t

,

lo n g per iod s of com para t ive res t . I d o no t mea n t osay tha t th e cul tu re of m u s i c cal l s fo r a com p le tecessa t io n of ex t e r n a l n a t io n al ac t iv i t ies—fo r

,i f th a t

we re so,n o n a t io n al m u s ic could ever b e deve loped

nor do I m ea n to say t h a t s i n gl e ex t e r ior iza t io n s oft h e n a t io n al m i n d ca n aff ec t

,excep t i n a ve ry s l igh t

degree,t h e p rogre ss of t h e a r t bu t I t h i n k we m ay

say,v iewing h i s tory i n i t s b road es t a sp ec t

,th a t t he ar t

d ema n d s for i t s succe ssfu l exerc i se lo n g per iod s i nw h i c h t h e ge n eral average t re n d of t h e n a t io n a l m i n di s i n wa rd s . I n Spa i n

,a t t he p er iod w h i c h we a re

co n s id er i n g , t here wa s a mome n t of p au se , lo n g a s t h el i fe t ime of ma n c ou n ts

,b u t ve ry s ho rt i n t h e l i fet ime

of ar t . Th i s mome n tary pau se,too ,wa s prec eded by

70 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH -‘

t P

a lo n g era of Moh ammeda n warfare,a n d su cc eeded

by t h e c iv i l wars of t h e fou r tee n t h ce n tu ry wh ic he n ded wi t h t h e expu l s io n of t h e E n gl i s h (u n der Joh nof G au n t ) i n 1387 . Th e fo l lowi n g ce n tu ry was

,i n

Spa i n,a per iod of co n t i n u al n a t io n al expa n s io n a n d

g lory,w h ic h c ulm i n at ed i n two eve n t s— o n e

,o f

grea t impor ta n c e to Spa i n t h e o t h e r,of equal

importa n c e to t h e w ho l e wor ld— t h e e n d of t h eMoor i s h dom i n io n i n 1 4 9 1 , a n d t h e d i scovery of

Amer i c a i n 1 4 9 2 .

Spa i n ’ s per iod of tra nq u ill i ty wa s, th e n , fa r too s h or tt o adm i t t h e poss ib i l i ty ofmu s ica l adva n c e . Th ro ughout the fo u r tee n t h c e n tu ry sh e was co n t i n u al ly d i st rac t ed by wa rs

,a n d i n t h e fi ftee n t h we ca n obse rve i n

h er t h e fi rs t fa i n t b eg i n n i n gs of t h a t n ew typ e of exteriori z a t io n w h ic h wa s t o m a rk th e diEerence be twee nt h e moder n a n d t h e med i aeval wo r ld a n d to gover n thewho le progre s s of moder n m u s i c . W i th t h i s n ewa t t i tude of m i n d I shal l deal more fu l ly i n t h e fou r t hper iod

,co n te n t ing myse l f now w i t h say i n g t ha t i t was

t h e d aw n i n g co n sc io u s n ess of a pos s ib le n ew som et h i n gou t s i de Eu rope al toget h er .

(h) A s im i l ar pe r iod of pau s e m ay be fou n d i nS ca n d i n av i a fo l lowi n g 0 11 t he U n io n of Kalma r w h i c hu n i ted Norway

,Swede n

,a n d Denma rk u n der Mar

gare t i n 1 39 7 . Of thi s per iod I shal l h ave l es s to say ,pa r t l y becau se i t s ex t rem e sho r t n e ss—abou t h alf ac e n tu ry—m ade a n y m u s i cal deve lopm e n t u n l ike ly ,bu t p r i n c i pal ly becau se t h e n

,as now

,t h e i n h ab i ta n t s

of t h e Sca n d i n av i a n pe n i n sul a were preve n t ed by th em ere fo rce of ge ograph ical pos i t io n from acqu i r i n gt he weal t h a n d le i su r e n ec essa ry to m u s ical progre ss .Th i s com para t ive poverty 1s , o f cou rs e , a co ns ta n t n ega t ive fac to 1 i n ar t i s t i c deve lopm e n t . Th a tt h e posses s io n of weal t h i s n o t the po s i t ive fac to r

111 INFLUENCE OF WORLD-POWER 7 1

determ i n i n g m u s ical adva n c e I h ave al ready show n,

bu t—wi t hou t exp l a n a t io n—th e p roof of t h i s fac t ca nbe see n by a s impl e compar i so n of a n a t io n ’ s ac t iv i t ie si n m u s ic a n d commerce . The m u s i c can n o t

,i n deed

,

ex i s t u n less t h e ge n e ral m a s s of t h e peop le e n j oy s acer ta i n measu re of m a te r i al prosper i ty b u t t he m er eac c um u la t io n of weal t h does n o t e n su re i t s p roduc t io n .

1

( o) I t was to t h e Nether l a n ds t h a t t h e go lde n opportun i ty wa s vou ch safed of wa tc h i n g over t h e c h i ld hoodof mu s i c

,t h e l a te s t bor n of th e ar t s , a n d , a s ( from

every o th er po i n t of V iew b u t t ha t of t h e bala n ce ofn a t io n a l fo rc e s ) i t wou ld h ave seemed wi ld ly improbab l e t h a t so grea t a d eve lopme n t cou ld take p l ace i nso sm al l a cou n try ,

2 i t i s we l l to look somewh a t c lose lyi n to i t s h i s tory . Fortu n a te ly t h i s i s a n ex t reme lys imp le m a t t e r .The Neth er l a n ds

,a s w e loose ly u se t he term

,con

ta i n s wi t h i n i t s bou n dar i e s two d i s t i n c t type s of

co u n try, The fi r s t (moder n Ho l l a n d) i s a n arrows tr ip of sea-board , m ade u p of e n d les s i n de n ta t io n s ,bays

,ou t le t s

,r iver-mou t h s

,a n d i s l a n d s t h e seco n d

(moder n Be lg i um ) i s a n i n la n d cou n t ry , abou t equali n ac tual area to t h e fi r s t

,bu t h av i n g o n ly o n e sho r t

s tr ip of sea—coas t u n p rov ided w i t h a n y n a tu ral co nv en iences fo r s h ipp i n g . Th e bou n dar ie s of t h ese two

1We may n o t e,in pa ss i ng

,h ow s t ron g i s t h e t en d en cy of a

wea l t hy a nd m u s i ca l l y u nprodu c t i v e n a t i on t o d e vo t e a pa r t of i t swea l t h to t h e s u ppor t of s ome sor t—even wh en i t i s no t i t s ow n

sor t—of m u s i c . Th i s c a n be se en i n t h e fore i gn (F l em i s h ) school sa t R ome (fou r teen t h a nd fi fteen t h cen t u r i e s) , a nd in t h e con t i nu a lpre s su re of fo re i gn (gene ra l l y , bu t no t i n va r i ab l y

,Ge rma n )

m u s i c i an s in E ngl and s i n ce t h e seven t een t h cen t u ry .2 Th e a re a of mode rn Be l g i um sq . m i l e s ) i s a bou t equ a lt o t h a t of H e r tfordsh i re

,L an ca s h i re , Yor k sh i re , a nd L i n co ln s h i re

(m od e rn ) Ho l l and i s a bou t one - ten t h l a rge r sq . m i l e s) .


cou n t r i e s h ave bee n co n t i n ual ly j o i n ed a n d d i sj o i n ed ,a n d t he i r po l i t i cal h i s to ry has i n c l uded u n io n

,d i s

u n io n,a nd fo re ign dom i n a t io n . I t i s impor ta n t to

n ot e t ha t t h e se un io n s h ave bee n pu rel y a r t ifi c i al,a n d

th a t,t h roughou t t h em al l

,t h e two d i s t in c t types of

co u n t ry h ave alway s bee n,a n d are s t i l l

,i n h ab i ted b y

two d i s t i n c t types of people w the o n e to t h e n or t hspru ng from a n a n c i e n t Germ a n i c t r ibe ( t h e B a tav i )th e on e t o t h e sou th from a n a n c ie n t Goth i c t r ibe

( th e Bu rgu n d i ) .

Th i s d i ffere n c e of r ace,acce n tua ted by ce n tu r ie s of

d iffer i n g env i ro n me n t,sh ow s i t se lIf as p l a i n l y to -d ay

a s i t d id 111 t h e fou r tee n t h c e n tu ry . I n phys iqu e,111

r e l ig io n,a n d 111 ar t t h e two peop les diEer to ta l ly . In

t h e n o rth we h ave a rac e ( t he Ho l l a n ders) whoseac t iv i t i e s a re co n d i t i o n ed by t h e i r s ea - l i n e . The i rn a t ion al h ab i t - of-m i n d i s alway s from wi t h i n ou tward s .The co n sequ e n c e i s t ha t th e i r im ag i n a t ive ene rg i e s a reab so rbed i n produ c i n g (fi r s t ) a rac e of sa i lors

,over

sea s exp lorer s a n d adm i n i st rato r s, ( seco n d) a lo n g l i n e

o f e n g i n ee rs a n d sc ie n t i s t s,a n d ( t h i rd) a sc hoo l o f

workers i n t h o se a r t s w h i c h d epe n d fo r t h e i r p r im a ryimpul se s 0 11 t h e ex ter n a l s t im u l i o f t h e se n s es

,t h a t i s

to say,pai n t e r s

,carvers

,l i t te ra te u rs

,a n d so o n . I n

t h e sou th w e h ave a rac e w h i ch exh ib i t s p rec i se lyoppos i te n a t io n a l ch a rac te r i s t i c s . The pr im ary d iffe ren ce i s

,a s I h ave said

,on e of race , b u t i t i s a d i ffe ren ce

w h ic h i s co n t i n u al l y wide n ed by a geograph i ca l env iro nmen t ; for, tho ught h e two peo p les , the D u tc h a n dt h e Fl em i n gs

,bo t h l ive 011 a fla t su rface wi t h ou t

m ou n ta i n s,i n t h e case o f t h e l a t te r t here i s no al l

perva d i n g wa te r acces s . The re sul t i s a peop le of amore re flec t ive ty pe of m in d no t l e ss re l ig iou s

,bu t

w i t h a d iffere n t ty pe of re l ig io n n o t les s ac t ive,b u t

m uc h l ess ac t ive ex te r n al l y ; a peopl e , i n s h or t , i n c l i n ed ,

74 MUS IC AND NATIONAL I SM C HA P .

t h e ge n e ra l h i s to ry of Eu rope , i t i s n o t c au sed by h erex t er n al act iv i ty

,b u t by i n t r u s io n i n t o h e r dom i n io n s .

We ar e n ow i n a pos i t io n to u n ders ta n d how i twa s tha t F l a n der s wa s ab le to p rod uc e so lo n g a n dd i s t i n gu i s h ed a l i n e of m u s i c i a n s

,a n d i t i s n o tewo r t h y

t h a t,t hough t h e m aj or i ty of th em l ived a n d work ed

i n Rome,t h e supp ly was no t rec ru i ted from t h e so n s

o f Rom ahi z ed F lem i n gs,b u t d i rec t ly from F l a n der s

i t se l f. Th is i s a n i n t e res t i n g po i n t,e spec i a l ly to

E n gl i s h me n a n d Amer i ca n s,i n w hose cou n t r i es t h e

p roce s s ca n s t i l l be see n u n der t he i r own eyes . Afo re ig n m u s i c i a n com es to e i t h er of th e se cou n t r i e sa n d exerc i se s h i s ab i l i t i es t h ere a s execu ta n t or

com poser w i t h a c omp le t e detac hm e n t from h i ssur ro u n d ings . H i s w ho le l i fe—work p re sumes fori t s ba s i s t h e ex i s t e n ce of a ( fore ig n ) deve lopedm u s ica l c u l ture e l sewh ere . B u t

,i f su c h a m a n

ac tual ly se tt l e s i n t h e c ou n t ry h i s so n becomes,as

a rule,a p u re ly E n g l i s h ( o r Amer ica n ) c i t ize n ,

perh aps w i t h som e s l igh t P l a to n i c a t tac hm e n t to

t h e ar t of h i s fo refa t h er s,bu t 0 11 t h e who le tak ing

h i s a rt i st i c leve l from the cu l tu re a rou n d h im .

There i s,i n deed

,a s t r ik i ng a n alogy be twee n t h e

ca ses of fou r tee n t h a n d fi ftee n t h ce n tu ry Rome a n de igh tee n t h a n d n i n ete e n t h ce n tu ry E n g la n d . I neac h c ase we s ee a peop le w hose e n erg i es ar e d evo tedto some form o r o ther of ex te r io r iza t io n

, g t oa n ingu n der th e impos i t io n of a fo re ig n cu l t u re . In eachca se

,too

,we see th e home n a t io n m ak i n g desp era t e

a t tempt s to t h row o ff t h e bu rd en a n d to sub st i tu t e at ruly n a t io n a l c ul tu re . Of t h e grea t wor ld-cha n geswh i c h ac com pa n i ed ( a n d m ad e poss ib le ) t h e Rom a nsucce ss i n t h i s fi e ld I sh al l h ave more to say i n deal i n gwi t h t h e n ex t ( th e modem ) pe r iod , b u t mea n wh i leI m ay po i n t ou t t h a t

,a s t he fac tor s rem a i n u n a l tered

,

m INFLUENCE OF WORLD -POWER 7 5

we m ay be qu i te su re t h a t t h e met h od s em p loyed tosup por t t h e F lem is h Schoo l i n Rome mu s t h ave beenvery m u c h th e m ethods em p loy ed by t he Fre n c hm a n

,

th e Germ a n,a n d t h e I tal i a n i n prese n t—d ay E n g l a n d .

I n eac h ca s e we m u s t p erh aps al low someth i n g fort h e m ome n tum of a n e stab l i sh ed sc hoo l w h ic h i sm ak i n g headway

,a n d for t h e i n er t i a of i t s r iva l w h i c h

i s a t a s ta n d- s t i l l .These po i n t s ar e

,however

,ra t h er m a t te rs of deta i l

t h a t serve to exp l a i n t h e fa i l u res a n d v i n d i ca t e t hesu c ces se s of a n a t io n . I n t h e lo n g ru n i t w il l befou n d tha t i t i s t h e n a t io n al h ab i t o f m i n d a n dt h a t alo n e w h i ch m ake s a sc hoo l of m u s ic pos s ib l e o rimposs ib le .Before l eav i n g t h i s top i c I m u s t dwe l l for a

mome n t 0 11 t h e fac t t h a t i t wa s Rom e,in par t icular

,

t h a t wa s s e lec ted a s t h e sce n e of t h e F lem i s h ac t iv i ty .

Th i s i s t r ue i n a l arge se n s e,t h ough a few d i s

t ingu i shed F lem i n gs seem to h ave pa ssed a t a n y ra t ea po rt io n of t h e i r ac t ive l ives i n F l a n d ers a n de l sewh ere . Th e importa n ce of t h e po i n t doe s n o t

,

however,l i e i n t h e fac t t h a t t h e F lem i n gs w ro te i n

Rome—for t h a t i s exp l a i n ed by t h e fac t t ha t Romewas t h e weal th ies t a n d

,ecc le s i a s t ical ly

,t he b es t

equ ipped c i ty i n m ed i aeval E u rop e,a n d therefo re

a t t rac ted fore ig n er s to her serv ic e,j u s t a s Lo n do n

,

Par i s,a n d New York h ave in moder n t imes— b u t i n

t he fac t t h a t t h e Rom a n s did not w ri te i n Rome .I t i s no t po s s ib l e i n a s ke t c h su c h as I am g iv i n g

to deta i l t h e serv i c e s wh i c h F l a n ders re n d ered to t hecau se o f m u s i c i n ge n eral . Br iefly

,t h ey served to

co-ord i n a te i n to a sc i e n t ifi c sy stem t h e vagu e a n da im les s wa n der i n gs w h ic h had t i l l t he n robbed m u s i cof al l charac te r . The F lem i n gs

,so to speak

,hegot

mu s ic a s w e k n ow i t n ow . Th ey gave i t a back-bo n e .

7 6 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CHAP

A n d,i f from ou r prese n t s ta n dpo i n t t h e bac k—bo n e

s eem s a t r ifl e s t i ff,we m u s t remember th a t

,before

th e i r t ime,m u s i c wa s i n t he lea s t o rga n i c s ta te

poss ib le,a mere co l l ec t io n of c e l l s wi t hou t app are n t

co n n ec t io n or seem i n g poss ib i l i ty of d eve lopme n t .

(4 ) T H E M O DER N P E R IO D ( 1 500 To T H E

PR E SEN T DA Y ) .

In 1 4 9 2 occ u rred a n eve n t w h i c h c h a n ged t h eh i s to ry of t h e world —t he d i scovery of Amer i ca byC h r i sto ph er -Co l umbu s . Th i s d i scove ry i n t rod u cedi n to Eu rope a n ew a n d u n expec t ed fac to r w h i c h h adth e effec t , no t o n ly of al ter i n g th e ou t look of c e r ta i nn a t io n s

,bu t al so of rearra n g i n g the i n te r n a t io n al

r e l a t io n s h ips of t he Old World . H i th e r to t he eyes ofEu rope h ad bee n co n t i n ual ly tu r n ed toward s one oro t h e r of t h e grea t Co n t i n e n tal c e n t re s

,a n d th e

ex ter n al ac t iv i t i e s of na t io n s —s i n ce t h e ear ly days oft h e Rom a n Emp i re— had bee n a ser i e s of m a rc h esa n d cou n ter—m a rc h eshy la na’.I II a deve loped pos i t io n su c h as th i s

,E n g l a n d wa s

no th i n g b u t a spec k i n th e ocea n,a s pec k prac t i cal ly

u n approac h ab l e,a n d so i so l a t ed from a n y rea l com

m u n io n w i t h t h e ge n eral i n teres t s of Eu rope . Theo t h er n a t io n s

,w ho se bord ers looked wes twa rd acro ss

t h e sea Ho l l a n d,Spa i n

,a n d (moder n ) Por tuga l

were,i n deed

,more i n touc h wi t h t h e commo n

ac t iv i t i e s of t h e i r t imes,bu t t h e i r ac tual wa t e r

fro n t i e rs,so fa r from be i n g a sou rce of weal t h o r

a mea n s of e n e rgy,wer e m ere l y so m a n y m i l e s o f

u se l es s a n d da n ge ro u s coas t l i n e . Bu t,wi t h t h e

d i scove ry o f Amer i ca,t h e bal a n c e of wor ld -powe r

ch a nges . The lo n g h i s t0 1y o f n a t io n a l ex te r io r iza t io nw zthin Eu i o pe h a s n ow ceased , a n d t h e n ew e ra i s a ne ra of expa n s io n by sea .

111 INFLUENCE OF WORLD -POWER 7 7

The n a t io n s w h ic h I h ave n amed spra n g,almost a t

o n ce,i n t o a n u n looked—for prom i n e n ce . The i r coas t s

,

110 lo n ger t h e d eba t eab le grou n d of fi s h erme n a n dp i ra t es

,became ba ses for t h a t lo n g ca talogue o f

adve n tu r e a n d d i scovery wh i c h m akes u p t h e h i s to ryof t h e s i x tee n t h a n d seve n tee n t h c e n tu r i e s . To

E n gl a n d i n e spec i al,p l aced a s s he wa s i n t h e ve ry

ga t eway of th e se t t i n g su n,a n d look i n g bot h towa rd s

t h e O ld Wor ld a n d t h e New,t h e c h a n ged c i rc um

sta n ces b rough t a c ha n ged n a t io n a l l i fe . No lo n geri so l a ted—ex cep t i n a n etymo log ical se n se— eac h of

h er c h i ldre n cou ld fi n d,wi t h i n a few m i le s of h i s

home,t h o se b road sea- pa t h s w h ic h w er e n ow n o t t he

d iv id ing bu t t h e co n n ec t i n g l i n es of Emp i re . TheM ed i terra n ea n was n ow 110 lo n ger the sea bu t o n ly a

sea,a n d t h i s fac t

,broad en i n g 0 11 t h e co n sc iou s n es s of

Eu rop e,m ade t h e n ew age a n era

,n ot of l a n d—power

,

b u t of sea—powe r .W i t h t h e ge n e ra l po l i t ica l eEects of t h i s n ew fac tor

,

a n d wi t h t h e d e ta i l s of d i sco v e ry a n d oversea s expa ns io n I shal l

,of c ou r s e

,no t deal h ere

,bu t t h e sudde n

d i scovery of a large arid u n su spec t ed a rea fo r n a t io n a lex te r ior iza t io n h ad so s t ro n g a n effec t on t h e m u s i ca lprod u c t iv i ty of Eu rope tha t I mus t e n d eavou r toshow t h e re l a t io n s h ip of t h e o n e wi t h t h e o t h e r .Before do i n g th i s

,however

,i t i s n ece ssary to say a

word as to th e d a t e w h i c h I h ave c ho sen fo r t h ebeg i n n i n g of t h e moder n per iod . The read er m ayh ave n ot iced t h a t

,i n pl ac ing th e l i n e of d iv i s io n

be twee n t h e m ed i aeval a n d t h e moder n per iod s a s1 500 ,

I have a n t i c i pa ted m u s ical h is to ry by exac t ly1 00 yea r s . I t m igh t b e though t t h a t t h e yea r 1 6 00—t h e yea r of t h e grea t m u s i ca l d i s rup t i o n w h i c h wa s

to over th row th e o ld po l ypho n y a n d es tab l i s h i n t imeth e moder n me lod i c schoo l— S hould h ave been c hose n


a s a more accu ra t e d a t e . We m u s t,however

,

remember tha t t h e y ear 1 6 00 i s a pu re l y a r t ifi c i a ld iv id i n g l i n e se lec t ed by m u s i c i a n s so le l y 0 11 tec h n i calgrou n ds w h i c h

,th ough o f grea t i n t eres t to com

po ser s,a re by 110 mea n s i n t egral t o a com para t ive

s tu dy of mu s i c a n d n a t io n al i sm .

I n add i t io n t o t h i s I t h i n k i t i s p l a i n t h a t,i f w e

a t t empt to reco n s t ru c t m u s i c al h i s to ry o n ly froma s tudy of i t s t ech n i cal i t ies a n d wi t hou t refere n ce tot h e real fac to rs wh i c h co n d i t i o n i t s ex i s te n c e

,w e

ar e bou n d to be fac ed a t every tu r n w i t h ar t i s t icphe n ome n a wh i ch a 1 e prac t ica l ly i n exp l icab l e . Suc he n igm a s occ u r i n t h e i n ab i l i ty of Engl a n d tofo l low I taly ’ s lead after t he l a t er year s of t h es i x te e n t h c e n tu ry

,a n d i n t h e puzz l i n g appea ra n c e

of Palest r i n a,who takes up a pos i t io n a t t h e summ i t

of a d eve loped fo re ig n schoo l a n d,a t t h e same t ime

,

b a rs t h e pa t h of progre ss to h i s cou n t ryme n . V i ewedfrom a mere ly tec h n ical s ta n dpo i n t t h e l a t t e r puzz lewould seem to be so hope le ss t ha t i t h a s n ever proyoked eve n a gu e s s from m u s ical h i s to r i a n s . I t i s

,

t he n,be t t e r a n d more sc i e n t ifi c to take t h e year 1 500

a s o u r s tar t i n g—po i n t,becau se i t wa s a t t h a t da te (o r

t h e reabou ts ) t h a t t h e n ew forc e fi r s t c ame i n to p l ay .

We m u s t no t,however

,forget t ha t a forc e of t h i s

k i n d exe rts a t fi rs t o n ly a ve ry s l igh t p res su re,a n d

,

eve n whe n t h e ex i s t e n c e of t h e forc e i s co n sc iou s lyrecog n ized i n t he case of t h e d i scover y

soc i e ty appea r s to be sm al l,a n d 0 11 m u s ic n i l .

H e n c e i t comes tha t,i n 1 500 ,

we fi n d Eu ropes ta n d i n g a t t h e par t i n g of the ways . From tha t t imefo rwa rd th e n ew fac to r as sumes a co n t i n u al ly i nc rea s i n g importan ce . I t s eEect 0 11 Spai n , Po rt ugal ,H o l l a n d

,a n d E n g l a n d i s t o p l ace t hem i rrevocab ly i n

II I INFLUENCE OF WORLD-POWER 7 9

t h e c l a s s of m u s i cal ly ste r i l e n a t io n s . I t s eEect 0 11

suc h a co u n t ry a s I taly i s to t h row h er hope less ly ou tof t h e ru n n ing for wor ld- power

,a nd

,i n t h e p roce ss

of do i n g t h i s , to b r i n g i n to p l ay h er o t h e r ac t iv i t iesa s a m u s i cal ly fert i l e n a t io n . I t i s a s i f a m i sch ievou sfa t e were p l ay i n g pra n ks w i t h a m ag i c l a n ter n

,

focu s s i n g 0 11 to t h e sc ree n a n ew se t of peop l esu i tab le for t h e n ew pos s ib i l i t ies of Emp i r e

,a n d

,a t

t h e same t ime,i n scru tab l y tak i ng care t h a t to t hose

w ho h ad j u s t bee n d i s so lved i n to d ark n ess s hou ld bee n t ru s t ed t h e du ty of express i ng ( i n a r t) t h e new

co n d i t io n s of t h e wo r ld .

I n length’

of t ime th i s proce s s m ay be sa id to h aveoccup i ed t h e grea te r par t of t he s i x te e n t h ce n tu ry

,

a n d i ts h i s tory m ay be see n most st r ik i n g ly i n I tal y .

1

Throughou t t h e grea te r po rt io n of t h e fi ftee n thc e n tu ry t h at cou n t ry had bee n t h e sce n e of a fiv ecor n ered figh t fo r power—Mila n

,Ve n i c e

,F lore n ce

,

a n d Nap le s co n t e n d i n g impa rt i al ly wi t h eac h o t hera n d wi t h t he Papal S ta t es . W i t h t h e t u r n of t h ec e n tu ry t h e po l i t i cal s i tua t io n c h a n ged . The pos i t io nof t h e Pope a s a Eu rop ea n powe r h ad wa n ed con

t inu a lly s i n ce t h e grea t day s of t h e ear l y t h i r t ee n t hc e n tu ry

,a n d now h e wa s to fee l t h e shock of a s to rm

w h i c h h ad bee n gat her i n g fo r 2 00 yea rs . 2

A t t h is m om e n t two e n em i es appeared o n t het h resho ld of I taly —Fra n ce 3 a n d Spai n . A lo n g

1 E ven u p t o t h e t ime of Pa le s t r ina ’ s m i dd l e - l i fe ( 1 550 or t h e rea bou t s) t h e wor k of hi s Roman con tem po ra r i e s wa s pra c t i c a l l yin d i s t in gu i s h a b l e from t h a t of t h e F l em i s h Sc hoo l . A t t h e samed a te t h e Sch ool s of Lomba rdy a nd Ven i c e we re j u s t b eg i n n i ng tob rea k away from t h e l ead i n g—s t r i n gs of Fl em i s h t rad i t i on .

2 Th e immed i a t e cau se of t h e R eforma t i on w a s t h e a u t ho r i za t i onof t h e Sa l e of I nd u l gen ce s ” i n 1 51 7 .

3 Fren c h en t e r I ta l y,1 494 . Forma t i on of t h e Holy Leagu e

aga in s t F ran ce,1 51 1 .


reco rd of b lood sh ed fo l lowed,du r ing w h ic h t h e

Pope formed all i a n ces a n d c ro ss—a l l i a n ce s,a t one

t ime wi t h t he Emperor 1 aga i n s t Fra n ce a n d Spa i n,

a n d a t a n o th e r wi t h Fra n ce 2 i n ord er to d etac h herfrom th e Spa n i sh A l l i an c e . The ou t come of t h ew ho le b i t te r s t rugg le was t h a t

,t h ough Fra n c e wa s

ofte n succes sful from th e mer e m i l i tary po i n t of v i ew,

by t h e m idd le of t h e ce n tu ry she h ad bee n fo rc ed to

re t i re wi t h i n h e r ow n borders,a n d Spa i n h ad subj u

ga t ed,a n d wa s rul i n g I taly .

3 U n de r h er i ro n h ee lt h e d is so n a n t e l eme n t s of I tal i a n po l i t i c s were gro u n di n to s i le n ce . The c i ty s ta te s

,w h ic h h ad bee n j ump

ing—off grou n d s for th e amb i t i o n s o f t h i s o r t h a t

pe t ty tyra n t—V i sco n t i,Scala

,Este

,Sforza

,a n d

Med i c i - were n ow ,i n t h e s i x tee n t h c e n tu ry

,forced

to lea r n t h e l es so n s i n c iv i l i ty w h i ch,i n su ch a

co u n t ry a s E n gl a n d,h ad bee n m as te red 500 year s

befo re . Eve n t h e Papacy,sapped by t h e approac h

of forces w h ic h i t d id n o t u n dersta n d,a n d t h rea te n ed

from wi t h i n by t h e accum u l a t ed h a t red a n d d i s t ru s tof fou r c en tu r i es

,cou ld effec t n o th i ng by i t s fra n t i c

ou tb u rs t o f po l i t i cal ac t iv i ty , a n d wa s com pe l led to

see t he v i c tor iou s Spa n i ard e n te r Rome .

4

We m ay,th e n

,say t h a t I taly fi rs t fe l t t h e impac t

of t h e n ew ideas i n t h e sh ape of a back—h a n ded b lowde l ivered by tha t v er y n a t io n w h i c h wa s t h e p io n eerof t h o se id eas . The b low soo n took eEec t

,no t o n ly

i n t h e fi e ld of po l i t ic s,bu t in t h a t of m u s i cal ar t .

For 300 y ear s h e r m e n tal a t t i tud e h ad bee n one of

n e rvou s,j ealou s ex te r io r iza t io n— pet ty a s we r egard

1 Ch a r l e s V . ,1 52 1 .

9 Temp . H en ry I I . , 1 555.

3 Pea ce o f C a tea u—Cam b re s i s , 1 559 . Th e dom i n i on o f Spa i ncon t i n u ed

,i n o n e fo rm o r an o t h e r

,d own t o a bou t 1 6 50 . Th e

Fren c h w e re e x c l ud ed from I ta l y by t h e T rea ty o f Lyon s, 1 6 0 1 .

41 52 7 .


b u t t he po ss ib i l i ty of co n t i n u ed m u s i cal exp res s io n i nt h e fu tu re .

I h ave al r eady po i n ted o u t t h a t,howeve r q u i c k ly

co n sc iou s of impe n d i n g c h a n ge we r e t h e weste r nn a t io n s of Eu rope , t h i s c h a n ge cou ld not

,by a n y

h um a n mea n s,take eEec t i n a r t excep t aft e r th e l apse

of m a n y year s . The ac tual le n gth of t h i s pe r iodwou ld be of no importa n ce w ere i t n o t th a t i n t h es i x te e n t h c e n tu ry t h e m u s ical h i s to ry of Eu ro pe prese n t s c e r ta i n puzz l i n g ch arac ter i s t i c s wh i c h app ea r

,

a t fi r s t s igh t,t o de n y t h e co n n ec t io n be twee n mu s ical

d eve lopm e n t a n d wor ld-power . I m ay sta t e a t o n c etha t t he two appa re n t d iffi cu l t i e s a re ( 1 ) t h e exi st e n c ei n Rome

,d u r i n g th e fi r s t hal f of t h e s i x te e n t h ce n t u ry

,

of a sc hoo l of Spa n i sh m u s i c i a n s ; a n d ( 2 ) th e ex i s te n ce

,i n t h e same ce n tu ry

,o f a par t i al ly n a t io n al

sc hoo l of m u s ic i n E n g l a n d .

These two appare n t s por t s of n a tu r e m ay verywe l l b e co n s idered toget h er i n a com pa r i so n w i t heac h o th e r a n d wi th t h e re s t of s i x tee n t h c e n tu ryEu ropea n m u s ic

,fo r

,t h ough t h e y h ave l i t t l e l ike n es s

to each o t h e r ar t i s t i cal ly,t h ey ex h ib i t i n t he i r o r ig i n

a n d i n t h e i r h i s to r ical su r rou n d i n gs so s t ra n ge a nide n t i ty t h a t

,aft e r co n s id er i n g th e i r c i rcumsta n ce s

,

we sh al l be fo rc ed to ac k n owl edge t h em,no t a s a

co n t rad ic t io n to our propos i t io n,bu t a s a s t ro n g

test imo n y i n i t s favou r .I n d eal i n g w i t h t h i s qu est io n we m u s t no t forge t

t h a t,apa r t from the o ne grea t ex t e r ior iz i n g fac tor

w h i c h h ad bee n i n t roduced i n 1 4 9 2 ,t he s i x tee n t h

ce n tu ry wa s a cen t u ry favou rab le a n d n o t a n tago n i s t i cto m u s i cal progre ss . W i t h i n E u rope t h e exteriorizi n g te n d e n c i es o f t he sec ula r n a t io n s h ad su n k almostto va n i sh i n g po i n t

,a n d t he Papacy i t sel f

,e n feeb led

by t he loss,o r t h e impe n d i n g los s , of t h e Pro te s ta n t

I I I INFLUENCE OF WORLD—POWER 83

co u n t r i es,was comp e l led , i n i t s s t rugg l e for l i fe , to

sea rc h out some mea n s by w h ic h t h es e te n de n c i escould be goaded i n to ac t io n . The t imes h ad i n deedc h a n ged s i n ce t h e days of t h e C ru sad es wh e n are l ig ious bas i s for ex t e r n al act io n wa s a mere p retex toEered to a h al f- savage wo r ld be n t o n l y 0 11 adve n tu r ea n d s l augh ter . Eu rope h ad becom e edu ca ted ; for ,wh i l e Rome wa s s t i l l e n deavou r i n g to s tay up h ert remb l i n g h a n d s i n a l as t weak defe n ce of a n emp i r ew h ic h h ad bee n fou n ded o n ideas of ex ter io r iza t io n ,a n d w h i c h wa s now d ecay i n g away from i n ab i l i ty tokeep tou c h w i t h t h e al t e red m i n d of t h e moder nwor ld

,Eu rop e fo u n d h erse l f u n ab l e to accep t t h e

Rom a n exhor ta t io n to ac t io n excep t wh e n i t wa sba sed—by a b i t t e r co n t rad i c t io n—on t h e o ne mosti n t im a t e a n d subj ec t ive ac t iv i ty of t h e m i n d , r e l ig io n .

The ce n tu r y was,th e n

,wi t h i n Eu rope

,a n era of

par t i a l ex t e r ior iza t io n based on a n ewly acq u i redn a t io n a l h ab i t of i n ter ior iza t io n . I t was , i n s ho rt , ac e n tu ry of r e l ig iou s wa r s

,a c e n t u ry of t h e mos t

horr ib l e c ru e l ty a n d b lood sh ed,of ex t erm i n a t ion s

,

p illa g ings , bu r n i n gs , a n d tor tu res , i n s t iga t ed by Romea n d carr i ed ou t t h rough h er approved age n t s . Theresu l t of t h ese re l ig iou s wars wa s— l ike t h a t of t h eA n g lo—Fre n c h wa rs i n t h e fou rt ee n t h a n d fi ftee n t hce n tu r i es—prec i se ly n i l ; th e peop l e w ho h ad d i sagreed wi th Rome befo re t h e wars a n d persec u t io n sbega n s t i l l d i sagreed wi t h h e r w h e n t h ey h ad e n ded .

Bu t , t h ough t hese war s are for u s on ly a d etes tab l eca talogu e of c r ime

,w e mu s t no t over loo k t he fac t

t h at the i r ex i s te n ce,a s based o n re l ig io n

,i s ev ide n ce of

a c h a n ged co n d i t io n of m i n d i n Eu rope,a n d i t wa s t h i s

ve ry c h a n ge of me n tal a t t i tud e t h a t m ade t h e c e n tu ryfa vo urab le , on t h e who le , to m u s i cal prod uc t io n .Th i s m u s ic al p roduc t io n ac tual ly took p l ac e

,a s w e

84 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM C H AP .

k n ow bu t i t i s cu r iou s th a t , i n a sm al l degree , t h erewa s a m u s i cal deve lopme n t i n two of t h e n a t io n swh i c h were to be n efi t m ost l arge ly by t h e co n d i t io n sof th e n ew e ra— Spa i n a n d E n g l a n d . The importa n tt h i ng to n o t e h e re i s t h a t

,i f we were p l aced a s

spec ta tor s 011 th e d iv id i n g l i n e of 1 4 9 2 a nd ask ed tod ed u ce

,from t he i r n a t io n a l c i rc umsta n ces

,t h e n ames

of t h e n a t io n s most l ike ly to deve lop t h e a r t du r i n gt h e su cc eed i n g 300 y ear s , we s hould u n doub t ed ly ,from ge n eral co n s id era t io n s of n a t io n al prosper i tya n d secu r i ty

,n ame Engl a n d

,Ho l l a n d

,a n d Spai n .

Th e fac t,however

,rem a i n s t h a t

,of t h e se t h ree

n a t io n s o n e ( t h e D u tc h ) m a de n o deve lopme n t a tal l ; t h a t t h e Spa n i s h , al ready favou rab ly estab l i sh eda t Rom e

,aft e r m ak ing a pa r t i a l a t t em p t to deve lop

t h e F l em i s h m u s i c th e re,sudd e n l y a n d com p l ete ly

cea sed a l l m u s ica l ac t iv i ty ; a nd t h a t t h e E n g l i s h,

w i t h m ore t ime a n d le i su re a t t he i r d i spo sal,su c

ceeded i n a s l igh tl y h igh er d egree i n e stab l i sh i n g th ebeg i n n i n gs of a n a t io n a l sch oo l , a n d t h e n cea sed th e i rm u s ical d eve lopme n t a s s udde n ly a n d my ster iou s lya s t h e Spa n i s h . Of t h e se t h ree c ou n t r i es Engl a n d

( t h e most m u s ical ly p rod uc t i v e ) i s al so t h e mostremoved from re l ig iou s c o nfl i c t ; Spa i n ( t h e le ssm u s i cal ly prod u c t ive ) i s al so t h e mo re i nvo lved i nre l ig io u s wa rs ; wh i le Ho l l a n d (mu s i cal ly un produc

t ive ) i s t h e co u n t ry mos t com p le t e ly overwh e lmedby t hem . I t i s al so wor th y o f rem a r k t h a t

,of t h ese

t h ree n a t i o n s,t h e two l ea s t p rod uc t ive (Ho l l a n d a n d

Spa i n ) were t h e two wh o ear l i e st grasped t h e poss ibi l i ty o f s ea -powe r ; 1 t h e Eng l i s h , w ho were i n fu tu re

1 A l re ady,i n 1 54 1 , t h e D u t c h w e re a b l e t o equ i p a l a rge a nd

powe rfu l fl ee t fo r Ch a rl e s ’ s exped i t i on aga i n s t Tu n i s a nd A l g i e r s .The Span i s h a nd Po r t ug u e se n a va l e s ta b l i s hmen t s d a t e from n ea r lyfi fty y ea rs ea r l i e r .

I I I INFLUENCE OF WORLD—POWER 85

ages to ca rry t h i s pos s ib i l i ty to i t s fu r th es t l im i t s ,were m u c h s lower i n com i n g to t h i s u n d ers ta n d i ng .

1

I t wou ld,of cou r se , be w ho l ly al ie n t o my in ten

t io n i n th ese c h apter s , a n d , i n deed , a l ud ic ro u s p e rver s io n of h i s to ry , to a t t em p t t o c i t e i n d iv idualh i s to r i cal eve n t s a s co n d i t io n i n g or cau s i n g i n d iv id uala r t i s t i c movem e n t s

,a n d w e m ay t h erefore take t h e

b road,a nd I t h i n k tru e , v iew o f th e c i rcumsta n ces

,

a n d,rega rd i n g t h i s c e n tu r y a s a t ra n s i t io n a l per iod

,

see,i n t h e par t i a l deve lopm e n t of t h e Spa n is h a n d

E n gl i sh sch oo l s,a n “ove r t h row from th e prec ed i n g

ce n tu ry . Su ch a n “ ove r th row i s n ot h i n g moret ha n t h e pe r s i s t e n c e of a n a t io n al h ab i t of m i n du n ab l e to accommoda t e i ts e l f a t o n ce to c h a n g i n gc i rcumsta n c es , a n d t h erefo re d em a n d ing a n expre ss io n of i t se l f i n m u s i c w h i c h (w h e n j udged i n t h el igh t of s t r ic t h i s to r i cal d a ta) appea r s to be a na n ac h ro n i sm .

Of t hese overt h rows , w h ic h som e t imes pers i s tfor t h e grea te r pa r t of a ce n tu r y , we c a n c i teexamp le s w h ic h m ay se rve t o i l l u s t ra te t h e pos it io n . The co n t i n u a n c e of t h e (decade n t ) po lyp ho n i c schoo l i n I taly ( s eve n t ee n t h c e n tu ry ) aft e ri t s v i tal i ty h ad bee n sapped by t h e n ew mo n od i csc hoo l ( i n 1 6 00) i s a cas e i n po i n t . The m u s i ca lm i n d

,by a so r t of i n er t i a

,s eemed u n ab l e to recog n ize

t h e exi s t e n c e of i t s n ew co n d i t ion s,a n d t h erefore

con t i n u ed to oEer t h e wo r ld a sem i—med i aeva l t ypeof m u s ic wh i c h wa s a s m u c h a n a n ac h ro n i sm i n t h eseve n tee n t h cen t u ry a s t h e Span i s h a n d E n g l i s hsc hoo l s were i n t h e s i x te e n th . I t i s importa n t

,

how ever , th a t we s hou ld no t d i s t i n gu i s h be twee nt h ese two c u r ious h i s tor i cal s i tua t ion s a s be i n g ( i n1 Dra ke’s v oya ge round t h e wor ld

,157 7 . Da te of t h e A rm a da ,

1 588.

86 MU S IC AND NATIONALI SM C HAP

t h e ear l i er case) a“ t h rowi n g fo rwa rd a n d ( i n th e

l a ter ca se ) a“ th rowi n g bac k of t h e m i n d . Each

of t h e se i s a ca se of over t h row ”

or p er s i s t e n c e,

a n d t h e diEerence be tween t h em i s o n ly t h a t i n t h eone case ( t h e s i x t ee n thce n tu ry) i t i s t h e ac t ive or

ex t e r io r iz i n g facu l ty of m i n d w h i c h ca n n o t a t o n c eg ive up i t s m om e n tum ; w h i le i n t h e o t he r ca s e ( t h eseve n tee n t h c e n tu ry) i t i s t h e i n te r ior iz i n g or m u s i cp rodu c i n g facu l ty wh i c h s how s t h e same i n ert i a .The b road fac t of t h e m a t te r i s t h a t E n gl a n d a n d

Spa i n were ab le t o take ar t i s t i c adva n tage of t h e i r

( tem po ra ry) impe n e trab i l i ty to t h e n ew idea s of

wo r ld power , a n d to prod uce a n amou n t of m u s i ci n s t r ic t propor t io n t o t h i s a n d to th e i r m a ter i a loppor tu n i t i es . These ideas were n a tu ral ly s low to

fi l ter i n to t h e n a t io n a l co n sc iou s n e ss,bu t t he im

por ta n t po i n t i s t h a t t h e more t h ey d id fi l t e r t h emor e d iffi cul t b ec ame t h e p roduc t io n of m u s i c .Whe n t h ey h ad ac tual ly soaked dow n as d eep a st h e m u s ical m i n d o f Eu rope

,a n d w h en t ha t m i n d

h ad begun to a t t emp t a n expre s s io n of t h e grea twor ld-c h a n ges

,i t wa s fou n d t h a t t h e n a t io n s w ho se

im ag i n at io n s a n d e n erg i es we re d evo ted to t h e ext e r n a l ac t iv i t i e s of t h e n ew era were u n ab le to i n ve n tor eve n adop t th e n ew tec h n iqu e by wh ic h alo n e i tcould be symbo l ized i n m u s i c ; a n d so by t h e com

pens a t ion of fa t e t h e n a t io n s who we re forb idde n tos h are i n t h e n ew dom i n io n o f t h e wor ld we re gran t edt h e p r iv i l ege of expre ss i n g t ha t d om i n io n i n a r t .We m ay t h e n summ ar ize ou r fac t s wi t h regard to

t h e fou r t h per iod as fo l low s

( I ) Th e sta t i c co n d i t io n of n a t io n s w i t h i n Eu rope ,t ha t i s to say

,t h e abse n c e of a n y l a rge n a t io n al ex

ter iori z a tion i n vo lv i n g new arra n geme n t s of phys icalbou n d a r ie s o r of id ea s .

111 INFLUENCE OF WORLD—POWER 87

( 2 ) The co n seq u e n c e of t h i s as s ee n i n th ege n eral cul t iva t io n of m u s i c t h roughou t t h e p er iod

(wi t h t h e exce pt io n of t h e Sp a n i s h , Por tugu ese ,D u tc h

,a n d E n g l i sh

,prac t i cal l y every n at io n

,I tal i a n

,

Germ a n,Fre n c h , Au st r i a n , Boh em i a n , H u n ga r i a n ,

R u s s i a n,a n d F i n n i sh

,take s som e pa r t i n t h i s cu l tu re

,

vary i n g par t ly wi t h t h e ir m a te r i a l c i rcumsta n ce s,bu t

e spec i a l ly wi t h t h e oppor t u n i t ie s wh i c h t h ey e n j oyfor qu ie t reflec t io n ) .

(3) The d iscovery of a n ew fi e ld for n a t ion alex te r ior izat io n ou t s ide E u rope .

(4 ) The co n sequ e n c e of t h i s a s see n i n t h e em erge n ce of Spa i n , Por tugal , Ho ll a n d , a n d E n gl a n d a sex t e r ior iz i n g

,a n d t herefore

,desp i t e t h e i r weal t h

,

m u s ical ly-u n produc t ive n a t io n s .

( 5) The su bst i tu t io n of sea—power fo r l a n d-p ower , 2w h i c h i s so ax iom a t ic of t h e pe r iod dow n to t hep rese n t t ime th a t i t m ay almos t b e sa id t h a t n a t io n a lm u s ica l prod u c t iv i ty i s i n i n verse ra t io to sea powe r .The above a re t he ge n eral co n d i t io n s gover n i n g

t he d eve lopm e n t of m u s1c dur i n g th e moder n per iod .

1 I h ave no t dw e l t on t h e d i scove r i e s a nd con qu e s t s i n A s i aon ly beca u se th ey a re u n impor t an t from ou r (m u s i ca l ) po i n t ofv i ew a s be ing con ta i n ed i n t h e o th e r type

,~—t h a t of w e s t e rn

ex te r i or i za t i on .

2 Th i s s t a t emen t n eed s no a rgumen ta t i ve s u ppor t , bu t , if t h ere ader w i sh e s t o con t ra s t t h e con d i t i on s of t h e m ode rn wor ldw i t h t hose of t h e an c i en t

,h e may t a k e two s u c h de c i s i ve l an d

ba t t l e s a s t h ose of “ Chal on s ” a nd “ Tou r s ” a nd com p a re t h e i rv i ta li ty w i t h t h a t of a ny sea-fight wh i ch h e m ay se l ec t i n t h e Da r ko r t h e M i d d le Age s . In t h e m od e rn pe r i od h e w i l l find t h econ d i t i on s e x a c t l y reve r sed . A l l t h e b lood sp i l l ed in t h e wa rsof M a r l borough a nd N apo l eon

,i n t h e Cr imean a nd Fran co

P ru ss i an w a rs,mean s l e s s t o E u rope t h an t h e v i c to ry of t h e

Ch r i s t i an s ove r t h e Tu rk s a t Lepan t o in 1 57 1 , t h an N e l son ’ sv i c tories, o r t h an the Br i t i sh n ava l s uprema cy a t t h e t ime of t h eBoe r wa r .


There ar e m a n y po i n t s w h i ch i t wou ld b e i n t e re s t i n gto p u rsue i n de ta i l . Su c h a re

,t h e weak n ess of t he

I tal i a n m i n d (abou t 1 6 00) i n al l tha t fi eld of a es the tica c t iv i t y w h i c h depe n d s fo r i t s i n c ep t io n 0 11 ex te r n a ls t imu l i

,a n d t h e co n sequ e n t ea se w i t h w h ic h sh e wa s

ab le to shoulder t h e bu rd en of moder n m u s icaldeve lopm e n t : t he segrega t io n o f Ce n t ra l Eu rop e

( 1 6 00 - 1 870 ) a n d her comp le te ig n ora n c e d u r i n g t h a tt ime of t h e c h a n ge w h ic h wa s tak i n g p l ace from l a n dto sea—powe r : t h e s t r ik i n g eEec t of t h i s a s see n i nt h e d eve lopm e n t of t h e Teu t o n ic S choo l of m u s i c :t h e po s s ib l e effec t i n Germ an y of h er more r ece n tlea n i n gs towa rd s Co lo n i a l expa n s io n : t h e c u r io u s lyb ala n ced a n d seem i n g ly ch ro n i c s ta t e of m e n tal exterior i z a tion comb i n ed wi t h p hys i cal i n te r ior iza t io ni n Fra n c e w h i c h h as m ade h er t h e mos t u n succ es sfulco lo n izer 2 i n t he wo r ld

,a nd h as e n ab l ed h er to

m a i n ta i n a co n t i n uou s s c hoo l of m u s ic alway s c h a racteri s t i ca lly Fr e n ch , b u t ofte n th e wo rk of fore ig n er st he rea so n s (of c l im a te a n d so i l . ) wh ic h h ave cau sedRu s s i a 3 m u s i c to be so m i n u te i n q u a n t i ty com pa redw i t h t h e n umber o f h er i n h ab i ta n t s . t h e re ce n tm u s ical ac t iv i ty i n F i n l a n d a t a mome n t w h e n h erb ig

,s i le n t n e ighbou r IS wa t c h i n g h er so c lose ly : a n d

fi n al ly,t h e q ues t io n

,of grea t i n te re s t to E n gl a n d ,

w he th er,w h e n no fu r t h e r phys i cal po ss ib i l i t i es of

ex ter io r iza t io n rem a i n,her Emp i re a n d i t s inhabi

ta n t s wi l l e v e r a ssume th e s ta t ic co n d i t io n w h i c hm akes m u s ical deve lopm e n t po ss ib le .

A l l t h e se are que s t io n s of grea t i n t ere s t,bu t I

l Wa gner sa i d o f Ba ch,

“ H e i s t h e h i s t ory of t h e Ge rmans p i r i t ’ s i nmos t l i fe t h roug hou t t h e gru e s ome cen t u ry of th eG e rman fo l k ’ s c om p l e te e x t in c t i on .

”

2 L i ke Spa i n,H ol l a n d

,a nd Por t uga l , s h e i s -a n older co lon iz ing

powe r t h an Eng l a n d .

90 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH A P . I I I .

who a re m u s i cal ly u n p rodu c t ive b ecau se t h ey ared evo t ed to t h e ex t e r ior iza t io n of t h e i r e n e rg ies

,a n d

t hose wh o a re p rod uc t ive wh e n (no t beca use) t h i sfac to r i s ab se n t from t h e i r n a t io n a l l i fe . Speak i n gbroad ly

,we m ay say t h a t t h ere a re two oppos i te con

di tion s u n de r w h i c h a n a t io n m ay a t t emp t to deve lopmu s ic . I n t h e firs t—t he n ega t ive co n d i t io n—t herei s a d i s t i n c t “ p u l l aga i n s t t h e m u s i c -p roduc i n gfacul t i es ; i n t h e s eco n d—t h e pos i t ive co n d i t io nwe h ave 110 more t h a n t h e abse n ce of t h e n ega t ive“ pu l l

,a n d t h i s does no t i n every case e n su r e t h e

prod u c t io n of m u s i c,b ecau se t h e re a re a grea t

n umber o f local c i rcumsta n ce s w h ic h m u s t offe r afa i r average of poss ib i l i ty befo re th e ar t ca n p rogres s .I f we gra n t t h e ab se n ce of t h i s n ega t ive pul l

,

” wem a y p u t i t t h a t every n a t io n t e n d s to produce a m u s icof i t s own

,a n d t ha t t h i s m u s i c

,deve loped accord i n g

to t h e va ry i n g pos s ib i l i t ie s of d iffere n t peop les,bears

to t h e deve loped i n t e r n a t io n al co n sc iou s n es s ofEu ropea r e la t io n s im i l ar to t h a t w h i c h t h e fo lk—so n g bore tot h e u n deve loped co n sc iou s n e ss of med i aeval Eu rope .We have

,t h e n

,a so r t ofm us ica lly

—pos i t ive co n d i t io n ,a s repre se n t ed by th e fo lk- so n g stage of m u s i calc u l tu r e

,a n d th i s co n d i t io n h a s b ee n n orma l a n d

u n iversal . The p rod u c t io n from i t of a deve lopeda r t i s al so n o rm al

,b u t n ot u n iversa l . U n de r t h e

ab n o rm al m u s i cal co n d i t io n of ex te r ior iza t io n i t cea sesto take p l ac e

,a n d u n der th e re s tr ic t ive i n flu e n ce of

adver se p hy s ical c i rcumsta n ces i t becom es som eth i n gle s s t h a n u n iversal .

CHAPTER IV

THE E IGHTEENTH CENTU RY AND AFTER

IN t h e for ego i ng chapte rs I h ave e n deavou red toa rr ive a t a n exp l a n at io n of t h e co n d i t io n s gover n i n gthe deve lopm e n t of m u s i c . The produc t io n of m u s i ch a s too oft e n bee n rega rd ed bot h by h i s tor i a n s a n ds tude n t s a s a w ho l ly detached fo rm of ar t i s t ic ac t iv i ty .

Th i s a t t i tude 0 11 t h e i r pa r t—ba sed perh ap s upo n at rue

,i f u n co n sc iou s

,real iza t io n of t h e p sycho log ical

,

a n d th erefore h i stor ical,diEeren ces be twee n m u s1c a n d

t h e o t h er ar t s—ha s r e su l ted i n our prese n t m u s i calh i s to ry—a h i s tory carefu l a nd prec i s e i n i t s da te s a n ddeta i l s

,bu t so p erp lexing i n i t s re l a t io n to t h e o t h e r

n a t io n a l ac t iv i t ie s a s appar e n t l y to fo rb id eve n a gu es sa s t o t h e w hy a n d wh erefo re of i t s ex i st e n ce .

Eve n i n t h e most mode r n h i s tor ie s on e ca n fi n d no

r ecog n i t io n of t h e v i ta l n ec ess i ty fo r some su c hexp l a n a t io n . W i t h i n t h e p ar t i cula r c i rc le of t ec h n i calm u s ical h i s to ry t h e eve n t s are al l duly c h ro n i c led a st h ey occu r bu t wh e n t h e n ece ss i ty ar i se s , a s i t m u s tco n s ta n t ly a r i se

,of exp l a i n i n g some stra n ge c as e of

arres ted d eve lopme n t,t h e h i s to r i a n

,u n w i l l ing to

move ou ts ide h i s ow n pa rt icular fi eld of e n qu i ry,

e i t h er leaves u s wi t h no exp l a n a t io n or e ls e bo l s te r sup for u s some one or o the r of t h e “ prox im a t ecau se s ” wh ic h h ave bee n t h e ly i n g commo n p l ac es ofm u s ica lhi s tory s i n c e fi r s t i t wa s w r i t te n .

9 2 MUS IC AND NATIONAL I SM C HA P .

Th i s i s t h e m ore to be regre tted i n E n g l i s h m u s icalh i s to ry

,a n d espec i a l l y i n E ng l i sh opera t ic h i s to ry

,

w h ere,i f a n yw h ere

,t h ere i s s t r i k i n g n eed of a real

exp l a n a t io n of t h i s ar res t ed d eve lopm e n t,a n d i t i s

wi t h t h e i n t e n t io n of oEering a fi rs t sugges t io n , i n t heb roades t m a n n er po s s ib le

,t h a t I h ave m ade t h e above

lo n g b u t n ec e s sary d igre s s io n from m y m a i n top i c .

I t m u st,t he n , b e u n ders tood t h a t th e c h ief reaso n

why E n gl a n d h a s , 1n ge n eral,been apprec i a t ive a n d

n o t p rod u c t ive of a deve lop i n g mu s i ca l sc hoo l du r i n gth e pas t 300 year s i s no t t h a t s h e h as b ee n les sm u s i cal th a n a n y o ther n a t io n

,or t h a t sh e h a s

bee n e n gaged i n do i n g othe r th i n gs,i n comm erce

,

i n du s t ry,poetr y , p a i n t i n g, a n d so o n , b u t t ha t she

h as bee n expe n d i n g h er e n erg y d u r i n g t h a t t ime i nt h e o n e spec i al form of n a t io n al exter io

b

ri z a t ion w h ic hi s fu n d ame n tal ly a n d psy c ho log i cal ly opposed to t h eprodu c t io n o f m u s ic .

1

Th e app l i ca t io n of t h i s pr i n c ip le i n E n g l a n d h a s,

1 Th e pe rs on a l a pp l i c a t i on o f t h i s an tagon i s t i c en v i ronmen t t ot h e i n d i v i d u a l c om pos e r h a s been mad e by many wr i te rs . Dr .

E rn e s t Wa l k e r,i n h i s H i story oa sz

'

c i n Eng la nd, refe r s (p . 2 6 ) t oDun s table

’

s l a c k o f i nfl u en ce o n h i s ow n cou n t rymen ; h e commen t s (p . 183) on t h e “ cu r i ou s p a r t i a l i ty ”

of t he E ng l i s h forfore i gn t ra d i t i on s ” see a l so h i s n o t e 0 11 P i e rson

,t h a t “ i so l a ted

figu re o f i n effec tua l revo l t ” (pp . 2 70 a nd a nd h i s c r i t i c i smof Ben n e t t (p . 2 6 8) a s “ t h e grea t i n s ta n c e i n m u s i c of a m a n whom i gh t h a ve rea c h ed rea l g rea tn e s s be i n g s l owly bu t v e ry e ffe c t u a l l yk i l l ed by h i s e n v i ronmen t .” On e may no te t h a t t h i s en v i ronmen ti s l a rge l y mad e u p o f t h e con sc i ou s (a nd ofte n be l a ted ) app rec i a t i ono f fo re ign m u s i c , a nd t h a t t h i s a pprec i a t i on h a s s h i fted from c l a sst o c l a s s in u n i fo rm i t y w i tht h e s h i ft i ng of pol i t i ca l powe r . Th u s

,

wh en t h e i n i t i a t i v e 0 11 ex te rn a l ma t te r s wa s who l l y in t h ehands ofthe Cou r t c i rc l e , we find a r i d i c u l ou s d evot i on t o Fren ch i dea l s( temp . Ch a rl e s I I . ) l a t e r 0 11 we ge t t h e a r i s t oc ra t i c c u l t of H and e la nd J . C . Ba ch , a nd la te r s t i l l t h e d emoc ra t i c worsh i p of manyst ra ng e god s

,good a nd bad—C lemen t i , Dussek, Crame r , Moscheles,

M end e l s soh n ,Wagn e r

,Ts c h a i kows ky .


d ram a,t h e wh o l e of th e p l ay

,eve n t he i amb i c

speec h es a n d d i a logu e,wa s sa ng . They we re , t h e re

fore,com pel led t o i n ve n t a n ew met hod of exp res s io n

,

w h i c h wou ld n o t o n ly su i t t h e lyr i cal a n d refl ec t ivemom e n t s i n t h e d ram a

,bu t al so t h e n ecessary

“ co n n ec t i n g l i n ks — t ha t i s to say,t h e pure ly

i n t el l ec tual exp la n a t io n s (of p h y s i cal a n d psyc holog i cal fac t s) -wh ic h l ead up to t h e lyr ical s i tua t io n s

,

a n d wi t h ou t wh ic h t h e r ea so n for th e se s i tua t io n sca n n o t b e m ade appare n t to t h e a ud i e n ce .I n do i n g th i s t h ey i n ve n ted t h e Lyr ical Dram a .We m u

b

s t par t i c ular l y n ote t h e dual i ty ” of t h i sm u s ic al a r t form

,becau se i t i s j u s t i n i t s i n ab i l i ty to

fac e t h e m u s i cal n eces s i t i es of t h ese “ co n n ec t i n gl i n k s t h a t we s h al l find t he Eng l i s h m i n d d iffer i n gfrom t h e I tal i a n . To th i s po i n t I sh al l r e tu r n l a ter

,

me n t io n i n g mea n wh i l e t h a t du r i n g th e who le of t h eseve n tee n t h c e n tu r y I taly wa s e n gaged i n e l abo ra t i n ga n d t ra n sform i n g th e ar t -form w h i c h sh e h ad i n ve n ted .

I n Engl a n d du r i n g t he fi rs t h al f of th e ce n tu ry t h erewa s prac t i cal l y 110 recog n i t io n o f t h e fu n d ame n talidea w h i c h form ed th e bas i s Of Ita l ia n Opera—t h a t i sto say

,t h e n ece s s i t y of dec l am a to r y -rec i ta t ive o r so n g

speech . Mu s i c wa s,i n deed

,w r i t t e n to m a n y d ram as ;

b u t t h i s m u s i c evaded th e p rob lem by ig n or i n gi t s exi s te n ce . I t was

,i n fac t

,e i t h er d ragged i n to a

m asque a s a n add i t io n a l a t t rac t io n to t h e go rgeou scos tum i n g a n d p roper t i e s , o r

,i f i t rose to a n y

h igh er leve l,i t m ere ly served a s a n i l l u s t ra t io n of t h e

ce n t ral s i tua t io n s o r a s a n apo logy fo r t h e i r abse n c e .There ca n b e n o doub t t h a t t h i s s ty le of e n t e r ta i n

me n t,th en a s now

,wa s we l l su i ted to t h e E n g l i s h

tem perame n t . Nor wa s i t pos s ib l e for eve n t hem ost g i fted mu s i c i an of h i s age to eEec t a n y perm an en t c h a n ge i n t h i s pecu l i a r ly n a t ion al h ab i t o f m i n d .

IV EIGHTEENTH CENTURY Sr AFTER 95

Betwee n 1 6 7 0 a n d 1 6 95H e n ry P u rc e l l h ad faced t hep rob lem of lyr i cal d ram a a n d fou n d a so l u t io n of i t sdifli cu lt ies perh aps more sa t i sfac to ry a n d a r t i s t i c t h a na n y w h i c h h ad bee n Offe red by h i s co n t em porar i e s o rpr edece ssor s . I n add i t io n

,h e h ad approac h ed h i s

tas k from a pu r ely E n g l i s h po i n t of v i ew,a n d had

a t ta i n ed to a pu re ly E ng l is h mode of expres s io nw h ich

,i n me lod i c ch arm

,i n v ivac i t y o f wo rd- pa i n t i n g

,

a n d i n t h e ge n eral fi rm h a n d l i n g of s i tua t io n s,wa s

more m a tu r e a n d m as te rly th a n a n y o th e r t h e nex is t i n g i n Eu rope .

A t h i s dea t h 1 the pos i t io n wa s fu l l of poss ib i l i t iesfor t he E n gl i s h peop l e . The y h ad prod u ced a ni so la ted m as ter a nd h ad rece ived from h im ,

as a legacy,

a sword tem pered to t h e i r u se by h i s own cu n n i n g .

W i t h i n t e n yea rs ofhis deat h t h e Invader was to com efrom I taly . The qu e st io n

,a s w e ca n now se e i t i n

a ll i t s v iv id n es s,wa s t h i s : wou ld t h e E n gl i s hm a n

d raw t he sword tha t h ad bee n beq u ea th ed to h im,

re- sh arpe n i t to h i s own n eed s,a n d u se i t to repe l t h e

i n vade r ?Let u s see wh a t h appe n ed .

The fi r s t I tal i a n Opera was p rodu c ed i n Lo n do n i n1 705. I ts eEec t wa s s t r i k i n g a n d immed i a t e . Thep u b l i c a n d th e profe ss io n al m u s ical c l a sses were a t o n cebroke n u p i n t o t h ree d i s t i n c t se t s w ho se i n t r igu es a n dcou n te r- i n t r igu e s

,squabb l e s a n d reco n c i l i a t io n s

,s t i l l

ec h o i n t he i r l i tera tu re a n d eve n t h e i r adver t i seme n t s

,acro ss two ce n tu r ie s . Of t he se t h ree se t s

one wa s fr ie n d l y a n d two were ho st i le to t hen ew form of a r t . A l l th r ee

,how ever

,a re of t he

g reat es t i n te re s t to u s bo th from th e ph i losoph i cala n d t he h i s tor i cal s ta n dpo in t

,becau s e t h ey m i rror fo r

u s,no t o n ly t h e d ivers i ty of n a t io n al ou t look wi th

1 In 1 6 9 5.

MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CHAP .

w h i c h t h e E n gl i sh gree ted the fi rs t app ea ra n ce of

I tal i a n Opera i n t h e i r m id s t,bu t a l so t h e t h ree typ e s

of m i n d w h i c h h ave ex i s ted h ere al l t h rough th ee ight ee n t h a n d n i n e tee n t h ce n t u r i e s

,a n d w h ic h a re

now—i n t h e twe n t ie t h—per s i s te n t fac to rs i n our

a r t i s t i c l i fe .

F i rs t of al l comes t h e ar i s toc ra t i c c l a s s,n eg l ig ib le

from t h e s ta n d po i n t of mu s 1eal ph i losophy bu t impor t a n t from th a t of m u s ical h i s tor y

,because i t s

m embers h ad,a s t h ey s t i l l h ave

,t h e mo n ey a n d t h e

powe r to m a i n tai n i n exo t i c a n d r id icu lou s p reem i n e n ce a n y fore ig n cu l tu r e ofw h i c h t hey approved .

They were,i t m u s t b e rem embered

,no t o n ly t h e

r i c h e s t,bu t al so th e mos t t rave l led a r i s toc racy i n

Eu rope,a n d t h ey brough t hom e from t he i r t rave l s a

cosmopol i ta n ve n eer a n d a spec i es of i n t e l l ec tuals n obbery wh i ch wa s t h e o ne deform i n g c h arac ter i s t i cOf t h e i r m i xed b reed . Th ese people

,t h e mos t v i tal

i z ed i n al l t ha t co n cer n s our n a t io n a l h i s tory were,a s

t h ey st i l l a r e,ar t i s t i cal l y t h e m ost d e—n a t io n al ized .

They wi s h ed to b e am u sed p lea sa n t ly a n d l az i ly,a n d

i f i n do i n g so t h ey cou ld a t th e same t ime h al l—markth e i r am useme n t wi t h th e stamp of exc l u s ive n e ss

,t h ey

co un ted i t so m u c h to th e good . They rece ivedI tal i a n Opera

,t h erefo re

,n o t wi t h u nd ersta n d i n g

m i n d s,b u t wi t h ope n arm s a nd— w h a t was of s t i l l

grea te r importa n ce to t h e I tal i a n a r t i s t— Ope n pu rses .Th e i r fa t h ers h ad bee n gl ad to s i t b eh i n d H i s

Ol ive—com p lexio n ed Maj e s t y a nd wa t c h h i s two doze nfiddle rs sc rap i n g th rought he E ng l i sh C h u rc h serv i ceu n der th e d i rec t io n of Mo n s . H um fr ey : t h ey hadbee n more t h a n g l ad to presen t t h em se lves a t Wh i t ehal l i n t h e h o pe o f h ea r i n g t h e F re n c h page—boy


To u s,a t t h e d i sta n ce of two ce n tu r ie s

,t h e cou rs e

wh ic h t h ese par t i es s hou ld h ave take n seems c lea r .They h ad a n a r t i s t ic h er i tage bequea t h ed t h em byPu rce l l

,a n d t hey sh ou ld h ave u s ed t h i s as a b as i s for

dev elopmen t, ju s t a s Beeth ove n u sed Mozar t , a n d

Wagne r u sed Webe r . Th i s co n t i n u i ty,h owever

,was

t h e l as t t h i n g poss ib le i n face of t h e n a t io n a l c i rcumsta n ces . From O u r d i s ta n t s ta n dpo i n t t h e grea to ppor tu n i ty of t h e s i tua t io n looms l a rge

,wh i l e i t s

ma n y difli cu l t ies t e n d , perh aps , to fade ou t of s igh t .We m u s t

,however , t ry t o ge t a n ea rer v i ew of t h e

c i rcumsta n ce s,a n d t h a t i s t h e eas i e r fo r u s to do

becau se t h e two types of oppo s i t io n to fo re ig n Operah ave exac t l y t h e same pers i s te n ce a t t h e p re se n t daya s t h e a r i s to c ra t i c cul t of t ha t a r t form .

The fi r s t of t h e two me thod s by w h i c h I tal i a nO pera wa s opposed i n E n g l a n d wa s b ased

,n o t 011

a ny ge n u i n e m u s i cal co n s idera t io n s , b u t on a so rt ofineEec tua l pa t r io t i sm . I t wa s a t im id a n d foo l i s hmoveme n t to s teal t h e i n tel lec tual resu l t s of ace n tu ry's deve lopm e n t ( i n I taly ) a n d to app ly t h o seres u l t s wi tho u t t hough t of t h e w ide ly d i ffer i n gc i rc umsta n ces i n E n gl a n d . The movem e n t wa st im id becau se i t s au t h o rs h ad n o t t h e cou rage to fac eth e se d iffe re n c es h o n est ly : i t was foo l i s h , b ecau sewi t h two o ther par t i es i n t h e fie ld

,on e of w h ic h was

ope n ly pat ro n iz i n g,a n d t he o th e r a s ope n ly d efy i n g

,

t h e I tal i a n method s—t h ey cou ld no thOpe to suc ceedby m ea n s of a h al f—way po l icy . The i r way wa si n ge n iou s a n d no t m u c h above tha t of t h e l uckyt ramp who fi nds a n ew coa t b y the road- s ide

,p u ts i t

0 11,a n d wo n de rs a t t he poor figu re h e cu t s i n i t . I t

was i n fac t n o t h i n g l es s t h a n t o adopt t h e I tal i a n

I v E IGHTEENTH CENTURY AFTER 99

method s who lesale to t r i ck u p E n g l i sh d ram a w i t hrec i ta t ive a l ’I ta lz

'

enne : a n d to pa s s oE t h e who ler id i c u lou s m a sq uerad e on t h e i r fe l low—cou n t ryme n asE n g l ish Opera .

” I n s h or t,h av i n g stumb led ac ro ss

Opera by t h e way s ide t h ey appro pr i a ted i t wi t h ou task i n g q ues t io n s . Nay , more , t h ey expec t ed t h a tno quest io n s wou ld be asked . I n t h i s

,a s we shal l

see,t h ey were d i sap po i n t ed , fo r t h e n a t ion al co n sc i e n ce

of t h e i r t ime wa s pecul i a rly t e n d er 0 11 t h eft,a n d t he i r

spec i a l p i ckpocke t form of ar t carr i ed wi t h i t,h ad

they bu t kn ow n i t,a cap i tal se n te n ce .

The record of t h e moveme n t to b u i ld up E n g l i s hOpera e i t h er 0 11 t h e se l i n e s o r o n t h e bas i s of tra n sla tion s from th e or ig i n a l I tal i a n i s to be fou n d sca t t e r edup a n d dow n t h e e igh teen t h ce n tu ry n ew s papers

,

pamph le ts,a n d ded ica to ry ep i s t les . O n t h e i r fu t i le

p ro tes t s we n eed no t was t e a s i n g l e regre t,nor n eed

w e b e su r pr i sed to fi n d t h a t t h e pa tr iot i sm beh i n dw h ic h th e moveme n t sh e l t e red i t se l f was n o moret h a n a d umm y- pa t r io t i sm w i t h t h e stuffi n g k n ockedout . Ma n y of th e a rgume n t s add u ced i n i t s favou ra r e of t h e k i n d wi t h wh i c h t h e pu b l i c ha s bee n m adequ i t e fam i l i a r i n t h e n i n e tee n t h a n d twe n t ie th ce n t u r i e s—t h a t i s t o say

,t h ey a re qu i te s i n cere s ta teme n ts of

t he Op i n io n t h a t i t would be n ic e i f O pe ra flou r i s h edhere a s i t doe s i n I taly . A seco n d resem b l an c e toou r own t imes i s t h a t

,i n bo t h cases

,th e cau se s of

diEerence betwee n t h e E n g l is h a n d t h e Co n t i n e n t alpub l i c s a re qu ie t l y ig n or ed

,a n d t h e u n derly i n g fal l acy

of t h e w ho le pos i t io n i s t h a t,i f on ly t h e E n gl i s h ca n

be m ade to accep t t h e fore ign sta n dpo i n t a n d t h efore ig n methods , t hey ca n (by tak i n g th e m erem ech a n i cal preca u t io n o f w r i t i n g i n E n g l a n d a n d i nE n g l i sh) produce a sa t i sfac to ry Sc hoo l o f E n gl i s hOpera .

I OO MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CHAP .

Th e fo l lowi n g quota t io n i l l u s t ra t es one of t h esee igh t ee n t h ce n tu ry a t tem pts to fou n d a Na t io n alS c hoo l of O pera . I t i s take n from Ernel inda

,

” a nOpera w h i c h wa s p rod uced a t t h e Ki n g ’ s Th ea t r e

,

H aym ar ket,i n 1 7 1 6 . The wo rk i s ded i c a ted i n a

pre l im i n a ry ep i s tl e to R i c h ard,V i scou n t Lo n sdal e

,

Ba ro n Low th er of Low th er,a n d h i s pro tec t io n i s

de s i red “ a t a t ime w h e n we l abo u r u n d er so m a n yu n h appy c i rcumstan ce s . ” The a u t ho r t h e n expresse st he h ope t h a t t h e re m ay be

“ m a n y who w i l l c o n cu r wi t h you r Lord sh ip ’ ss e n t ime n t s

,a n d t h i n k t h em se lves co ncern

’

d

to promote so n ob l e a d iv ers io n w h ic h mos tfore ig n S ta t e s t h i n k i t t h e i r i n tere s t to suppor t . By t hese mea n s we m ay re t r i eve t h erepu ta t io n Of ou r affa i rs a n d i n a sh or t t imer ival t h e s tage of I taly 1

A s im i l ar des ig n i s d i scu ssed i n t he p refac e to

Cam i l l a ” 2

( 1 7 1 Th i s opera co n ta in s a dedica t ionto Lady Wh ar to n a n d a n add re ss to t h e “ Nob i l i tya n d Ge n t ry

,

” i n wh ic h proposal s a re m ade for t h et ra n spl a n ta t io n of I tal i a n Opera to E n gl a n d . Agrea t fea tu re i s m ade of t h e n ec e ss i ty of repl ac i n gI ta l i a n s i n ger s by E n g l i sh

,a n d 111 t h i s t h e a u tho r

1 Th i s 1 c fe 1en ce t o a n a t tem p t mad e t o e s t a b l i s h En g l i s h Ope rai s su b sc r i bed by J oh n J am e s H e i degge r , who wa s afte rwa rd sH a end l S p u tn e i . I 1111 u na b l e t o n i c e t h e a u t h orsh i p of t h eope ra . I t i s no t men t i on ed by D a s so r i

, a nd t h e en t ry in

R i ema n n ’ s Opera H nnrlha thi s a m e re t ra n s l a t i on from a n

e igh t een t h cen t ury p l ay-hou se gu i d e . If the d a te, 1 7 1 6 , i s co rre c t

i t c a n n o t of cou rse be t h e Ern e l i nda o f Leon a rd o V i n c i (p roduced a t FIO I Cnc c , 1 7 2 6 ) or t h e “ Ern e l i nda ofG a lupp i (produ ceda t V en i ce , s t i l l less t h a t o f Phi l ido r ( produ ced a t Pa r i s ,

lhe e x ce rp t g i ven a bov e i s n o t from t h e o r i g i n a l,bu t

from t h e M s s . t ra n sc r i p t i on i n t h e H a s l ewood col l e c t i on (vol . i i .p . B r i t i s h M u seum . ( Se e B i b l i ogra phy a t end. )

2 By Ma r c A n t on i o Bon on c i n i , b ro t h e r o f H a n d e l ’ s r i va l .

1 0 2 MUS IC AND NATIONAL I SM CHAP .

a n d t h e d eep sea of Popul a r Mu s i cal E n t e r ta i n me n t .A w r i te r

,d i scu ss i ng th e q ue s t io n of a Na t io n a l

Th ea t r e i n th e Pub/i v Adv ertiser of Apr i l 1 4 th , 1 7 90 ,

co n t ras t s th e grea t fi n a n c i a l lo ss of I tal i a n Ope raw i t h t h e su cce ss of suc h p i ec es a s “The Beggar ’sO pera

,

” “ Love i n a V i l l age,

” a n d “ The H au n tedTowe r . H e co n t i n u e s

“ Th e pr im a ry obj ec t s h ou ld be t h e estab l i shme n tof a Na t io n a l Thea t r e

,u n der t h e best regu l a

t io n s,a n d t h e fi rs t pa t i onage , as i t i s 111

Fra n ce .

”1

Na tu ral ly n o su cces s wa s t o b e expec t ed from a na r t i s t i c 1 iv a lry i n w h i c h a c l umsy p up i l wa s cha llengi n g a m as t er a t h i s ow n weapo n s . I n d eed

,t h e

n ea re r h e came to su cc ess t h e more remo te becameh i s c h a n ce s of p opula r apprec i a t io n . H e wa s th u sbou n d to fal l betwee n two s too l s

,a n d i t would

almost seem n ec essa r y to i n s t i tu t e a n e n qu i ry“ de

l u n a t i co ” i n t o t h e me n tal s ta te of t h e se A n gloCo n t i n e n tal com poser s . They took t h em se lves ve ryser iou s l y

,110 do ub t

,al lowi n g th e i r aud i e n ces a n

i n to lerab le d eal o f m u s i c to a m i serab le h a ’ pe n n ywo rt h of wo rd s

,a n d sc r ibb l i n g dow n the i r m u s i ca l

pre scr ipt io n s a n d commen tar i e s h ere,t h ere

,a n d

everywh ere .

‘3 The i r ear n e s t d es i re seem s to h ave

bee n t h e fou n d a t io n of a Na t io n al O pera t i c Sc hoo lw h i c h wou ld be recog n ized as sa t isfac to ry by t he i r

1 Th e word i n g o f t h i s appea l i s in t on e s t range l y a nd d e l i c i ou s l yl i ke a m u c h l a te r appea l fo r a N a t i ona l Ope ra H ou s e . Th e a u th oro f S i ng i ng ” ( in G rove ’ s Dirtionm'

y, l S t ed . vo l . i i i . p . 51 3) s u gge s t s t h e fou nd a t i on o f su c h a t h e a t re t o be condu c t ed u pon t h es t r i c t e s t r u l e s o f o rd e r

,p ropr i e ty

,a nd mo ra l i ty a s a n an n exe t o

t h e Roya l Co l l ege of IVIus ic lQ Sce A rn e ’s c ommen t s o n h i s “ Ca ra c ta cu s

,a nd e spe c i a l ly on

h i s c u r i ou s su cce ss i on o f t r i l l s (fo r t h e ba ssoon l ) , wr i t ten t o rep t esen t the a c t of dy i ng o f a m a n .

”

I V E IGHTEENTH CENTURY 81 AFTER 103

fe l low—cou n t rym e n . The o n e s te p,however

,w h i c h

wou ld have car r ied t hem i n t h i s d i rec t io n —t h edefere n ce to t h e i r coun trym en

’

s wi she s a n d prej ud i ce s—t hey refu sed to take . They were

,so to

speak,co n s ta n t ly tor n be twee n a s t ro n g des i re to

swim a n d a n eq ual ly s t ro n g d i s l ike of co ld wa te r .So bega n t h e lo n g l i n e of operas fo r wh o se fa i l u r e

al l t h e o ld fam i l i ar excu ses have bee n,a n d st i l l a re ,

solem n ly tro t ted out . The i n j u st ice a n d ig n ora n c eof t h e c r i t i c s : th e squabb le s of th e s i n ger s : t h ebad n es s of t h e Opera books : t h e wi cked n ess o f t h elower c l as ses

,w ho w ere too s tup id to k n ow a n y th i n g

( excep t p erh ap s wha t t h ey d id n o t wa n t ) : t h e equalw i cked n e ss of t h e u pper c la s se s

,w ho were so c lever

tha t t h ey k n ew exac t ly w h a t t h ey d id wan t : a n d t hecomb i n a t io n of t h ese two types of wi c ked ne ss

,wh i c h

t hrew i t s V ic t ims i n to a d read ful sta te of com a w i t hre spec t to A n g lo—Co n t i n e n tal Opera ; al l these a n d adoze n s im i l ar excu s es h ave bee n pa raded i n E n gl i shj ou r n al s a n d i n E n gl i s h l i tera tur e from th e fi rs t y ear sof t h e e igh teen t h c e n tu ry t i l l t h e y ea r of grace

,1 9 1 1 ;

a n d t he operas o n w ho se beh al f t h ey h ave bee ncoaxed ou t to m ake th e i r awkwa rd

,u n co n v i n c i n g

,

l i t t l e bow s b efore th e pub l i c h ave al l bee n Brumm age n s tuff

,m ade i n im i ta t io n of to -day i n I taly

,

or of l as t—wee k i n Fra n c e,or of yes te rday—for t n igh t

i n Germ a n y . Ca n a n yth i n g good,wo rthy

,or n ob le

come of su c h ideal s A t a n y ra te n ot h i n g ever h as .

The seco n d of t h e two met hods by wh i c h I tal i a nOpera wa s opposed in E n g l and— n amely

,by t he

c rea t io n of Bal l ad O pera —i s more i n teres t i n g tou s , becau se we ar e ab l e to perce ive i n i t a n expres s io nof t he real d iffere n ce s wh i c h exi s ted t h e n

,as t h ey


ex i s t n ow,i n t h e co n sc iou s n ess of t he two peop l e s .

Th i s i s t h e more im por ta n t,becau se t h e n earer we

approac h o ur own d ay s of democra t i c em a n c ipa t io nt he m ore forc ib ly ar e we taugh t t h e le sso n t h a t a nyar t w h i c h i s no t ope n to t h e p eop l e a n d u n derstoodby t hem i s

,by i t s n a tu re

,b a sed upo n som e more

res tr i c ted a n d l ess pe rm a n e n t c h arac te r i s t ic s of

emot io n a n d i n t e l lec t,a n d t h a t w h e n t h ese sa n ds ,

so to speak,s h i ft wi t h t h e fl igh t of year s t he n ex t

ge n era t io n i s u n ab l e to fi n d a fi rm fo u n da t io n fori t s ow n b u i ld i n g . A n ew fou n d a t io n h a s t he n to bel a id

,a n d t h e who l e work begu n aga i n . I t i s j u s t

th i s mo n key—l ike d i sco n n ec t ed n e ss of effor t w h i ch i so ne o f t h e mos t pe rm a n e n t a n d d i s tres s i n g fea tu r e si n t h e h i s tory of E n g l i s h s ecul a r m u s i c . 1 The

1 D r . W a l ke r t ou ch e s on t h e reve r se s i d e of t h i s a rgumen t inh i s H i rtory os m

'

r i n Eng la nd. In s pea k i n g of ou r ea r l y e i gh teen t hcen t u ry com po se r s

,h e says (p . We can n o t h e lp no t i c ing,

a ll t h rough t h i s pe r i od,a grea t e x ten s i on of t h e a r t i st i c ev i l s , t h e

beg i n n i n g of wh i ch we h ave a l ready seen in Pu rc e l l ’ s d ay . Compose rs we re a l l t oo rap i d ly adop t i ng t h e i d ea t h a t t hey we re t h ese rvan t s of a pu b l i c t h a t h ad t o b e pl ea sed on t h e s po t .” Wem u s t , howeve r, remembe r t h a t t h e appe a ran ce a nd pe rs i s ten c e oft h i s i d e a in t h e m i nd s of En gl i s h com po se r s c a l l s

,n o t me re ly for

regre t , bu t for ex p l a n a t i on . And t h e e xp l an a t i on i s t o b e foundin t h e i r ( po ss i b l y u n con sc i o u s) recogn i t i on of t h e fa c t t h a t t h eemo t i on a l deve l opmen t s of a r t c a n n eve r be ba sed

,or a t a ny ra t e

h a v e n eve r be en ba sed,0 11 a l i en i n t e l l e c t u a l a c h i evemen t s . To

t h i s t ru t h ou r m u s i ca l h i s t ory bea rs pa i n fu l w i t n e s s . Th e wr i t in gof wor k s ca l c u l a ted t o p l ea se on l y t h ose few pe r son s wh o h aves u bs t i t u ted a k n owl edge of t h e se a c h i evemen t s for pe rson a l e xp er ien ce o f t h e i r ow n i s ev i d en ce

,no t o f a r t i s t i c deve l opmen t

,

b u t of a r t i s t i c im po ten ce a nd se l fi s hn e ss . I t se em s t o me n o t h in gl e s s t h an m on s t rou s t o repre sen t t ho se com po se rs who d e s cend

,a s

i t w e re,i n t o the ma rk e t -pl a c e

,a s d e scend i n g th e re on l y for ev i l

pu rpose s . Man yhave gon e t h e re , a nd ma ny mo re w i l l go , in t h ek n owl edge t h a t t h e peopl e wi l l n o t be c a l l ed t o from t h e h i l l sa nd in t h e u n se lfi sh de s i re to ma ke s ome pe rsona l sa cr i fi c e if

,by

do i ng so,t h ey ca n l ead t h e i r fe l l ow-cou n t rymen even a l i t t l e


The fi rs t appeara n ce,t h e n

,o f I tal i a n Oper a i n

E n gla n d gave t h e s ig n a l to t h e E n g l i s h pub l i c,no t

fo r su r re n d er,bu t fo r defi a n ce a n d t h i s defi a n c e

,

t hough i t was u n suppo r ted by a n y ar t is t i c s t re n gtho r co n t i n u i t y of pu rpos e , h a s per s i st ed to th e p rese n tday . I t m u s t n o t be im ag i n ed t h a t t h e Eng l i s h of t h eear ly e igh tee n t h ce n tu ry wer e a se t of a rt is t ic barbar i a n so n whom t h e u se of mu s i c i n t h e t hea t re came a s awo n der - s t r ik i n g i n n ova t io n . O n t h e co n t ra ry

,t h ey

h ad for lo n g de l igh ted i n i ts em p lo yme n t,a n d t he i r

de l igh t h ad resul ted i n t h e com pos i t io n of more tha no ne m as te rp iece . In t h e I tal i a n Opera

,however

,

w h i c h w a s n ow p rese n ted to th em ,t h e y w ere sudde n ly

faced by a n ew a r t form w h i c h h ad been i n ve n tedm o re th a n o n e h u n dred year s ear l i e r

,a n d deve loped

du r i n g th a t t ime to expre ss ideal s a n d a sp i ra t io n s i nwhich

b

t he y h ad no pa r t . Th e game h ad,a s i t we re ,

bee n p l ayed for a c e n tu ry,a n d i t s ru le s e labora ted to

su i t a s t ra n ge c l im at e a n d a s tra n ge tem perame n t , a n dco n sequ e n t ly

,w h e n i t wa s sh ipped over to be p l ayed

o n E n g l i s h tu rf a n d u n der E n gl i s h sk i e s,t h e p u b l i c

v i ew ed i t wi t h i n d i ffere n ce or eve n exaspera t io n .

The same a t t i tud e of m i n d m igh t b e expec t ed i f al i t t le a r i s toc ra t i c co ter i e of I tal i a n spo rtsm e n were toa t tem pt th e s udd e n i n t roduc t io n of c r ic ke t i n t o I taly .

I t i s no t t h a t t h e I tal i a n s do no t k n ow wh a t a bal l a n d

men t seem s t o me t o con fu se t h e qu e s t i on a s t o wh i ch n a t i on h a st ra ve l l ed fa r t h e s t a l ong on e o f t h e many pa ra l l e l pa t h s t h a t l e adto t h e t em pl e of a r t i s t i c pe rfe c t i on w i th t h e ve ry d i ffe ren t q u e s t i ona s t o t h e be s t t ra c k by wh i ch ano th e r n a t i on

,se t t i ng ou t from

an o t h e r s ta r t i ng—pl a ce , s h o u l d a t t em p t t o rea ch a nd en t e r i t s w i d ega t e s . P e rh aps th e be s t an swe r t o t h i s l a t t e r q u e s t i on ca n beg i ven in S i r H u be r t l ’a rry ’ s ow n word s ( Studies of Grezzt Camp orerr,p .

“ A gen u i n e s on g requ i re s a w e l l - deve l o ped n a t i on a ls ty l e , a nd a t rea tmen t of me l ody wh i ch i s pe rfec t l y adap t ed t o t h ela ngua gef

’

I V E IGHTEENTH CENTURY St AFTER 1 0 7

eve n a b a t a re,b u t t ha t t h e i r way s a re qui t e d i ffere n t .

Now,we h ave ampl e l i t erary a n d m u s ic al e v ide n ce

of t h e d iffe re n ce betwee n t he ways of t h e operat i cE n gl i shm a n a n d th e opera t i c I tal i a n from th e beg i nn i n g of th e e igh tee n t h ce n tu ry to t h e pre se n t day , a n da s t h ese d iffere n c es seem to h ave c h a n ged sca rc e ly a tal l i n tha t t ime i t i s i n te re st i n g to look i n to t hem al i t t le more c lose ly .

A s I u n ders ta n d i t,t here were two pr i n c ip al po i n t s

on w h ic h t h e E n gl i shm a n refused to accep t t h eI tal i a n ’ s exper ie n c e a s au tho r i ta t ive . These were t h epo i n ts of “ Subj ec t a n d “M e th od

,i n eac h ofwhich

h e saw wh a t I m ay cal l a n i n congru i ty w h i c harou sed h i s a n tago n i sm . The fi r s t of t h ese opera t i ci n co n gru i t i e s” i s n o t o f a n y grea t p h i losoph i cal i n t e res t

,

bu t i s wor t h co n s idera t io n,bec a u se i t ha s h ad a co n s ta n t

b ear i n g on t h e fa i l u re or su cc e s s of i n d iv id ual opera si n t h i s cou n t ry . I m u s t

,howeve r

,before d esc r ib i n g

t hese “ opera t ic i n co n gru i t ies,

” po i n t ou t t h a t I amn o t d i scu s s i n g t he i r ph i lo sophy as a detac hed ar t i st icque st io n

,bu t m ere ly try i n g to exp l ai n t h e sp i r i t i n

wh i c h th i s a r t i s t ic ques t io n wa s rece ived by t h e E n gl i s hpeop l e . I t i s t h e more n ece s sa ry to say t h i s becau sei t i s too ofte n as sumed t h a t t h e E n gl i sh h ave n o v iewa t al l i n th e m a t t e r—ar e r eal ly l i t t l e more th a n b ru t ebeas t s i n t h e i r a r t i s t i c j udgme n ts

,a n d th i s ly i n g

a s sumpt io n i s b ased on a co n s idera t io n of t h e i ri n d iffer e n c e to a r t of w h i c h t h ey do no t app rove , aco n s idera t io n w h i ch shou ld r igh t ly l ead to a prec i se lyoppos i te ded uc t io n .

( a ) I NCON G RU ITY or SU BJ ECT .

1

A s I h ave a l ready m e n t io n ed,t h e i n ve n t io n of Opera

was a eonsci a zzr a t t em pt to reco n s t i tu t e t h e a n c i e n t1 I do no t

,of cou rse

,refe r to t h e d i ffi c u l ty in j u s t ify i ng Ope ra


G reek d ram a . I t s subj ec t s were,t h erefore

,exc l u s ive ly

d raw n from a n t iqu i ty . A t fi r s t t h e m y t h o logy,

e spec i al ly th e l a te r n eo—c l as s ical m y th o logy of Greec ea n d Rome

,wa s u s ed to p rov ide subj ec t s for mu s i cal

i l l u s tra t io n La te r s t i l l , t he h ack n eyed top i c s of

(a n t iqu e ) h i s tory were comm a n deered for s tage u se .The fi r s t type of opera i s to be see n i n t he lo n g l i s to f s eve n te e n t h cen tu ry work s wh i c h spra n g from th e i rpro to t y pes D afn e a n d Eu r id i ce

,

” a n d i f w e askfor examp le s of bo t h t h ese t ypes

,we h ave o n l y to tu r n

over,a t ra n dom

,a n y fi le of e igh tee n t h ce n tu ry E n g l i sh

new s pa p e1 s a n d read t h e adver t i sem e n t s of for t hcom i n g opera s

,su c h a s “Admetu s

,

“Poru s,

“ J u l i u sCaesa r? A e tius

,Cor io l a n u s

,Sosa rmes .

Now,i t i s d iffi c u l t e n ough to rou se t h e i n t e res t of

t h e averag e t h ea t re goe r i n a ny h i s tor i cal o r mytholog ical subj ec t

,b u t? to t h e I tal i a n , t h e re 18 eve n now

a t r i c k le of b lood i n t h e ve i n s b y mea n s of w h i c hh e ca n c l a im k i n s h ip wi t h som e a t a n y ra t e of t he sewo r th i e s . To a Lo n do n er t h e y h ave exac t ly t h esame i n t ere s t a s t h e do i n gs of Thom as th e Rhymeror Ki n g A l fred h ave to a n I tal i a n— n i l . Th eimpor ta n t po i n t fo r u s i s t h e exi s te n ce of t h i si n d iffere n c e

,n o t ou r op i n io n a s t o i t s r igh t n es s o r

w ro n g n ess . To a ge n era t io n of su c h Lo n do n er s,

accu s tomed to a s soc i a t e Opera w i t h th e l e n gthy boredom s of Demetr i u s

,

”Py r rh u s

,a n d H yda spes ,

”

t h e appeara n ce o f Cap ta i n Mac h ea t h a n d h i s fr i e n ds!

1“ The Beggar 5 Opera ” s eemed almost too good

i t se l f a s a n a r t—form—a d i ffi c u l ty wh i ch se em s t o be se t eve n t h ep ro fe s s i on a l wr i te r s 0 11 Ope ra

,a nd wh i c h re s t s o n a m i s con cep t i on ,

wh i c h i s equ a l l y a ppl i ca b l e t o a l l s tage—pl ays, a nd i ndeed t o a l l

form s o f a r t ( se e Fu l l e r—NIa i tla nd in h i s preface t o S trea tfield’sT/ze Opera , p .

1 From adve r t i semen t s o f 1 7 32 .


of emo t io n,a n d w e m u s t

,t h erefo re

,no t over look th e

fac t t ha t i f we rej ec t t h e most emot io n al to p ic s we are,

so to speak,tak i n g th e sword ou t o f t h e Mu s e ’ s h a n d .

Th i s t h e e igh teen t h c e n tu ry E n gl i shm a n d id con

sc iou s ly,b u t we m ay p lead i n ex te n u a t io n t h a t t h e o n ly

emot io n al top i c s w h i c h w e re prese n ted for h i s approva lwere top ic s w h i c h h e cou ld no t approve . H e c h ose

,

t h erefore,w h a t was to h im t h e l e s ser of two ev i l s

,t h e

m a i n t e n a n ce of a type of Opera th i n a n d sc rappy,n o

doub t,b u t free from w h a t h e rega rded as fu n d ame n tal

absu rd i t i es . H e r emembered,per h aps

,t h a t n e i t he r

t raged y,fa n c y

,n o r poet ry i s t h e p erq u i s i t e of

c l as s ical h i s to ry a n d myt ho logy,a n d

,i f h i s n at io n a l

c i rcumsta n c es h ad perm i t t ed i t,he m igh t have

deve loped al l t h ese e l eme n t s—a s t h e Co n t i n e n taln a t io n s h ave deve loped t hem— i n a n Ope ra basedo n h i s own fam i l i a r h i s to ry a n d on t h o se i n t im a tetop i cs wh i c h we re most conge n i al to h i s n a t io n alt em perame n t .I m ay touc h o n t h e fac t —in pare n t hes i s—t h a t t h i s

d i s l ike of a n E n gl i s h a ud i e n ce fo r th ea t r i cal gloom i ss t i l l a fac to r w h i c h we m u s t take i n to accou n t . Weh ave o n l y to d rop i n to Cove n t Ga rde n abou t h al f-pa s te leve n a n y eve n i ng du r i n g th e gra n d seaso n to wi t n es ssome two or t h ree h eal thy—look i n g al ie n s d y i n g s lowly( somet imes v ery s lowly ) by co ld s tee l , ho t l ead , po i so n ,a sph yx i a t io n

,ph t h i s i s

,bu r i al—al ive

,o r

,i n defau l t of al l

t h e se,b y th a t cu r io u s form o f d i sease— th e morb u s

Opera t icus—w h i c h a t tacks a nd i n s ta n t ly k i l l s te n o rs

a nd sopra n os j u s t b efore t h e l a s t ac t c u r ta i n . 1 I f w edrop i n a l i t t le ear l i er i n t h e eve n i n g to ascer ta i n t h ecau s e s w h ic h l ead up to t h ese me l a n c ho ly occu rre n ees we s h al l fi n d t hem rang i ng

,i n a var i e ty of

1 “ A n ope ra m u s t end h app i ly , says Th e P lay e r in “ Th eBegga r ’ s Ope ra .

I V E IGHTEENTH CENTURY 8z AFTER 1 1 1

c i rcumsta n ces dow n wa rds , from sed u c t io n a n d b igamyto ad ul te ry a n d i n ces t . 1

Now ,i t i s t ru e t h a t t h e se t h i n gs ex i s t j u s t a s

fo rgery,pet ty larce n y

,a n d bu rgl ary ex i s t . A m a n

does no t , however , app l aud o r dep lore a mu rde r t h emore—or

,for th a t m a t te r , determ i n e th e more to

comm i t m u rd e r o r t o refra i n from do i n g so

because h e h as read of i t i n h i s n ewspaper o r see nO t h e l lo .

” 2 The fac t i s m ere ly b rough t before h i sco n sc iou s n es s t h a t

,i n cer ta i n c i rc umsta n ce s

,m u rder

h as b ee n comm i t t ed . A s fa r a s t he t h ea t re- goer i sc o n c er n ed th ere i s n o moral qu es t io n a t al l . 3 Nor i si t po ss ib le to d e n y su re n ess of j udgme n t to a p eop lewho have p rod u ced Sh akespeare . B u t

,0 11 t h i s po i n t

,

bo th t h ey a n d S h akespeare a re q u i t e cl ear,for w h i le

t h ey adm i t “ p i ty a n d fear,t hey refu s e “ d i sgu s t a n d

loat h i n g ” a s c lea n se r s of t h e sou l . A n d mor e t h a nt h a t

,t hey c la im th a t t h e gloomy a n d sord id a spect s

of l i fe shal l n o t b e fo rced i n to a n (ar t i st i cal ly fal se )p rom i n e n ce a t t h e expe n se of t h e o th er br igh ter a speet s w h i c h a re mo re poe t i cal a n d n o less p erm a n e n t .

1 Su l l i van,i n h i s add re s s Abou t Mus i c

,d e l i ve red a t Birm ing

h am in 1888, made t h e c u r i ou s l y i n com pl e t e a nd i n a ccu ra t e s t a t em en t t h a t Mu s i c i s a b so l u t e l y fre e from t h e powe r of suggest i ngany t h i n g immora l . I t c a n con vey eve ry mean ing excep t on ea n im pu re one .

” Th e re a re,of cou r s e

,many mean i ngs o t h e r t h an

impu re mean in gs t h a t m u s i c c an n o t con v ey,a nd t h e on l y rea son

why i t cann o t su gge s t any th i n g immora l ” i s be cau se i t i s a n a r ta nd t h e refore n on -mora l . Mu s i c can n o t s u gge s t t h e t 1me of d ay

,

o r t h e degree s of lon g i tude a nd l a t i t u d e, a nd if i t s fun c t i on wa s t o

d o e i t he r of t h e se t h i n gs o r t o i n cu l ca te t h e prac t i ce of v i r t u e i twou ld cea se t o be a n a r t .

2 On t h i s po i n t , in conn ec t i on wi t h “Th e Begga r ’ s Ope ra,see

J ohn son s a nd G i bbon ’ s rem a rk s in B oswe l l ’ ss Life, u n d e r da t eI 7 7 S

3 Se e Mr. Lawren ce G i lman ’s c r i t i c i sm of Mr. E rn e s t N ewmanin A spect: of Modern Opera , p . 95.

1 1 2 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CHA P .

Th i s t re n d of t h ough t,wh ich i s somet imes w ro n g ly

cal led “ id eal i s t ic,

” h a s alway s bee n a ch arac ter i s t i cof t he E n g l i s h ou t look

,a n d 110 good pu rpose i s

t o be served by prete n d i n g t h a t i t doe s no t ex i s t .We m u s t

,t h e refore , face fu l ly a n d square ly t h e fac t

t h a t i t i n vo lves som e sac r ifi c e o n t h e par t of m u s i c .I t i s

,however

,o n ly a sac r ifi c e wh i c h wi l l h ave to b e

m ade a t t h e beg i n n i n g of a n opera t i c cu l tu re,for t h e

E n g l i s h p ub l i c i s a lways eage r to bru s h away t h ea n t iquar i a n obs tac le s t h a t are too freque n t l y s trew ni n i t s pa t h

,a n d to we lcom e free- h ear ted l y t h e emo

t io na l m i s s io n of op era t i c m u s i c : o n l y o ne ca n n o tt h i n k th a t i t i s eve r l ike ly to to ler a te t h e u n re l i evedg loom wh i c h ha s been pas sed off on i t more t h a no n c e a s “Eng l i s h Opera . Tragedy th a t e n n ob le s a n d

pu rifie s— Yes : Com edy t h a t b r igh te n s a n d c h a rm s

Yes eve n Tragedy a n d Com ed y m i xed b u t m udm asque rad i n g a s fl esh a n d b lood—No

,n o

,110 .

(b) I N CONG RU ITY o r M ETH OD .

The seco n d,a n d m u c h m o re impor ta n t

,po i n t i n

w h i c h t h e E n gl i s h fou n d cau s e for d i ssa t i sfac t io nw i t h t h e I tal i a n Opera I h ave n amed rough l y

“ In

co n gru i ty of M e t h od . I n a wo rd,i t wa s t h e

pr ese n c e of “ dec l am a tory rec i ta t ive,

” th a t i s t o say,

of su cc ess io n s of n o te s w r i t te n,a s was t h e fash io n

t h e n,n o t to e n h a n c e t h e emot io n a l s t rength of t h e

wo rd s,b u t m ere ly to preven t t h e s i n ge r d ropp i n g

awkwa rd ly i n to ac tual speec h . The or ig i n al idea ofth e early seven t e e n t h cen tu ry I tal i a n s h ad bee n to

p rov ide a n O pera i n wh i c h th e m u s i c emph as ized th eemot io n al co n te n t s of t he d ram a w h i le rem a i n i n gsu bs id i a r y to t h e d ram a i t se l f, a nd t h e effor t s of a llrefo rm e rs h ave reall y bee n d i rec t ed toward s t h i s one


Th i s was e s se n t i al ly t h e a im of t h e i n ve n tor s ofO pera ; bu t , before th e beg i n n i n g of th e e igh tee n t hc e n tu ry e n d less abu se s h ad crep t i n to t h e form .

M r . Er n e st Newm a n , i n one of h i s pe n e tra t i n g er i t ic i sm s

,

1 h a s po i n ted ou t t h e d a n gers w h i c h Eu ropera n a t t h e t ime of t h e Re n a i ssa n ce—a movem e n tw h i c h was ba s ed

,l i ke O pera

,0 11 a pa s s i o n a t e s tudy

of Greek a n t iq u i ty . The d a n ge r wa s l est t h i s n ewc ul t

,com i n g a s i t d id 0 11 a n ae s t h e t i cal l y weake n ed

c iv i l iza t io n,s h ou ld

,b y i t s V i r i l i ty

,keep b ack t h e

grow t h of th e very sp i r i t wh i c h i t h ad ca l led i n toex1s ten ce .

W i t h O pera t he pe r i l was al l t h e grea t e r,beca u se

i t wa s a conscious a t tempt to rep rod u c e t h e Greekd ram a . I t wa s

,t h e n

,i n d a n ger of be i n g d r ive n i n to

a pos i t io n of s ec l u s ionwh ere i t co uld o n ly exi s t as a na n tiq ua i ia n cu r io s i ty . From th i s i t wa s saved par tl yby t h e ref0 1mers a n d par tly by t h e s i n ger s . 2 I n th eco u r se of t h i s salva t io n

,howeve r

,t h e fu n c t io n s of t h e

m u s i c h ad become sp l i t u p i n to two d is t i n c t part s,

a nd th e m u s i c i t se l f was w r i t te n i n two to tal ly d i fferen t s ty les— t ho se i n w h i c h t h e com pose r wi sh edto amp l i fy t h e emot io n al mome n t s of t h e p lay

,a n d

th o se i n w h i ch h e wi shed to exp la i n a n d j u st i fy t h e semome n ts . U n fo rtu n a t ely

,t h e i n fl u e n c e of t h e s i n ger s

wa s d i rec ted,n o t o n ly towa rd s glor i fy i n g t h e ce n t ral

“ s i tu a t io n s of t h e play , b u t m o re pa r t i c u lar lyt owa rd s t h e p erso n a l g lo r ifi ca t io n of h imse l f, h erse l f,a n d (a t t h a t t ime ) i t se l f. The re su l t was a d eform edspec i e s o f O pe i a 111 w h i c h t h e c ha rac ter s were alway s

1 In C la rk a nd Me Opera , pa r t i i . ch ap te r i .2 Fo r t h e i n fl u en c e o f t h e s i n g e r s 0 11 e i gh t een t h cen t u ry Ope ra

,

see M r . A . J . Ba l fou r ’s e s say o n H and e l ” (No . 3 in h i s Esraysa nd Adz/l esser) .

I V E IGHTEENTH CENTURY 81 AFTER 1 1 5

s i n g i n g ar i as of a fi xed co n ve n t io n al pa t te r n,

1 or e l sed i scu ss i n g th e i r ow n a n d eac h o t h er ’ s woes i n a s tra n gech a t te r wh ic h h ad n e i t h er th e i n teres t of speec h n orof so n g .

I t wa s aga i n s t t h i s ch a t te r tha t t h e ea rly e igh tee n t hc en tury E n gl i shm a n rebe l l ed .

H e wa sb

w i ll i ng e n ough to accep t t h e Pu rcel lia ndefi n i t io n of m u 31c a s “ t h e exal ta t io n of poet ry

,

’ ’ bu tw h e n t h e s i n ge rs s topped exal t i n g poe t ry a n d bega na m add e n i n g rec i ta t ive w h i c h was a s u n l ike m u s1ca s t h e sou n d of a j e rky sewi n g—m ac h i n e

,h i s p a t i e n ce

gave ou t . Recal l ing the m a squ e s i n w h i ch h e h adde l igh ted fi fty o r s i x ty year s b efore , h e i n ve n t ed fo rh imse l f Bal l ad O pe ra , a fl imsy

,ar tle s s t h i n g m ad e

up of a n y scrap s of fo lk- tu n e a n d of old a n d moder nso n gs 0 11 w h i c h h e could l ay ha n ds . I n to su c h a n

opera h e would p i tc h fork a n y m u s i cal “ n umberw h i c h h e th ough t wou ld “ go

,a n d h e sh a red wi t h t h e

moder n m u s ical - comedy m a n age r t he ar t of “ c u t t i n g ”

h i s n umber s dow n t o t h e fewes t ba r s poss ib le .

O n on e pr i n c ip le alo n e h e wa s i n flexib l e,a n d

eea sez’

ous/y i n fl exib l e , a n d t h a t p r i n c i p l e wa s 110

r ec i ta t ive . H e re h e ope n l y defied t h e I tal i a n s,a n d

i n deed t h roughou t t h e who l e of t h e e igh tee n t h cen

tu ry we fi n d th e wo rd s “ t h e I tal i a n s t yle a n d “ t h eI tal i a n m a n n e r ” u sed regu l a r ly for rec i ta t ive . Th ei n t roduc t io n to t h e fi rs t a n d b est of al l Bal l ad O pera ss ta t e s t he au t h o r ’ s i n te n t io n i n a s e n te n ce . H e say s

“ I h ave n o t m ad e my O pera t h roughou t u n n a tu ral,

l ike tho se i n vogue ; fo r I h ave 110 rec i tat1v e .

1 E.g . Th e “ Ar i a can tab i l e,t h e “ A r i a d i por tam en t o

,

t h e “ Ar i a d i mezz o ca ra t te re,

” t h e “A r i a pa rl an t e,

” t h e “ A r i ad i bra vu ra (Grove) .

2 Th e B egga r ’s Ope r

1 1 6 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CHAP .

For t h e res t,h i s m et h od wa s t o ig n ore t h e w ho le

prob lem of ope ra t i c co n s tru c t io n a n d to b reak off

i n to spoke n d i alogu e a t t h e e n d of eac h song ; a n dth i s h a s rem a in ed t h e coward ly E n gl i s h m ethod

,or

ra t h er wa n t of method , for more t ha n 1 50 year s .The i n c l u s io n of co n ce rted p iec e s a n d of a few odd

tags of rec i ta t ive here a n d t here h a s g ive n i t ace rta i n appea ra n c e of d eve lopme n t

,bu t

,i n i t s difli

de n ce to fac e a n d so lve ( i n i t s own way ) th e e s se n t i a ld iffi cu l t ie s of t h e p rob lem

,pra c t i cal ly ever y su cces s

fu l E n gl i s h wo rk h a s bee n true to t h e t im id type of“ The Beggar ’ s Opera . I n eed scarc e ly me n t io nt h a t al l t h ese “ B al lad O pe ra s w ere w r i t te n a n dperfo rm ed i n E n g l i sh

,a n d th i s fac t alo n e

,i f t h e re

wer e 110 o th e r,wou ld be su ffi c i e n t t o prove th e

i n accu racy of t he oft e n—repea ted s ta tem e n t 1 t h a tEng l i sh , i n t he e igh teen t h ce n tu ry , was n o t lookedupo n as a s u i tab l e m ed i um for m u s ic . Th i s was

,no

doub t,t h e V i ew of t h e d e n se- h ead ed a r i s toc ra t ic

c l as ses,w h o prefe r red (a s t h ey s t i l l p refe r) me n ta l fog

i n I tal i a n to su n sh i n e i n E n g l i s h ; bu t t h e peop lea rt i s t i ca lly u n d eve loped as t h ey w ere a n d a re— h avealway s s h ow n a very l ive ly recogn i t io n of t h e fac t t h a ti t i s n ecessa ry to u n ders tan d befo re o n e ca n e n j oy .

We m u s t pau se h ere to refl ec t th a t th e com pose rs,

or ra th er t h e comp i le rs,of t h ese Ba ll ad O peras co u ld

no t look for su ppo rt to a n a r t i st i cal ly u n i ted n a t io n .

On eopo 1 t io n of t h a t n a t io n

— t h e a r i s toc racy—wa sam u s i n g i t s el f w i t h I tal i a n O pera m uc h a s i t m igh t

1 15g I t w a s s t ra nge l y be l i eved t h a t n o o t h e r l an gu age ( i f .

t h an I t a l i a n ) wa s adm i s s i b l e fo r a r t i s t i c ope ra ” (Wa l k e r , H i storyos /s i r m l i ng/am ) .

“ Th e re w a s so m u c h sa i d aga i n s t t h eu n for t u n a te Enghshl a n gu ag e a s a m ed i um of voca l e xpre s s i ont h a t n a t i ve t a l en t h ad l 1 i t l e o r 110 ch a n c e o f d i s t i ngu i sh i ng i t se l f”

(M a rk h am Lee , T/ze SW ! of Upw a ) .


ca n n o t h ope to p l ace th em se lves a t t h e h ead of

t h e fo re ig n cul tu re i n Lo n do n,wh e n t h e fore ig n er

h imsel f i s h ere i n h u n d red s : t hey m igh t,howeve r

,

cap ta i n a grea t n a t io n a l ar t i s t i c movem e n t . To t h a tcou rse

,i t seem s to me

,th e i r ar t i s t i c h o n ou r compe l s

t hem . I t i s a cou rs e t ha t requ i re s some sacr i fi c ea n d m uc h sympa t hy

,bu t i t i s al so a co u r se of

i n fi n i t e hopeful n e s s . Yet t h ey appear t o be i 11cap ab le of e i t h e r t h e n eedful sympa t hy or t h esac r i fi c e . O n e m igh t almost sa y t h a t t h ey haven o t y e t pas sed o u t of t h e i r e igh tee n t h c e n tu ryof me n ta l a loofn es s . The more ’ s t h e p i ty . Theya re al l a s po l i s h ed as Pope a nd a s ge n t lem a n ly a sGeorge IV . ; a n d t hey are q u i te co n te n t t o s i t u paloft i n t h e i r pre tt i ly ter raced Palac e of A r t (b u i l tby al i e n l abou r ) a n d d i scu ss t he m ax im s of C0 11

fuc ius wi t h a n ea sy m a nda rinesque e lega n c e , w h i leal l t he t ime they sh ould be dow n i n t h e ga rd e n

,

coa t s off a n d spad e i n h a n d .

To sum up t h en,we have i n ou r operat i c h i s to ry

t h e spec tac le of a l a rge m a ss of (comp a ra t ive ly ) poorpeop l e prod u c i n g cer ta i n re l a t ive ly low a r t-form ssa t i sfac to ry to th em se lves

,a n d a sm al l n umber of

r ic h peop le support i n g ce rtai n fore ig n ar t- form sequal ly sa t i sfac to ry to t hem selves . Each i n tu r ni s ab l e t o exer t

,a n d does exer t

,a n ega t ive a n d

s tul t i fy i n g i n fl ue n ce 0 11 the o t h e r : a n d t h i s fac i n gbot h -ways pos i t io n of t h e n a t io n i s refl ec ted i n t h eme n tal a t t i tude of t h e c l a ss be twee n— t h e composer s— som e o f whom h ave alway s bee n e n gaged i ndeve lop i n g popu l ar m u s i c , w h i le th e res t h ave bee np roduc i n g wo rks

,a s i t we re

,in a mmo—works t h a t

we re above a n d u n re l a ted to t he popula r s ta n d ard s,

bu t b e low t h e a r is to cra tic s ta n d a rd s,a n d o n ly re l a ted

to t h em i n t he way t h a t to -day i n E n gl a n d i s re l a ted

1v E IGHTEENTH CENTURY 81 AFTER 1 1 9

to yest erd ay i n Germ a n y . From th i s l a t t er ty pe of

mu s i c I ca n ga th er 110 h ope . We h ave , u n fortu n at e ly ,a lway s h ad t he im i ta to r w i t h u s

,a n d h e h a s pro

duced for u s e n dless im i ta t io n s of H a n de l , H ayd n ,Beet hove n

,Me n de l sso h n

,Wag n er , a n d Tsch aikow s k y .

Now he i s beg i n n i n g to tu rn h i s a t t e n t io n t o R i c ha rdS t rau s s a n d Claud e D eb u s sy ; bu t , howev er c lever h i sim i ta t io n s m ay be— a n d t hey are oft e n d i abo l i cal lyc leve r—t here i s i n t h em al l a se ed of dea t h .

1 I t i sd i sho n es t m u s i c ; or wo rse , i t i s t ra i torou s .Bu t i n t h e form er type of mu s i c I ca n see som e

hope,t hough i t s real iza t io n m ay be fa r off . We

m u s t rem ember t h a t,t hough i t s deve lopme n t h a s

bee n sm all,t h e l im i t h as bee n se t by th e l im i t of ou r

n a t io n a l ar t i s t i c u n i ty . Th e produ cers of t h i s m u s ichave h ad to say to t h em se lves : “ Thu s fa r

,a n d 110

fur t h er,

” n o t becau se t h e poss ib i l i t ie s of n ew a r t i s t i cd eve lopme n t were exhau s ted

,bu t b ecau se they fou n d

t hemse lve s fac ed by i n superab l e soc i al,a n d t h erefore

commerc i a l,obstac le s . Every lover of E n gl i sh

Opera shodld,t h er efore

,fix fi rm ly i n h i s m i n d t h e

hope t h a t the per n i c iou s c u l t of th e fore ig n e r,w h ic h

m akes Lo n do n the (very profi tab le ) l augh i n g- s tockof Eu rope

,s h ould be e n ded . O n some of t h e

d iffic u l t i es co n n ec ted wi t h t h i s I s h al l touc h i n ala te r c h apte r . M ea n wh i le I m ay po i n t ou t t h a t ,however sm al l t h e d eve lopme n t of popu lar E n g l is hOpera h as bee n

,t h ere i s a deve lopme n t ; a n d th a t ca n

be see n by read i n g th rough t h e score s of,say

,Th e

Beggar ’ s Op era,

” “ Ro s i n a,

”2 “ The K n igh t of

1 In t h e yea r 1 9 1 1 one h ea rs a pe rfe c t ly san e m u s i c i an spea k i n gof a young Engl i s h com po se r w i t h adm i ra t i on on t h e gro und th a th e h a s l ea rn t by h ea r t a c e r ta i n bea u t i fu l bu t e x t reme l y a l i enFren c h ope ra

,a nd believes in m a y note of i t .

’

2 Sh i e l d .

1 2 0 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM C HAP .

S n owdou n,

” 1 “ Th e N igh t Da n c er s ,” 2

M ou n ta i n Sy lph,

”3 a n d “ The Mi k ado

“ Sh am u s O ’

Brien .

To deve lop i t s t i l l fu r t h e r ou r c ompose rs m u s t,

o n c e for al l,p u t off th e i r h igh - a n d -d ry

,detac h ed

a t t i tude of m i n d a n d determ i n e,a t w h a tever sac r ifi ce

to t h em se lves , to w r i t e Ope ra wh ic h i s “ acc ess ib l ea n d i n t e l l ig ib le to t h e peop le . I do no t say t h a ti t wou ld ever be poss ib le or des i rab l e for a com poserw ho i s mere ly a “ fore ig n m u s i c exp er t to m aket h i s a t tem pt ; bu t t h e re are m a n y me n who ar e a to n c e sufli c ie11 tly _

“ in compac t wi t h t h e i r t imes,

” 5

a n d suffi c ie n t ly aler t to t h e poss ib i l i t ies of im p rovem e n t . I t i s to t h e se m e n

,a n d n o t to t h e a n t iq uar ie s ,

t ha t o ne mu s t look fo r t ha t earne s t a n d sym pa the t i cr ecog n i t io n of prese n t—d ay ac tual i t ie s wi th ou t wh i c h110 forwa rd s tep ca n b e take n . Whe n t h i s h a s bee ndo n e

,t h e u n for tu n a t e gap w h i c h d iv ides t he two

s ides of t h e profe ss io n m ay be b r idged,a n d w e sh al l

ge t r i d of t h a t ta i n t w h i c h h a s too ofte n of l a t e y ea r sa s soc i a ted ar t i s t i c wort h wi t h soc i a l respec tab i l i ty . In eed say n o more on t h i s t op ic .

The que s t io n m ay,how ever

,be a sked wh e th er

th e very s tro n g a n t i -opera t i c p rej ud i ce s of t h eE n gl i shm a n ca n eve r b e overcom e . I n a n swe r t ot h a t I wo u ld ca l l t h e reader ’ s a t t e n t io n to t h e fac tt h a t t h e prej ud ice s of t h e E n g l i s hm a n a re no t

prej ud i ce s aga i n s t Op era as a form ,bu t aga i n s t w h a t

h e co n s iders t/ze i tzeoagra z'

tz'

es of Op era as e l abo ra tedabroad . I t i s t rue t h a t h e al te rn a te ly l aughs a n dsulks w h e n ( i n h i s own l a n guage) he h ear s s tagepeop le d i sc u ss i n g the i r food 7 a n d t h e i r p syc ho logy

1 B i s h op .

2 Lod e r 3 Ba rn e t t . 4 Su l l i van .

5 Stan ford .

0Mr. Ve rnon B la c kb u rn ’s c r i t i c i sm of P u cc in i .T So m u ch h a s be en sa i d

, i n t h i s cou n t ry , a bou t P i n ke r t on ’ s


i n t e l lec tual “ co n n ec t i n g l i n ks,e spec i a l l y i f th ey

deal,as t h e y ofte n m u s t deal

,w i t h ex ter n al top ic s .

Th ey wi l l,t he n

,i n s i s t o n a n O pera free from t hese

co n nec t ing l i n k s ” ? Cer ta i n l y : a n d th a t Operaw i l l

,t herefore

,be d iffere n t i n i ts n a tu re from our

presen t O pera . I t wil l be a n O pe ra su c h a s Pu rce l lim ag i n ed— a n O pera i n wh ic h t h e Dram a i s poe t rya n d t he Mu s i c i s emp loyed to “ exal t th e poe t ry .

The a r t i s t i c d ifficul t ie s i n t h e way of e l abo ra t i n gsu c h a n O pera a re

,for a n E n g l is h composer

,t r i fl i n g .

There a re n umber s of beau t i fu l s to r i e s wi t h wh ic ht h e p ub l i c i s fam i l i a r

,a n d

,even i f t he top i c c ho se n

i s u n fam i l i ar,t he proce s s io n of t h e Dr am a i t s e l f ca n

be a n d i n deed ough t to be— re s tr i c ted to suc h

c a l l i ng for “ w i n e o r “ dr i n k on t h e s t age c an n o t be m a t te re i t h e r of h umou r o r of offen ce . A 11 E n g l i s h s in ge r

,s i n g in g i n

E ng l i sh befo re a n E ng l i s h a ud1en c e , m i gh t (wi t h h i s h and 011 t h ebo t t l e ) say , “ G i ve m e a d ra ugh t of A s t i Sp uman te ” w i t hou tra i s i n g a sm i l e

,bec a u se t h e word s “ A s t i Spuman t e h a ve no

mean i n g to a n E ngl i s h a ud i en c e , w h i c h me re ly see s,by th e

a c t or ’s ge s t u re s,t h a t h e m ean s “ w i n e bu t t h e conno ta t i on of

t h e word “ wh i sky ” 1s sp ec i a l i zed to t h e Eng l i s hman,a nd t h a t

i s why h e regre t s i t a s u n su i ta b l e t o Ope ra . I t i s no t,a s Mr .

Lawren c e G i lman say s , beca u s e P i n k e r t on i s a m a n of ou r own

t ime .” H e 1s —or ough t t o be—a a nd t h a t i s enough ; h i s“ t ime i s of n o con sequ ence . Bu t i t i s e s sen t i a l t h a t h e sh ou ldsay a nd do t h i ngs a ppl i c a b l e t o a ny t ime . Men a nd womend r i n k w i n e a nd w ea r ga rmen t s a t a l l t ime s ; t h ey a l so love a nd

de se r t e a c h o t h e r . B u t i f w e spec i a l i z e a ny of t h e se t h ing s—a s,

for in s ta n ce,by say i n g th a t h e dran k bo t t l ed bee r

,or wore J a ege r

u n de rc lo th i ng , o r de se r ted h e r by ta k i ng th e from Ch a r ingC ross—w e ro b t h e c h a rac te r of i t s gen e ra l i ty

,a nd t he refore

d e t ra c t from i t s emo t i on a l a ppea l . I t fo l l ows t h a t t h e l e s s fu ndamen t a l t o h uman na t u re t h e a c t i on i s w i t h wh i c h t h e a u th or i sde a l i ng

,t h e g rea te r t h e n e ces s i t y of a t ta c h i n g th a t a c t i on a s a

ce rem on i a l m ovemen t o r “ ob se rvan c e ” t o t h e d rama a s a ni n t egra l pa r t of 113 s t ru c t u re . Th u s su ch s im pl e movem en t s a st h e open i ng of a doo r or t h e ra 1s i n g of a c u p of w i n e t o t h el i p s become sa nc t i fi ed to t h e i r p rope r end s in Mu s i c-D rama .

1v E IGHTEENTH CENTURY 81 AFTER 1 2 3

broad d eve lopme n t s a s we s ee i n “ Tr i s ta n a n dI so ld e

,w h i l e t h e movemen t s of t h e ac tu al c h arac

t er s 0 11 t h e s tage c a n be , a n d ough t to be , co n fi n edto th ose express ive “ c eremo n i a l moveme n t s

,

” eac ho ne of wh ic h h a s a defi n i te bear i ng 011 th e D ram a .

I n a n Opera of t h i s sor t we st re t c h h ands,as i t

w ere,acro ss two ce n tu r i e s to H e n ry P u rce l l . The

“ emot io n of t h e c harac te r a nd t h e “ emo t io n of

t h e mu s ic ” 1 becom e b l ended i n to a s i n g le concept io n

,i n w h i cht h e two par t s a re presen t ed s imu l

ta neou sly to t h e aud ie n c e . A l l t he pet ty Opera t i ci n co n gru i t ie s w h ic h h ave sc a n dal ized E n gl i s hm e n forso lo n g d i sappear a t o n c e

,a n d leave u s w i t h a n

Opera t h a t i s m u s ically flex ib le bu t d ram a t i cal lys imp le .

1 D ebu ssy ’ s p h ra se .

CHAPTER V

TO—DAY IN LONDON

IN t h e fi r s t c h ap ter of t h i s book I d rew a t t e n t ion tot h e fac t t h a t

,t hough m a n y opera s h ave bee n w r i t t e n

i n E n g l a n d by a n d fo r E n g l i s hme n,we ca n n o t b e

sa id to have a n y orga n i c Opera t i c H i s t o ry . Theh i s to ry w h ic h we h ave i s

,w he n co n s idered soc i al ly

,

t he h i s to ry of a co n t i n u al s truggl e betwee n a fo re ig ncu l tu re imposed 0 11 u s by our ow n upper c l a s se s a n da n a t io n a l pop ula r cul tu re whi c h was a t o n ce moree leme n tary 111 i t s n a ture

,l e s s se l f- co n sc iou s

,a n d

( a r t i s t i cal l y ) almost comp l e te ly u n deve loped .

I n t h i s s t rugg le i t i s n o tewo r th y t h a t,t h ough the

fore ign c ompose r always wo n,t h e E n g l i shm a n wa s

bea t e n bu t n ever k i l led . h e ro se to h i s fee t aga i na n d

,w i t h a c er tai n dogged n ess of p u rpose

,re n ewed

t h e co n te s t,figh t i ng 1n h i s o ld way a n d wi t h h i s o ld

weapo n s . There wa s some th i n g l augh ab l e—almostpa t he t ic—in t h i s te n ac i ty . A lway s d efea ted

,h e

refu s ed,wi t h a c u r iou s ly su r e i n s t i n c t

,to get h imse l f

t h e rap i e r a nd l igh t su i t o f fo re ig n a rmou r wi thwh i c h alo n e

,i t m igh t h ave bee n suppo sed , h e could

tigh t su ccessfu l ly . Homesp u n a nd lea the r wi t h agood Eng l is h b road swo rd were

,h e k n ew

,the o n ly

imp lem en t s wi t h w h i c h h e cou ld ul t im a t e ly w i nbu t wha t am azes u s i s h i s s tu p id i ty in n o t see i n g th a tt h e co n d i t io n of h i s succe ss wa s t h a t h i s lea t h e r a n d


perfo rmed,as t h e so n g a nd t h e sym pho n y ca n

,

exc ep t a t ve ry grea t expe n se . Yet i t s com po sers ta n d s more i n n eed of th i s real iza t io n of h i s workt ha n e i t he r t h e so n g -w r i te r o r t h e sym ph o n is t . I nbo th t h e l a t t e r ca se s i t i s po ss ib le to j udge fai r lyexac t lyhow t h e wo rk wi l l “ com e ou t i n perfo rm a n ce . I do no t de n y tha t a fi n e sympho n i c workm ay be s tult ified b y a bad perform a n ce

,bu t suc h

perform a n c e s a re rare . The com pose r ca n,a s a ru le

,

cou n t 011 a c er ta i n average s ize o f co n c e r t h al l,a

capab le co n d u c t o r,a nd a k n ow n n umber of m u s ic i a n s

w ho h ave bee n t rai n ed to co n s id er obed i e n ce a n dprec i s io n a s a n e leve n t h comm a n dme n t .To t h e O pera t i c com pose r t h ere are 110 su c h

s te reotyped co n d i t io n s . H i s “ ho u se ” m ay ho ld

500 people o r 3000 : h i s orc h est ra m ay va ry from

4 5 to 1 00 : i t m ay be su n k so deep th a t al l h i sq u i e t effec t s a re t h row n away i t m ay be ra i s ed soh igh a s to m ake a n y th i ng beyo n d t he M ozar tO rc h es t ra u n bearab le to t h e a ud i e n c e : i n add i t io nt o th a t h e m ay h ave to co n t e n d wi t h a doze ni n ar t i s t i c a n d m u tu al ly j ealou s p erso n s 0 11 t h e s tagea n e l ec tr ic bu t to n tou ch ed a t t h e w ro n g mom en t i nt h e prompt- box m ay ru i n h i s most ca reful ly p l a n n edscen e : a yard of flapp i n g c arpe t t h row n down carele ss ly 0 11 to t h e stage m ay exa spe ra t e—a n d h asexa spera t ed— a n a ud i e n c e so comp l e te ly th a t a t t e nt io n t o t h e t ragedy becom es imposs i bl e t h e B r i t i s h

li l y a r t i s t i c b e i n gco - ope ra te s wi t h h im 0 11 t h e ea s t a n d 0 11 t h e we s t

,

i n t h e h eave n s above a n d i n t h e d ee p p l aces u n d erh i s s tage . Ou t of a l l t h ese fac tors h i s opera ha s t oem erge

,a n d

,howev er i t eme rge s

,t h e pub l i c (w h i ch

h a s a bab y—l i ke i n ab i l i ty to d i s t i ngui s h be twee n awo rk a n d i t s p rese n tat io n ) wi l l t h i n k t ha t

“ t h a t wa s

TO-DAY IN LONDON 1 2 7

w h a t the compose r i n te n ded . Yet i t i s o n ly bypu b l i c perfo rm a n ce th a t th e com poser ca n fi n d o u tw h a t a re h i s ow n poss ib i l i t ie s a n d l im i ta t io n s a n d wh a ti s t h e l i n e of l ea s t r e s i s tan ce 0 11 t h e par t of t heaud ie n ce .

Bu t i n E n gl a n d he h as to face a m uc h m oreser iou s d i ffi cu l ty

,

—it i s op era s may not be p erformed a t

a ll . W e m u s t t h e refore dwe l l fo r a mome n t 011 t h es i tua t io n a s i t affec t s h im

,t h a t i s to say

,o n h i s

c ha n ce s of perform a n ce . Speak i n g ge n e ral l y,w e m ay

p u t i t t ha t t h ese c h a n ces a re m i c roscop i cal ly sm al lso sm al l , i n deed , t h a t i t i s a lmost m a t t er of wo n derwhy a n y sa n e m a n shou ld wa s te h i s t ime i n O pera t i ccompos i t io n . There are

,i t i s t rue

,a n umber of

hou ses i n Lo n do n w h i c h deal su cc e ssfully wi t hMu s ical Com ed y

,

” bu t t h ere i s o n ly one h ou seCove n t Gard e n —w h ic h deal s

,eve n fo r a few w eeks

i n t h e yea r,wi t h t h e o th er s id e of t he p ic ture

,

Mu s i cal Tragedy,a n d from t h i s ho u s e t h e

E n gl i s hm a n i s p rac t i cal ly exc l uded . I n add i t ion to

t h ese two very d iffere n t type s wh i c h reprod u c e foru s

,i n t h e twe n t i e t h c e n tu ry

,t h e p leasa n t t imes wh e n

a Saxo n com pose r wa s impor t ed t o w r i te I tal i a nO pera for a n E n g l i s h aud ie n c e

,a n d w h e n l i t t le

c h i ldre n were h a n ged fo r s teal i n g a loaf of br ead,we

h ave two o th er so rt s of O pera t i c ac t iv i ty— t h esporad i c a t tempt s of casual imp resar ios to r u n“ E n g l i s h Opera ” i n Lo n do n a n d the al l- th e—yearrou n d ac t iv i t ies of t h e t rave l l i n g Opera compa n i es .These l a t te r o rga n iza t io n s

,w h i c h are m ai n l y co n nec ted

n owad ay s wi t h t h e n ames of Car l Rosa a n d Mood yMa n n ers

,deal n o t so m u c h wi t h E n gl is h O pera a s

wi t h fore ig n Opera t ra n s l a ted i n to E n g l is h,t h ough i t

i s t rue t ha t t h ey h ave ge n u i n e E n gl i s h Opera s i nt h e i r reper to i r e a n d h ave al so do n e exce l le n t wor k i n


t h e produ c t io n of n ew E n gl i sh opera s . Th e c h i efi n t e res t of t h e wo rk do n e by t h e t ravel l i n g Operacom pa n ies a n d t he l igh t op era—h ou ses i n Lo n do n l i es

,

however,a s far a s we a re co n ce r n ed

,i n t h e s ta t e

of rece pt iv i ty o r p repa red n es s to wh i ch th ey h aveb rough t t h e publ ic , a n d I s h al l t herefore m ake fu r th e rm e n t io n of th e i r work w h e n I com e to d i scu s s t h a tq u e s t io n i n a la te r c h ap te rI n t h e fi r s t pl ace , t h e n , we h ave t h e a n n u al ly

recu r r i ng Fore ig n O pera Sea so n a t Coven t Ga rd en 0 11

w h i c h t h e ep i t h e t “ Gra n d ” i s u sual ly bestowed ;t h ough i t i s d iffi cul t to su rm i se o f wh a t exac t ly i t sgra n d eu r c o n s i s t s—w h e th e r we app ly t h a t t e rm to t heSeaso n ” o r t o t h e “ O pera .

” I t i s prob ab l e th a tno E n g l i s h com poser cou ld be fou n d wh o wouldspeak very lov ing ly of t h i s i n s t i t u t io n

,n or cou ld w e

expec t to fi n d a pa t r io t i cal ly m i n ded l aym a n ex to l l i n gmet hod s w h i c h h ave e i t her fa i led to i n t er p re t o r h averu n d i rec t ly co n t ra ry to th e wi s h e s of al l bu t a sm al la n d a r i s to c ra t ic sec t ion of th e comm u n i ty . O11 t h eo th e r h a n d

,no t h i n g cou ld b e m ore u n fa i r t h a n t h e

s n eers wi th wh i c h i ts p erforma nces a re u sual ly he ld u pt o exec ra t io n a s a sor t of g lor ified d res sm akers ’

parad e o r s n ob s ’ c a r n ival . I t i s t ru e t h a t 011 t h i ss id e of t h e p rosc e n i um arc h t he re i s ge n eral ly acosmopo l i ta n d i sp l ay of t h a t weal t h a n d fash io nw h i c h h a s now fo r over s i x ty yea r s b ee n we lcom edwi t h i n t he wal l s of t h e Royal I tal i a n O pera ; ,

bu ti f t h e m a n a geme n t i s re spon s i b l e fo r t h e c l as s of i t spa t ro n s

,i t 13 110 les s 1e spon s ible for th e c las s of i t s

p e rform a n ce s,a n d of these perform a n ces , a s t h ey a r e

a t t h e prese n t day,i t i s n o t po ss ib le to sp eak excep t

i n t erm s of s i n cere pra i se .

A l l t h e d e ta i l s of l igh t ing a n d co stum ing a re 011t h e w ho le ca r eful ly though t ou t : t h e s tage -se ts


would be imposs ib le to fi n d a n i n t er n a t io n al leas tcommo n - de n om i n a t or ” su ch a s would

,i n ord i n ary

c i rcumsta n ce s,j u s t i fy the i r p rodu c t io n h ere . Som e

eve n of t h ese opera s h ave bee n t r i ed a t Cove n tGarde n i n t h e “ Gra n d sea so n o the rs h ave b ee nmou n ted ave fa i led—e lsew h ere . Th i s i sCove n t Garde n ’ s reco rd a record w h i c h

,i f no t

grea t i s a t a n y ra t e gra n d,

” a n d not m ade t h el es s so by t h e r e i t e ra t ed c h arge t h a t t h e RoyalI tal i a n Opera i s always h al f a ge n e ra t i o n or so beh i n dt he Co n t i n e n t . Th i s i s n o t now ac tual ly t ru e

,b u t

eve n i f i t were , o ne wou ld fee l i n c l i n ed to m akeo n e ’ s com p l imen t s to t h e m a n ageme n t 0 11 t h e i ri n s t i n c t ive

,i f i n com p le te

,i n tu i t io n a s to t h e n a t io n a l

c h arac te r .The reader m ay per haps be temp ted to as k w h y

,

i f t h i s t h ea tre h as so gra n d a n d g lor iou s a reco rd,

do t h e m a s se s of t h e peop le ra re ly or n eve r e n te ri t s gra n d a n d g lor iou s portal s ? Aga i n

,w hy i s i t

t h a t t h e p rofess io n a l m u s i c i a n s v i s i t s a re so ra re ?Why does h e go t h ere a t mos t o n ce o r twice i n ay ear

,a n d t he n prompted o n ly by cu r ios i ty

,o r by t h e

de s i r e to m a i n ta i n h i s p rofes s io nal pos i t io n by h ear i n ga n othe r fore ig n w0 1 k ? Why do h i s v i s i t s growrar e r a n d ra re r a s h i s yea r s i n crea se A n d why doeseac h succe ss ive v i s i t m ake h im fee l more l i ke a los twa n dere r w h o h a s s t rayed from ea r t h to a n o t he r a n dle s s fam i l i a r p l a n e t ? Why i s i t t h a t t h e peopl ew h om o ne see s i n t h e c heaper pa r ts of t h e ho u selook so d i ff ere n t from those w ho are to be see n i n t h esame p ar ts of m a n y o the r h ou se s a t t h e same t ime ?Why i s i t t ha t i n t h o se o th er hou s e s one ca n see

,a s

i t were,a m i c roco sm of t h e cou n t ry

,wh i le h ere a re

on ly a c rowd of u n t idy,a n aem i c g i rl s w hose h ead s

a re be i n g s tuffed wi t h fore ig n m u s ic a t our m u s ic

TO—DAY IN LONDON 1 3 1

sc hoo l s,a few c lerks of t h e h igh -browed a n d spec

ta cled var ie ty , a s inger o r two s t i l l i n a s ta t e of

pup i l l age,a n d the re s t— Soho

Now,t h e a n swe r t o t h i s que s t io n i s tha t t h e Cove n t

Garde n “ Gra n d ”

S ea so n bea r s t h e same re l a t io n s h i pto our n a t io n a l l i fe a n d c h a rac te r a s a n ob l em a n ’so rch id—ho u se bear s to a co t tager ’ s flowe r-garde n

,or

as t h e t iger- hou se a t t he Zoo bea r s to a RoyalAgr i cu l tu ral Soc i e ty ’ s Show . Bot h t he orc h id - hou sea n d t h e t iger—hou se—l ike t h e Roy al I tal i a n O pe raare i n t ere st i n g a n d expe n s ive c u r io s i t ies . To t h eJ ava n ese o r to t h e I n d i a n t h ey a re n e i th e r exo t i c n o rab n orm al : t o t h e E n gl i shm a n t h ey a r e bo th . H ek n ow s t ha t n e i t h e r h i s h edge row s no r h i s p loughedfi e ld s ca n ever be n efi t by t h e rear i n g o f equa to r i a lorc h id s i n ho t- h ou se s h e al so k n ow s t ha t n o b re edof a n im al s u n d er h i s n o rt h er n s k ie s i s ever l i ke l y tobe improved b y t h e mos t c a r eful a nd con s ta n twa tc h i n g of c aged t igers . H e t h erefo re wi se lyord ai n s t ha t h i s board of agr ic u l tu r e shal l n ot expe n di t s e n e rg ie s ( a n d h i s m o n ey) 011 exper ime n tal o rc h idfarm s or 0 11 me n ager ies .B u t t h i s i s exac t ly w h a t Cove n t Garde n does for

Th e ch a rge aga i n s t i t i s n o t t h a t i t s r eco rd i s n otgra n d a n d g lo r iou s

,bu t tha t i t h a s ach ieved a reco rd

i n wh i c h we h ave n o par t a n d from w h i c h w e ca ndraw as a n a t i o n n e i t h er prese n t b e n efi t no r h0pe fo rt h e fu tu re . I t s gra n d e u r a nd i t s glory ar e to u s a st h e gra n deu r a nd g lory of on e fore ig n c ou n t ry w h ic hdefea ts a n o th er . The d u s ty l a u re l s m ay be brough th ere for exh ib i t io n

,bu t t h ey do n ot m ove u s e i t h e r

to j oy or t o sorrow beca u se n e i t h e r t h e su ffer i n g no r

th e e l a t io n of the comba t wa s our s . The accu sa t io nof the E n gl i s hm a n aga i n s t Cove n t Garde n u n de r i t s

132 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM

pre se n t co n d i t io n s i s n ot t h at i t h a s no t don e goodwo rk

,bu t t h a t i t h a s no t do n e i z i s good work . I ts

s ymp a t h ie s a n d i t s feel i n g are no t for t h e n a t ion,bu t

for t h e sm al les t a n d lea s t p rod uc t ive sec t io n of t hen a t io n a n d fo r th e fore ig n er . I t s pa s swo rd i sfas h io n ; i ts h alf—m ark , al i e n age ; i t s s ig n—m a n ual ,t h e d i amo n d t i ara . Of th e n a t ive com pose r whowi s h e s to free h i s a r t from i t s s c e n ted a tmo sphere

,

i t s b ig,fl a shy fore ig n wome n

,a n d i t s b abe l o f every

to n gue i n t h e wor ld b u t h i s mother—E n gl i sh,i t

k n ow s n o th i n g a n d care s n o th i n g . I f h e wa n t s toappeal t o h i s fe l low—cou n t ryme n h e i s a t l iber ty todo so—ou t s ide i n t h e s tr ee t .B u t

,

” a fr i e n d of t h e Cove n t Garde n m a n ageme n tm ay say

,

“ w hy sh ou ld the E n g l i s h com posergrumb le ? H a v e n o t A a n d B a n d C h ad t h e i rwork s produced t h e re

“ I n deed t h ey h ave— A a n d B a n d C,b u t scarc e ly

eve n D .

”

“ Gra n ted I A n d th e i r su c ces s “ ?

wa s n i l . I al low i t . ”

A n d t h e se we re t h e bes t wo rk s you E n g l i s hme ncould p roduce

“ O n t h e co n t rary,th ey wer e t h e b es t works w e

could produce w he n wor k i n g to you r for e ig npa t te r n s . ”

A n d so t h e l ud i c rou s i n terch a n ge goes o n,—t h e

fo re ig n opera—hou se ope n i n g i t s doo rs to t h e sem ifo re ig n E ng l i shm a n

,a n d growl i n g a t h i s fai l u res ;

th e E n g l i shm a n,who se so le d a i ly d e l igh t i t i s to

exal t t h e h o r n of t h e fa t h er l a n d befo re h i s s tud e n ts ,growl i n g i n h i s tu r n becau se t he y h ave l ear n t t h e i rle sso n too we l l a n d wi l l no t ac ce pt h i s A n g loCo n t i n e n ta l m i lk- a n d—wa te r i n p l ace of th e “ pu re ,r ic h

,t h i c k ” c ream m ade i n Germ a n y .

1 34 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM C H A P .

fac e a n d m as t e r t h e comp l ex co n d i t io n s,a r t i s t i c

,

fi n a n c i a l,a n d soc i al

,wh i c h govern t h e d i rec t io n of a n

operahou s e,t h e prob lem

,eve n wh e n i t i s fr eed from

al l fi n a n c i a l a n x i e t i es,m ay w e l l appea r mu c h l ess

s imple . I t i s i n t e re s t i n g,t h e n

,t o k n ow t h e v i ew s

o f so e n t h u s i a s t ic a n d exper i en c ed a n impre sar io a sM r . Beec h am .

I n t h e fi r s t p lac e h e co n s ider s th e id ea of a Na t io n a lOpera Hou s e prepost erou s

,fu t i l e a n d id io t ic .

” H eb e l i eve s “ abso l u t e ly i n t h e i n d iv id ual

,O pera s h ould

b e i n t e r n a t io n al . ” These wo rd s,w h i c h I copy from a n

i n te rv i ew wi t h h im i n t h e Observ er of Ma rc h 2 o th,1 9 10, s how a d i s t i n c t a n d strong i n te n t io n . Iu n d ers tand t h em to mea n t h a t t h e ac tual d i r ec t io na n d prod u c t io n of O pera is —u n l i ke m a n y o t h e rfo rms of l i t era ry, a r t i s t i c , edu ca t io n al , a n d soc i a lact iv i ty— n o t a m a t te r i n w h i c h th e S ta t e ca n medd lew i t h adva n tage . We m u s t

,however

,as k ou rse lves

t h e quest io n,

“W i t h adva n tage to w h om Obv i

o u s lv i t can n o t mea n “ To M r . Beec h am ,for h i s a ims

a re u n der s tood to be of a d i s i n t ere s ted a n d ar t i st icn a tu re

,a n d t h ere fore we m u s t

,i n fa i r n ess

,as sume

t ha t h e approac hes t h e q ue st ion w i t h ou t p erso n alb i a s . I t m u s t

,t h e n

,be e i th e r to t h e a r t i s t s w ho

take pa r t i n t h e perfo rm a n ce s,t o t h e com pose rs

w ho or ig i n a te t h em,o r to t h e pub l i c w h i ch

,i n

t h e lo n g ru n,pay s fo r t h em . The se ar e t h e t h ree

pa r t i e s i n te re s t ed i n t h e q u es t io n o f S ta t e- a idedO pera .

Now,i t i s qu i te obv io u s t h a t

,gra n t ed th e ex i s t

e n c e of E n gl i s h O pera,w h e th e r u n de r t h e gu ida n ce

of t he S ta t e o r o f a n i n d iv id ual,i t i s m at t e r of

comm erc i a l i n d i ffe re n c e to t h e s i n ger w h et h er hes i ngs u nde r t h e o n e se t o f co nd i t io n s o r t h e o th e r .There m a y be some few d i ffere n ce s be tw ee n t h e two

,

TO-DAY 1N LONDON 1 35

suc h a s a l ower i n g of h i s fee s a ccompa n i ed b y aco rrespo n d i n g pe n s io n whe n h e i s u n der S ta t eco n t ro l ; bu t 011 t h e who l e h e wi l l be ab l e to exerc i seh i s ar t a s we l l a n d p rofi tab ly i n t h e o ne ca se a s i n t h eo ther . 1

The E n g l i sh compose r h imse l f,who sh ould be a t

l eas t a s m uc h i n te re s t ed i n th i s que s t io n a s t h es i n ger or t he impresa r io , seem s to m e cu r iou slyapa th e t ic i n h i s v iews 0 11 n a t io n al Op e ra . Th e reaso nm ay p erhaps b e fo u n d i n t h e fac t tha t to h im th epos s ib i l i ty of a n O pe ra t i c prod u c t io n a t a c e n t ra lLo n do n th ea t re i s su r ro u n ded by m uc h th e samedazz l i n g h aze a s t ha t w h i c h ob scu res t h e fi eldm arsh al ’ s b a to n from th e corporal ’s s igh t . I t i su n doub ted ly t h ere

,b u t n o t wort h co n s ider i n g . I f

h i s despo n de n cy al low s h im to take a n y V iew of t h eq u est io n a t al l he ge n eral ly tu r n s h i s ey e s h opeful lyto some one or o th e r of t h e suggested sc hemes of

1 I may men t i on in pa ren t h e s i s t h a t whoeve r u n d e r ta ke s t h efu t u re con t ro l of Eng l i s h Ope ra w i l l , a t t h e sam e t ime , h a ve t ou nde r ta ke a reform of i t s s i nge rs . Recen t pe rforman ce s h ave m ad ei t a bu n d an t l y c l ea r t h a t ou r s i n ge rs a re

,w i t h few e x cept i on s

,ve ry

fa r from posse ss i ng a dec l ama t o ry o r a r t i c u l a t ory me t h od su i ted tot h e requ i remen t s of t h e ope rah—ou se . Th e di i ii c ul t ies i n t h e wayof bu i l d i n g u p a n a dequ a t e s c hoo l of E n gl i s h Ope ra t i c s i ng i ng a reno t

,I t h in k , grea t , prov i d ed t h e fu n d am en ta l p r i n c i p l e i s a lways

kep t i n s i gh t , t h a t t h i s ca n on l y be don e by mean s of t h e produ ct i on of or i g i n a l E ngl i s h ope ra s . M r . B eech am i s un de r s tood t oho ld v i ews th a t a re symp a t he t i c to o u r E ng l i s h s i n ge rs

,a nd i t i s

on l y t o b e hoped th a t a t oo c l o se fam i l i a r i t y w i t h some of t h e i rme t h od s w i l l no t l ead h im t o a bandon a ny p l an s wh i c h h e m ayh ave for t h e i r en cou ragem en t . In t h e i n te rv i ew quo t ed a boveh e says : B u t wh e re I d i ffe r ve ry m u c h from some of my predecess

‘

ors i s in t h e be l i ef t h a t t h e se r v i ce s of a ve ry l a rge n umbe rof E ngl i s h a r t i s t s o f a s g re a t a b i l i t y a s many 011 t h e Con t i n en t

,a nd

posse s s i ng , for t h e mo s t pa r t , s u pe r i o r vo i ce s , c a n be u t i l i sedWe h ave , a s I h ave sud

,e x ce l l en t s i nge r s

,who

,i f t h ey wan t t o

ge t on,h ave t o go a b road to ma ke a s u c ce s s .”


S ta te—aided O pera .

1 H e fee l s t h a t,a t a n y ra t e du r i n g

t h e pa s t twe n ty year s,t h e i n d iv id ual impre sar io a n d

t he group s of a s soc i a t ed impresar ios h ave bee n veryloa t h t o mou n t h i s work s

,a n d a s h e ca n d raw from

h i s pe rso n al exper i e n c e l i t t le hope o r be l i ef for t h efu t u re

,h e i s i n c l i n ed to w e lcome a n y c ha n ge w h a t

eve r . I ca n n o t he l p t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e respo n s ib i l i t yfor t h i s u n sa t i sfac tory s ta t e o f affai r s i s d iv i ded .

The com pose r,0 11 h i s par t

,h a s n o t

,a s a ru l e

,m ade

a n y ser iou s a t t em p t to p rod u c e th e c l a ss of workw h i c h E ng l i s h a ud i e n c e s wa n t : a n d t h e Oper am a n ager

,0 11 t he o t h er ha n d

,h a s ge n e ral ly bee n

gu id ed by a s t r ik i n g wa n t of sympa t hy wi t h t h ecomposer

,a n d a co rre spo n d i n g wa n t of fa i t h i n t h e

pub l i c . These d i sc repa n c i es—al l perh ap s i n ev i tab ledu r i n g a t ra n s i t io n per iod suc h a s t h e p re se n t

,b u t

n o n e t h e l e s s wo r t h y of co n s id era t io n— lend a morepo i n t ed i n teres t to t h e s i tua t io n now t h a t M r .Beecham h a s e n t ered t h e Opera t i c fi e ld .

W i t h t h e more ge n eral q ue st io n of S ta t e- a idedOpera I s h al l deal l a t e r

,bu t I m ay po i n t ou t tha t

t h e re seem s to be a co n se n su s o f l ay op i n io n th a tt h e ge n i u s of t h e E n g l i s h peop l e l i e s

,a s a ru l e

,i n

t h e d i rec t io n of,a nd i s be s t express ed by

,t h e freedom

o f i ndiv idua l ac t iv i ty . The S ta t e a n d t h e m u n i c ipal it ie s h ave

,i ndeed

,u nder p re ssu re of p ub l i c s e n t ime n t

,

a s sumed a pa rt i a l co n tro l i n su c h m a t t er s as th eco l lec t io n a nd d i s t r ibu t io n of book s

,t h e acqu i s i t i o n

o f p i c tu res,a n d t h e su s t e n a n c e o f n ece ss i tou s

l i t e ra ry a n d sc i e n t i fi c m e n . We a re,h oweve r

,led to

bel i eve t h a t i n t h ese m a t te r s t h e y a re l ess effi c i e n tt h a n i n t h e case of t h e m ak i n g of road s

,t h e

1 Th e ca se fo r s u bven t i on ed Ope ra h a s been ably summa ri z ed in

t h e 1 st ch a pt e r o f S i r C h a r l e s S tan fo rd ’s S tud/es a nd Ikl ezztories,

q . v .

1 38 MUS IC AND NATIONAL I SM CHA P .

repu ta t io n n eve r fa i l to a t t rac t l arge aud iences , bu t c rowd s su c h a s n igh t ly fi l l t h ecou n t le ss ope ra- hou ses 0 11 th e Co n t i n e n t a red raw n from a fa r more se r iou s s ec t io n of

a r t- lovers . Does t h ere,or doe s t h ere not ,

exi s t i n E n gl a n d a p ub l i c ready to takei n tel l ige n t a n d co n t i n uou s i n teres t i n m u s i cd ram a per so i f i t h ad t he c h a n c e ?I t i s i n order to fi n d o u t w ha t i s t h e t ru e

a n swe r to t h i s qu es t io n t h a t t h e p rese n ten t e rpr i se— the Thom as Beec ham OperaS easo n— h a s bee n i n augu ra t ed

,for u n le s s

t he re i s a real d ema n d for opera,a n y

a t tem p t to fou n d a perm a n e n t Na t io n a lO pera House i n w h ic h th e be s t works

,n ew

a n d o ld,n a t ive a n d fore ig n

,s h al l be regu

la rly a n d ad equa te ly perform ed , i s a t lea s tp r em a tu re .

”

These two paragraph s,read i n t h e l igh t of t h e

i n terv i ew wi t h t h e Observ er re p re se n ta t ive , l eave onea l i t t l e i n doub t a s to w h a t M r . Beec h am ’ s realv i ew s~—if a n y a re . The s ta tem e n t i n t h e i n te rv iew i s very d efi n i t e a s to t h e u n des i rab i l i ty of aNa t io n al O pera Hou se : 0 11 t h e ot h e r h a n d , t h e twoparagraph s quo ted above appea r to pl ace th e e s tabl ishm en t of t h i s “ prepo s te ro u s

,fu t i le a n d id io t i c ”

i n s t i tu t io n as t h e u l t im a te goal w h ic h he ha s i nm i n d .

These que st io n s,howeve r

,have a t t h e pre se n t

m ome n t 110 more th an a n acad em i c i n t e res t,a n d

perhaps,wi th ou t i nj u st ic e to M r . Beec h am ,

we m ayi n ter pre t h i s s ta t eme n t

,

“ I be l i eve abso l u t e ly i n t h ei n d iv id ual

,opera s h ould be i n te r n a t io n al

,a s re

fe r ri n g,t he fi rs t pa r t

,to t h e fi na n c i a l m ag n a te s

w ho co n t ro l our O pera t i c e n te rpr i ses ; t h e seco n d ,

TO—DAY IN LONDON 1 39

to t h e u n fortu n a t e com po sers w h o h ave to supp l yt h e opera s . Th i s i s, of cou rse , capab l e of d i scu ss ionfrom m a n y po i n ts of v i ew

,ar t i s t i c

,commerc i a l

,a n d

eve n moral ; bu t I am o n ly co n c er n ed n ow wi th t h a ta spec t of th e s i tua t io n w h i c h looks towa rds t h eE n gl i s h composer

,a n d I t h i n k a mome n t ’ s co n

s idera t io n w i l l S how t h a t i t p l ac es h im i n h i s old

pos i t io n of d i sadva n tage w h en h e i s compet i n g w i t hh i s fore ig n r ival . The Fre n ch , t h e Germa n , a n dth e I tal i a n compose r h as eac h h i s p ro tec ted m a rke ta t h ome

,w here h e i s e n su red a h ea r i ng bot h by th e

wi s hes of h i s compa t r iot s a nd b y t h e ac tual l eg i s l at io n of h i s cou n t ry . Th e E ng l i s h com poser , 0 11 t h eot he r hand , h a s 110 such hom e i n s ti tu t ion on w hosese n se of pa t r io t ism a n d fa irp layfihe ca n re ly . I n deed

,

110 two word s com d be fou n d w h ic h wou ld mo re

accu ra te l y mis—descr ib e th e E n g l i shm a n ’ s a t t i tudetowa rd s h i s ow n compose rs t h a n t h e word s“ pa t r io t i sm ” a n d “ fa i r—p lay .

” I do n o t say t h a tfa i r-p l ay ” i n th e se n s e of “ free t rade ” ex i s t sab road . I t d oes no t ; fo r n o cou n tr ie s a re morecom p let e ly i n su lar a nd pro tec t ion i s t i n a r t—a n dr igh t ly SO— t h a n Fra n c e a n d Germ a n y . Bu t t h erei s i n bot h t he se cou n t r i es a n d i n I taly a s t ro n gd e term i n a t io n th a t t h e fi r s t c h a n ce shal l be a t t h ed i sposal of t h e n a t ive m u s ic i an

,w h i l e h ere t h e

p ub l i c se em s to g lory i n m a i n ta i n ing a lo n g s tr i n gof fore ig n e rs wh o

,wi t h t h e i r paras i te s a n d go

betwee n s,ar e al l bo u n d togeth er by t he i r m u tual

d es i re fo r Engl i sh go ld a n dtD

the ir i l l co n ceal ed co n

t empt for th e peop l e w ho su pp ly i t .Bu t i t i s no t m erely t h a t t h ere i s a n a t io n al a n d

pa tr iot i cal ly subven t io n ed O pera abroad a n d n o n ehe re ; for wh e n t h e fo re ig n composer has produ c eda su cce ssful

,o r a par t i a l ly succe ssfu l

,or eve n a


who l ly u n suc c essful work ab i o a d,h e ca n oft e n ( a n d

does ac tuall y,espec i al ly i n t h e l ighte r form s of

O pera ) re ly on a n “ i n d iv id ual ” m an ager to taket h e “ i n te r n a t io n a l ” v iew of t h e c a se a n d to impor th i s good s i n to E n gl a n d . O 11 t h e o th e r h a n d , t heposs ib i l i ty of t h e E n gl i s h c omposer ga i n i ng e n t ry to

the p erched roo st sA nd ne s t s in o rder ra ng ed

of O pera t i c Eu rope i s abou t eq u al to t he probab l esucce ss of t h e “ tame v i l l a t ic fowl i f h e t r i ed tot u r n t h e tab le s 0 11 t he “ eve n i n g d rago n . I n awo rd

,i t i s n i l

,a n d E n gl i s h com posers would

prob ab ly h ave mor e sym pa t h y wi th M r . Beec h am sbroad v iew s 0 11 “ i n d iv idual i sm ” a n d i n te r n a t io n a li sm ” i f h e cou ld broade n t h em s t i l l fu r t her a n dpe rsuad e t h e Co n t i n e n tal n a t io n s to adop t t hem .

Free t rade a nd a n ope n m arke t m ay poss ib ly i nt h e fu tu re g ive u s t h e b e st a n d heal t h ies t c o n d i t io n su n der w h ic h m u s ica l ar t c a n flou r i s h ( though i t i sn o t to t h ese co n d i t io n s t h a t Eu rope owes i t s p re se n ts ta t e o f ar t i s t i c d eve lopm en t) , bu t ou r co n d i t io n sg ive u s n e i t h e r the o n e n or th e o t he r . A t hom ewe h ave fre e t rad e a n d a m a rke t ope n to al l :abroad t he re i s a c losed m a rke t a n d a su bs id izedm a n ufac tu re r .I n d i scu ss i n g th i s q u e st io n w e m u s t remember

t h a t,t ho ugh th e a i t i s t ic i n te i es ts of t he composer

a n d t h e im pr'

e sa i io a re somet imes ide n t i cal,the i i

commerc i a l i n t e re s t s a re ge n e ral ly o pposed to eac hot h e r ; a n d i t i s t h e more n ece s sa ry to co n ce n t ra tea t t e n t io n 0 11 th i s po i n t

,becau se in E ngla n d

,w h ere

w e h ave prac t i cal ly 110 S c hoo l of O pera,t h e pr ime

n ece ss i t y fo r su c h a sc hoo l i s the prod u c t io n o f

E n gl i sh opera s i n t h e t h ea t re . The impresar i o ca n

1 4 2 MUS IC AND NAT IONALI SM C HA P .

h i s grea t ar t i s t i c resou rces to t h e p rod uc t io n o f awork by a Br i t i sh - born com pose r

,h i s efforts d id no t

meet wi t h t h e p ub l i c app rec i a t io n w h i c h he expec ted ;a nd i t appea rs t ha t i n t h i s m a t t er h e co n s ider s t h epub l ic a t fa ul t . A re pre se n ta t ive of t h e S t . J a mes

’

s

Ga z ette, who h ad bee n pr iv i l eged to h ea r h i s v i ew s0 11 t h i s top i c , s ta ted i n t h a t paper 1 t h a t “ M r .Beec h am h ad bee n a good fr i e n d to B r i t i s h m u s ic

,

a n d he wa s n a t u ra l ly d i sappo i n t ed a t th e res po n seh i s a t t em pt s to a ro u se i n t e res t i n t he work s ofn a t ive O pera m akers h ad met w i t h du r i n g h i s r ec e n tsea so n .

Th e r efere n ce i s u n doub t ed l y t o M . Del ius’

s

i ll -fa ted work , a work w h ic h M r . Beec h am i s u n ders tood to have mou n ted from S i n c e re fe e l i n gs of

ar t i s t i c adm i ra t io n a n d fr ie n d sh ip . Bu t,leav i n g ou t

of t h e q u e st io n en t i re l y t h e po i n t a s to w he t her M .

D e l i u s r eal ly a n sw e rs— eXCe p t i n a p u re ly t ec h n icala n d legal se n s e— to t h e d esc r ipt io n

,a n a t ive

O pera-m ake r,

”2o ne m ay a sk

,i s n o t M r . Beec h am

a l i t t l e u n reaso n ab l e i n b l am i n g t h e Lo n do n pub l i cfo r i t s c h i l l i n g rec ep t io n of t h i s work ? Both a t t hed ress re hearsa l a n d a t t h e fi rs t perform a n ce t h eOp i n ion seemed to be u n a n imou s t h a t

,desp i te a

c er ta i n poet i cal c h a rm a n d a n u n doub ted ly h ighleve l of m u s i c i a n s h ip

,t h e wor k m ad e l i t t le impres

s io n owi ng to i t s wa n t o f c h arac t er iza t io n a n dt h ea tr i cal v i ta l i t v . The pecul i a r i n a n i ty of a p lotw h i c h m igh t h ave col l ap sed a t a ny mome n t aft e r

1 May 1 1 th, 1 9 1 0 .

2 I 11 t h e Ew a n/1 1 1 ( Fe b . .\ I 1rch, 1 9 10 ) I\Ir . Beec h am

s ta t e s t h a t .\ I . D e l 1115 1 a s “ born a t ford . Yo rk s , o f we a l t h yp a ren t s , ’ ’ t h a t h e s tudi e c a t t h e Le i p z rg Con se rva t ory ,” a nd t h a th e “ h a s l i ved fo r t h e pa s t tw en t y y ea r s 111 ru ra l se c l u s i on n ea rPa r i s .

TO-DAY IN LONDON

the fi r s t ac t ( i f t h e he ro a n d h ero i n e had see n t h eobv iou s a n d ea sy so l u t io n of t h e i r t roub le s i nma rri age i n s tead of J Z/ i rz

'

de) i n troduc ed i n to t h eperform a n ce w h a t ap pea r ed t o a n E n g l i s h aud ie n c eto be a n e lem en t or i rr 1 a t io n , a nd eve n o f l a ugh te rNa tu ral ly u n der t h ese c i rc ums tan c e s M r . Beech am squ ai n t p red i ct io n t h a t t h i s opera “

wou ld m ake t h es tro n gest appea l t o t he m u s i c al l a i t1 as we l l a s to t h eacadem ic a l professo r ! 1 cou ld no t be j u st ified by th eeve n t .I n d eed

,i t wou ld seem t ha t w e h ave n o t ye t m ade

good t h e defec t to w h ic h a m u s i cal c r i t ic h a s l a t e l ycal led a t t e n t io n— t he defec t of al l r ecen t o pera t i cu n der tak i n gs i n t h i s co un tr 1

'

,— t ha t t h e p ub l ic has

h ad to pu t u p wi t h w h a t w a s g ive n i t i n s t ead of

h av i n g p l aced befo re i t w h a t i t w a n t s . ” 2 Th i s,of

cou rse,t akes u s back to t h e ver 1 l a rge que st io n

of popular approval,o n w h ic h I have al read y l a id

emph as i s i n a p rev iou s ch apte r . From t h e sta n dpo i n t of E ng l i sh Ope ra t i c i n te re s t s I m ay

,however

,

po i n t o u t t h e fu n dame n ta l fac t wh i c h gover n st h e who le s i tua t io n . I t i s t h a t t he o rder ofn a tu re ca n no more b e revers ed i n t h i s form ofmen tal ac t iv i ty t han i n a n y o ther

,a n d t h a t t h e

e s se n t i al pre l im i n a ry to th e fo u nda t io n of a Sch oo lor E n g l i sh Opera i s t h e p rod uc t io n o f E n gl i sh

1 16 1112

9 Mo wing P013, 1J 1 nu a ry 1 7 , 1 9 1 3 . T i e sam e 11. 1 i te r en forcedh i s po i n t l a t e r 11he 11 di scu~s i 11 g

'\Ir . Bee c h . s re 1 i 1 a l o f “ I1 a nho e .

Th e one ma t te r to r re gre t a rte r a i i j hese y ea r s i s t h a t t h e l e s sonta ugh t doe s n o t seem t o h a ve been remembe red Th ose respon51b l e fo r t h e p rou sion of Ope ra seem t o be st i l l Hmd t o t h e fa c tt h a t ope ra t i c knowl ed ge i n th i s co u 1 t r1 i s s i l l l im i t ed ; con : e

q uen tl 1 t h e t a s te for t h a t a r t Io r 111 doe s no t co 1 e r a 11 1d e ra nge ;

t h e pu b l i c t h e re 1ore 11 i ll s u ppor t i t 11 1 11 15 t o see a nd n o t

11 h a t t h e man age r s 11 a n t i t t o se e ( UM /2 1 1 g Pu f, I'eb


work s w r i t t e n,n o t wi t h t h e obj ec t of o u t rag i n g

t h e E n gl i sh p rej ud i ce s i n t h e m a t t e r,b u t i n t h e

fra n k a nd h ea l th y d e term i n a t io n t o acc ep t t h eseprej ud i ce s

,a n d to offe r t h e pu b l i c a n a rt—form

s a t i sfac to ry bo t h t o i t se lf a nd t o t h e com pose r .Th i s i s rea l ly t h e l esso n i n h i s to ry w h ic h w e ca n

l ea r n from Fra n ce,I taly

,a n d Germ a n y

,a n d u n t i l

w e have lea r n t t h a t les so n E n g l i s h Ope ra wi l l co nt inue to be t h e u n sa t i sfac to ry a nd r id i cu lo u s m akebe l i eve w h i c h n i n e peop le o u t of every te n rega rda s i t s d iv i n e ly appo i n t ed lo t .On a ll t he s e e sse n t i a l po i n t s - a s opposed to t h e

ephemera l q u es t io n s of immed i a te su c c e ss - M r .

Beech am ’ s v iew s a r e,

a s fa r a s t h e pub l i c goes,

som et h i n g of a mys te 1y. H e bega n h i s Opera t i cc a r eer i n Lo n do n a s th e—I wi l l n o t s ay

“ avow edb u t “

a cc la imed ’ c hamp io n o f t h e E n g l i s h composer . A t Hi s M aj es ty s Th ea t r e hi s perfo rm a n ce sof Mi s s Smyth s “ The V\ 1 ecke r s we re recog n izedi n t h e p res s a s a l a n dm ark i n t h e h i s to ry of E n g l i s ha rt

,a nd t h e h a ppy fo reca s t s w h i c h w e re t h e n m ad e

rece ived a roya l c a ch e t whe n , o n th e la s t n igh t of

th e sea so n,h e wa s p re se n ted to K i n g Edwa rd V I I .

A ge n era l fee l i n g a t o n c e a rose bo thb

i n p ub l i c a n dpr iva te c i r c les t h a t i n M r . Beech am the E n g l i s hcom po se r had a t l e n gth sec ur ed a fr i e n d w h osem a te r i a l re sou rce s e n a b led h im to g ive effec t t o hi s( suppo sed) a r t i s t i c sym pa t h ie s . M u s i ca l Lo n do n h adm a n y t imes befo re fou n d Opera t i c e n t hu s i a s t s wi t ha n a r t i s t i c eq u i pme n t p er h a p s a s grea t as M 1 .

Beech am ; bu t 111 eachca s e t he n ec es sa ry fi n a n c i a lwe igh t w a s wa n t i n g . H er e a t l a s t wa s th e comb i n a t io n of th e two th i n gs— bra i n s a n d mo n ey .

I t i s o n ly fa i r to s ay t ha t , how eve r oft e n t h eses ta teme n t s h ave bee n repea ted i n t h e pre s s a n d


d i rec t sc h em e of a c t iv i ty,p rov ided i t bore ev ide n c e

w i t h i n i t s e lf of carefu l p la n a n d d eterm i n ed prea r ra n geme n t . I n t he se m a t te r s M r . Beecham h admore t h a n o n e rea dy—m a de p ub l i c t o w hom h e m igh th a ve appeal ed : h e m igh t h a ve ta ke n t h e s t ra i t pa t ha nd m ade h im se lf a n ew p ub l i c ; bu t , apa r t from avagu e d es i re to do a s m a n y a s to n i s h i n g t h i n gs a s

po ss ib l e i n t h e s ho r t es t t ime a t h i s d i spo sal,h e s eem s

to h ave bee n u n a b l e to m ake up h i s m i n d to a n ydefi n i t e cour se of ac t io n . I t i s a lmos t impo ss ib l eto su ppose t h a t h e h a s n o t co n s idered deep ly t h efu n d ame n tal d iffi cu l t ies of t h e Opera t i c pos i t io n i nLo n do n

,o r tha t he im a g i n e s t h a t h e ca n so lve a n y

of t he se d iffi cu l t ies by s uc h m a te r i a l p res su re a s t h ep rom i scuou s

,po lyg lo t , h udd l i n g-on of o n e opera

a fte r a n o th e r ; a n d ye t t ha t i s th e co n c l u s io n t ow h i c h o n e i s d r ive n .

I t wou ld,of cou r s e , be w ho l ly u n fa i r to j udge

M r . Beecham ’ s ach i eveme n t s w h e n h e ha s n o t ye tgo t beyo n d th e s tage of fee l i n ghi s way a t t h e o u t s e to f his c a reer ; a n d w e m u s t n o t ove r look t h e fac tt h a t h i s ac t iv i t ie s h ave p robab ly bee n mou lded to al a rge ex te n t by t h e excep t io n a l ly d iffi cu l t c i rcumsta n ce s i n w h ic h h e h a s bee n p la c ed . H e ha s hadto take t h e fi e ld w i t h s uc h force s a nd a rm ame n t s a sw ere wai t i n g t h e word of comm a n d

,a n d i n som e

d i rec t io n s—su c h a s t he e n cou ra geme n t w h ic h heha soffe red ou r n a t ive co n d uc tor s a nd s i n gers

,a n d t h e

d e l igh tful ly b u oya n t s p i r i t w h i c h h eha s i n fu sed i n tosom e of h i s r ev iva l s- heha s ea r n ed everyo n e ’ s gra t itud e .

B u t,eve n w h e n we m ake a l lowa n ce for a ll h i s

emb a rra ssme n t s of c i rcumsta n ce a n d hi s co u n t e rbal a n c i n g adva n tages of fi n a n c i a l we igh t

,we a re

compe l l ed to a ck n owl edge a c er ta i n d i s t rac ted n es s

v TO-DAY IN LONDON 1 4 7

of a t tac k a s if from a ll po i n t s a t o n ce , a w a n t of

co n ce n t ra t io n,a so r t of “ h e n—wi t ted n es s of effor t

for w h ic h i t i s d iffi cu l t to accou n t . On o n e of t h eca rd i n a l po i n t s a lo n e— th a t of t h e emp loyme n t of

E n g l i s h i n t h e thea tre n —w h i c h,i n grea t m ea su re

,

s h o u ld h a ve gover n ed h i s a t temp t to find ou t ift h e re i s “

a pub l i c r eady to take i n te l l ige n t a nd

co n t i n uou s i n te re s t i n m u s ic—d ram a p er re —heseems to h a ve ta ke n 110 dec id ed l i n e . I t i s n ott ha t o n e wou ld d i c ta t e t o h im wh a t l i n e w a s th emos t a dv i sab l e

,b u t tha t o n e i s c hagr i n ed to fi n d

h im tak i n g a ll t h e l i n es a t t h e same t ime . Th i sm ay i n pa r t b e d ue to the pre ssu r e of c i rcumsta n ces

,bu t i t i s a q u es t io n w h e t he r i t wou ld n o t

h ave bee n bet te 1 to om i t som e pa r t of h i s feve redac t iv i t i e s a n d

,by adequ a te prov i s io n

,to m a s t e r t h ese

c i rcumsta n ce s .M r . Beechamha s g ive n u s or ig i n a l E n g l i s h i n t h e

thea t re : h e ha s h imse lf prov ided , a nd u s ed,tra n sla

t io n s : h e ha s al so prov ided , a nd om i t ted to u s e,

t ra n s la t io n s : h e ha s e n gaged fore ig n er s to s i n g i nt h e i r ow n la n gu ages to E n g l i sh a ud ie n ce s : h eha s eve na ffro n t ed h i s a ud ie n c e by perm i t t i n g a r e tu r n to t h e“ ba rbarou s m a n n er ” 1

of H a n de l ’ s t ime w he nb i l i n gual perform a n ce s w e re to lera t ed : 2 h eha s p rese n ted u s wi t h t h e spec t a c le of a compa n y of

n ervou s A n g lo—Sa xo n s,

of w hom perh a ps o n ly acou p le were o n more t h a n n odd i n g term s wi t h t h eGerma n la n guage

,s t ruggl i n g t h rougha Germ a n opera

i n the o r ig i n a l ; a nd t h i s ha s fou n d i t s l ud i c rou s

1 See H a nde l (G rove, p .

2 I t i s i n teres t i ng to n ote t h a t a recen t b i l i ngu a l pe rfo rma n ce o fthe due t from A c t I I . of “ T r i s ta n u n d I sol de a t a Londo nSym pho ny O rc he s t ra con ce r t p rovo ked a n immed i a t e pro te s t fromthe Wa gner A s soc i a t i on .


co u n te rpar t i n a perform a n c e b efor e a Lo n dona ud ie n ce of a n I ta l i a n ver s i o n of a Fre n c h operaba sed upo n t h e E n gl i s h ofW i l l i am S h a kespea re . 1

These a re i n deed stra n ge do i n gs , a nd,a t t h e e n d

of t hem,M r . Beec h am ope n ed t h e New Yea r b y

s ta t i n g 2 i n b ig ca p i ta l s t ha t h e wa s “ profou n d ly d i ssa t i sfi ed wi t h t h e re su l t of h i s yea r ’ s work . W i t ht h i s d i ssa t i sfa c t io n t h e re i s

,I t h i n k

,a ge n eral agree

me n t,b u t i t i s impos s ib le t h a t a n yo n e wi t h a c lea r

idea o f t h e amou n t of e n e rgy a nd mo n ey expe n dedi n t h i s yea r ’ s work ca n fa i l to sym pa th iz e wi th h imi n hi s d i sa ppo i n tm e n t

,more espec i a l ly w h e n h e g ives ,

a s t h e rea so n for h i s d i s s a t i sfa c t io n t h a t “ n obodyeve r com es t o see h i s p r od u c t io n s bu t wh e n h egoe s 0 11 to s ay t h a t

“a yea r ago peop l e c her i sh ed

t h e fo n d d e l u s io n t h a t i t w a s o n ly n ec e ssa ry forOpe ra to b e g ive n 0 11 a l a rge sca l e fo r everyo n eto ta ke i t u p

,e spec i a l ly opera i n E n g l i s h , o n e ca n

o n ly ope n o n e ’ s eye s i n a s to n i s hm e n t,a n d e n qu i re

wh o 0 11 e a rt h t h e p eop le ca n h a ve bee n w hom M r .Beech am fou n d “ c h er i s h i n g t h i s fo n d de l u s io n .

!

Su re ly if o n e t h i n g ca n be more c e r ta i n t ha n a n o t h e ri t i s t h a t t he “ s ca le ” ha s n o t h i n g a t a ll t o do wi t ht h e qu e s t io n . At tha t game th ere a re p l e n ty of fi rm si n t h e wo r ld w ho ca n bea t t h e Oper a t i c I mpre sa r ioevery t ime , a nd ye t who do n o t compe t e wi t h h im .

B u t i t i s n o t a q u e s t io n of “sca le

”: i t i s

,a s

M r . Beech am ough t t o k n ow,

a que s t io n of p ub l i cl ikes a nd d i s l ikes— in fa c t , a psyc ho log i cal qu e s t io n ;a nd i t i s j u s t i n meet i n g th a t qu e s t io n w i t h a w i sea nd de l ibe ra t e p rev i s io n a nd i n a n swe r i n g i t o n c e fo ra l l t h a t h e m igh t h a ve re n dered t h e co u n t ry a grea t

1 “ A pu b l i c rea dy t o t a ke i /zfrl/igm f m tc res t i n m u s i cd ram a l

3 In the J a n . I , 1 9 1 1 .

1 50 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH A P .

profo u n d ly d i s t u rb i n g i s t h a t , k n owi n g t h i s fac t , h eshou ld h ave a t t em pted to so lve t h e ve ry ser i ou sp rob lem s of Opera i n E n g l a n d by g iv i n g perfo rm a n ee s t ha t m ay be n orm a l to t h e deve loped Germ a nm i n d

,b u t w h ic h a re w h o l ly a b n orm al to t h e un

deve loped Opera t i c E n g l i shm a n . I n deed t h e co n d i t io ni n to w h ic h t h e Lo n do n p ub l i c wa s i n fl amed befor et h e prod u c t io n of “ E l ek t ra ” was— wi t h a ll r espec t— n e i t h e r h eal t h y n or m u s ica l

,a n d t h e m ethod s

adop ted to sec u re t h i s i n flamm a to ry co n d i t io n d idn o t d iffer grea t ly from t h e m eth od s w h i c h Bar n umm igh t h a ve ad opted h ad h e b e e n t h e p rop r i e to r of

M r . Beecham ’ s hypo t h et i cal e lep h a n t . On t h i ss ubj ec t I n eed say 110 more

,n or sh a l l I tou c h o n t h e

d e l i ca t e e t h i cal a n d soc i a l po i n t s to wh i c h I al l udedw he n I fi r s t r efe rred to M r . Beec h am ’ s n ame .I ha ve devo ted co n s iderab le space to his reco rd

,

no t o n ly beca u s e h e h imse lf I S a n u n do ub ted forcei n o u r m u s i ca l l ife

,bu t a l so becau se i t se em s to

m e to b e c h a ra c t e r i s t ic of a ce r ta i n t ype of Opera t i ce n ergy w h i c h ha s bee n rec u rr e n t i n t h i s co u n t r y

,a

t yp e w h i c h a ppr o a ch e s t h e so l u t io n of grave n a t io n a lp rob lems wi t h a n ea sy de ta c hme n t from i ts su r ro u n di n gs . I n t h ese ca se s succes s a nd fa i l u re—I do n o tm ea n mo n e t a ry o r per so n a l suc ce s s a n d fai l u re—ar ea lmost m a t t ers of c h a n c e . The rol e of p ropa ga n d i s ti s— a s i n M r . Beech am ’ s ca se— defi n i te ly a n d pub l ic lyrep ud i a ted . U n for tu n a t e ly

,n o t h i n g sa t i sfac tory has

ever bee n ac h ieved i n t h e wo rld of a r t excep t bymea n s of t h e dr iv i n g forc e of a s i n c ere a n d en thus ia s tic p rop aga n d a . W i t h ou t th a t o n e ca n 110 morea t t em p t t o t h re a d a l i n e t h rough t he ta n g led ske i n ofo u r E n g l i s h Opera t i c co n d i t io n s t h a n o n e co u ld hopeto reform o u r a rmy orga n iza t io n by prese n t i n g t hen a t io n w i th a dea l er ’ s co l lec t io n o f bow s a nd a rrow s

,

TO—DAY IN LONDON 1 51

fl i n t locks a n d b l u n derbu s s e s , ga r n i sh ed wi t h a LeeMe tford a n d a coup l e of h ea vy p ieces from Krupp ’s .E n ergy a n d mome n tum a re good . B u t —a s i n

p hy s ic s—t her e m u s t a l so be d i rec t io n,a n d t h i s di rec

t io n m u s t com e—i n a r t i s t i c m a t ter s—from th e hea r tt ha t fee l s a n d the m i n d tha t fo re see s . The q u a l i t ie si n deed t ha t e n ab le a n impre sar io to s tage rev iva l s ofo ld a n d we l l t r ied opera s

,o r to s h i p some h uge

Co n t i n e n ta l su cc es s a n d b r i n g i t u p th e Th ames 0 11t h e b ig flood - t ide of adver t i s em e n t , a r e fa r d iffer e n tfrom t hose o t h e r qual i t i es ofm i n d by w hose a id a lo n eh e ca n pe n e tra t e a nd revea l t h e deep Spa ce s of th en a t io n a l co n sc iou s n e s s . Th a t t h ese d eep

,s i le n t

space s ex i s t ( s t i l l u n v i s i t ed ) n o s tude n t of ou r h i s to ryca n w e l l doub t

,a n d i t i s t h e i r very s i le n c e a nd dep t h

t ha t s h ou ld fa sc i n a t e th e exp lore r . If h e u n der ta ke sthe j ourney h e m ay h ave t o su ffe r t h e da rk n ess a ndt h e d ifficu l t ie s of a ta n g led fo re s t-pa t h

,b u t t h i s i s a s

n o t h ing to t h e hope t h a t,wi t h t h e n ex t tu r n i n g

,t h e

fores t wi l l e n d,a nd h e wi l l break th rough i n to t h e

ope n to fi n d t h e su n l igh t a n d t h e e n c ha n ted ca s t le .

CHAPTER V I

OPERA BOOKS

T 11 13 h i s to ry of E n g l i s h Opera Books i s , to say t h ebes t of i t

,d i sm a l a nd i t b eg i n s wi th t h e d i sm al n ame

of Na h um Ta te .

1 I t i s t ru e t h a t amo n gs t i t s ear l ie s tw r i te r s t h er e are two n ames of d i s t i n c t io n—Dryde na nd Gay,

— b u t for t h e mos t pa r t E n g l i s h OperaBook s h a ve

,u n t i l l a t e ly

,bee n w r i t te n by a set of

l i t e ra ry mo n gre l s more ca r e les s a nd i n com pete n t th a na n y t h a t ha s eve r di sgraced t h e l i tera ry a n n a l s of acou n t ry . I t i s d iffi cu l t to a t tem pt a compa r i so nbe twee n t h em a n d a n y o t h er c la s s of dram a t i s t s o rpoe t s

,beca u s e t h ey s ta n d a lo n e . 511i generi 5, u n l ike

a n yth i n g t h a t ha s ever ex i s ted i n heave n,0 11 ear t h

,

o r 111 t he wa te r s u n der n ea t h t h e ea r t .h I n t e llec tua lly w e ca n n o t ca ll. t h em mere l i te ra ry ha ck s ,w h i l s t w e c e r ta i n ly c a n n o t d ig n ify t h em wi t h t h e t i t le“ So n s of Poe t ry soc i a l ly t hey ra n k som ewherebe twee n t h e pe n n i le ss poe tas te r a nd t h e w eal t h ya m a t eu r a r t i s t i ca l ly t h e re i s o n ly o n e word w h i c h

,

i n i t s E l iza bet h a n s e n se,a cc u ra te ly de sc r ibes t h em

t h e wo rd “ n augh t y,

”

a nd t hey cou n t i n t he i r ra n k st h e o n ly m a n to w hom t h e wo rd “ Poet ha s eve rbee n a pp l i ed a s a te rm o f reproac h .

1 \Vh o co l l a bo ra ted w i t h I’urcell i n D i do a nd Aenea s .


The i r b eg i n n i n g wa s n o t so bad . I n t h e l a s t qua rte rof t h e seve n tee n t h c e n tu ry we fi n d t ha t t ho se op eralyr ic s wh i c h we1 e n o t mere d i s tor t io n s of ex i s t i n gpoe try

,were w r i t t e n i n a so r t of good

,s t ro n g

,up

s ta n d i n g E n gl i s h . There were p le n ty ofA n g lo-Saxo nword s m i xed wi t h sudde n

,a n d ofte n happ i ly chose n

La t i n i sm s . W i t h bo t h of t h e se Pu rce l l s h owed h i sm a tc h less powe r of comb i n i n g E n g l i s h word s a n dm u s i ca l so u n ds ; bu t eve n i n h i s day t h e re w er e s ig n sof t ha t s love n l i n e s s w h i c h wa s , a ce n t u ry l a te r , toi n fec t t h e w ho l e b rood of Opera t i c poe t s

,a n d resu l t i n

a l i te ra ry s ty l e d i s ea s ed a nd feeb le beyo n d al l be l i ef.

To a poe t t h e prob l em of Opera t i c compo s i t i o ns h o u ld n o t h a ve bee n d iffi cu l t

,fo r n o n e ofhi s pr im i

t ive d ev ice s of pro sody had,eve n t h e n

,t h e sm al les t

val ue i n t h e p rese n c e of th e h igh ly deve lop edrhy t hm i c d ev i ce s of m u s i c . Pla i n

,s t ro n g

,s imp l e

E n g l i s h wa s t h e o n ly n ecess i ty,bu t i t a lmost seem s

tha t w h e n a poe t— eve n a grea t poe t—wa s cal led o nt o p rov ide “ words for m u s i c h e wa s a t t h e samet ime a t tacked by a so r t ofme n ta l pa l sy w h i c h de s t royedt h e fr eedom a n d somet imes eve n t h e sa n i ty ofhisu t te ra n ce . So bega n t h e lo n g ca t a logu e of verba li n vers io n s a n d d i s to r t io n s t h a t ha s m ade th e Opera t i cpoe t a by-word i n o u r h i s to ry .

I t i s,u n h a pp i ly

,o n ly too ea sy to s e lec t v ery bad

i n s ta n ce s of t h e s e fa u l t s eve n i n t h e seve n tee n t hce n tu ry

,b u t

,a s a fa i r examp le , I m ay quot e a lyr i c

w r i t t e n by Dryde n for Purce l l ’ s K i n g Arth u r,

Sh e ph e r d , s he p h e r d,lea ve dec oy i ng,

Pi pes a re sw ee t a s umm e r ’s day,Le t us m u s i c be e nj oy i ngT h u s t o bea u ty t r i b u te pay.

He re w i t h l ea ves a nd flow’

rs e n t w i n i ngT r i p w e n im b ly o

’

er the g r o u nd,

V I OPERA BOOKS 1 55

Fo r the pa s t h a ve n o rep i n i ng,Play a nd da n c e a m e r ry r o u n d .

” 1

w h ere,i n two shor t s ta n za s

,we h a ve o n ly o n e

sa t i sfa c tory l i n e (“ P ipe s a re sw ee t a s ummer ’ s

The o t h e r s eve n h a ve,i t i s t ru e

,a cer ta i n

l eve l of q u i e t , p lea sa n t sou n d w h i c h i s i n keep i n gwi t h t h e subj ec t , bu t , of t h ese s eve n

,a t l eas t fo u r

co n ta i n d ep lora b l e i n vers io n s of l a n gu a ge,o n e a

s l ipshod m i s ta ke i n gramm a r,a n d o n e i s m er e

padd i n g . I n t h e two u n u t t e rab ly bad t h i rd l in e sof eac h s ta n za Let u s m u s i c b e e n j oy i n g a nd

For t h e pa s t h a ve 110 rep i n i n g —t he reader m aysee co n ce n tra ted t h e v i ru s t h a t ha s affl i c t ed E n g l i s hOpera book s a nd t ra n s l a t io n s s i n c e fi r s t t h ey we rew r i t te n . I do n o t

,of cou r se

,c i te t h i s lyr i c a s

more t ha n a type of t h e ve r se w h i c h a grea tp oe t a n d a grea t m u s ic i a n co n s idered “ goode n ough for mu s i c . ” Bu t i t m u s t b e rememberedt h a t

,exc ep t i n t h e ca se of a few ba ll ad—opera s of

t h e ear ly e igh tee n t h ce n tu ry,t h i s spec ie s of d i s to rt ed

a n d s love n ly lyr ic ha s rem a i n ed a co n s ta n t fea tu rei n ou r Opera t i c h i s to ry from Pu rce l l ’s day almos t too u r ow n . I n th e la t e seve n t ee n t h ce n t u ry t h er e aresom e “ Lyr i c s spec i a l ly des ig n ed for m u s i c w h ic hare of a m u c h b e t te r qual i ty . Su c h i s t h e a dm i rab leso n g i n “ K i n g Ar t h u r

,

” “ Com e if you d a reb u t

,o n t h e w ho le

,t h ey co n ta i n l i t t le t ha t i s i n spir

i n g,a n d the wo n der real ly i s a t th e grea tn e ss of

Pu rce l l ’ s ge n i u s a nd h i s apt i tud e for word—pa i n t i n gw h ich e n a b led h im to ca rry off wi t h ea se t h e

1 T h i s ly r i c a ppea r s qu i te d i ffe ren t l y i n M r . Ful ler~Ma i tla nd’

s

ed i t i o n of Ki ng A r t h u r,

” wh ere i t i s se t down a s a l t ered fromDryden .” Dr . Er n es t Wa l ke r h a pp i ly s um s u p the Ope ra t i cl y r i c s o f Pu rce l l ’ s pe r i od a s

“ Sca n ty b l os som s of poe t ry amonga c res of bom ba s t (A Himry os m

'

r in Eng la nd, p .


dead—w e igh t of h i s lyr i c s . The a vera ge m er i t of t h e sem ay b e fa i rly j udged from t h e fo l lowi n g l i n e s , w h i c h ,i n t he i r m i x ed ch i ld i s h n ess a nd b l uff rude n e s s

,appea r

to m e ch a ra c t e r i s t i c of t h e t ime

Let the So l d ie rs rejoyce w i t h a ge n e ra l l v o i c eA nd the Se n a t e n ew h o n o u rs d ec ree ’

em

W h o,a t his A rm ies h ea d

,s t r u ck the fe l l Mons te r Dea d

A nd so bo l d ly a nd b ra ve ly d i d free ’

em .

T o Ma 1s le t’

em ra i se a nd t h e i 1 Em pe r ors pra iseA T 1ophy o f the a rm i es o w n m a k i ng

T o Ma x im ia n t o o som e H onou 1s a re due

W h o joyn d i n the b ra v e u n de r ta k i ng .

’ ’ 1

I h a ve a l rea dy exp l a i n ed how,i n t h e ea r ly e igh

teen thc e n tu ry,I ta l i a n Opera came i n to E n g la n d

a nd fo u n d t h ere a soc i ety w h ere i t wa s adop ted byt h e u pper c l a s se s a s a pu r e ly fore ig n c u l tu re

,b u t

r ej ec ted by t h e ge n era l m a s s of th e peop le c h iefly0 11 t h e score of i t s a r t ifi c i a l i t y . Th i s a r t ifi c i a l i tyfo r so i t a ppea red to t h em —co n s i s ted of t h e lyr i ca ld ec l am a t io n a nd rec i ta t ive

,a nd i t wa s i n co n sc i ou s

oppos i t io n to t h i s n ew mu s i ca l sy st em t h a t t h e E n gl i s h Ba l la d—Oper a w a s c a l led i n to ex i s te n ce . Operao f t h i s sor t w a s rea l ly n o t a m u s i c i a n ’s a ffa i r a t a ll .The ord i n a ry w aywa s fo r a l i t te ra teu r to ta ke ex i s t i n ga n d ge n er a l ly w e l l—k n ow n fo lk t u n e s a n d to w r i t en ew wo rd s to fi t t h e o ld mu s i c . The m u s ic ia n wa sa s eco n d a ry pe rso n

,co n ce r n ed o n ly wi t h t h e tec h n ica l

de ta i l s of h a rmo n y a nd orc h es t ra t io n .

As a n examp l e o f t h i s m et hod I m ay i n s ta n ce t h eo ld tu n e “ Gree n w i c h Pa rk

,a nd q uo te t h e lyr i c

,a s

g ive n i n Cha ppe l l ’s O/a’ Eng/N1 Popula r Mum,s ide by

s ide wi t h t h e lyr i c ( t o t h e same m u s i c) i n Ga y’ s

1 From l’urce ll’

s Dioc les ia n,wr i t t en a nd a da p ted by Be t te r to n

from Bea umo n t a nd F le t c he r .


W i t h b l issesH er k isses

D isso l ve us i n Pl ea su re a nd so ft Repose .

One o n ly n eed s to read t h es e l i n e s a lo ud to fee lh ow t r ipp i n g ly t h ey come off t h e to n gu e . Th i s i s

,

of cou rse,B a l l a d -opera a t i t s be s t

,a nd i t doe s n o t

a lways keep t h i s h igh leve l . S t i l l i n mos t of t hen umbers t he i c i s som e figu re o r t u r n of t h ough tw h i c h h o ld s t h e t h i n g toget h e r a nd g ive s i t a forcewh i c h i s n o t ofte n p re se n t i n t h e lyr i c s w r i t te n forou r pr ese n t day e n t e r ta i n me n t s . I t 18 ea sy to qu o t em a n y su c h lyr i c s

,b u t

,as a n examp le n e i t h er b e t te r

n or wo rs e t h a n t h e a verage,t h i s l i t t le so n g (from

“ S i lv i a,o r Th e Cou n t ry Bu r i a l ” ) wi l l serve

'

A Ma i d,tho ’ bea u t ifu l a nd c h a s te

L ike a Cyph e r s t a n ds a l o n e ;Ma n

,l ike a F ig u re by he r p l a ced ,

Ma kes her Wo r t h a nd V a l u e k n ow n .

The Ty ra n t,Ma n

,fa s t bou n d for L ife

,

T o ru le she ta kes u p o n her ;W h e n e ’e r a Ma id is m a de a w i feShe bec om es a Dam e of H o nou r .

I t m u s t b e rem embered t h a t m a n y of t h e s eOpera s we re r eal ly n o t m u c h m ore t h a n im

p rov i sed“ s ide- sh ow s performed a t so - a nd—so ’

s

Grea t Thea tr i ca l Booth i n Ba r t ho lom ew Fa i r .” 2

There i s c o n s eq u e n t ly i n som e of t hem,a ve i n of

w h i n i n g mora l i ty wh i c h i s a s c ha ra c te r i s t ic o f ea r lye igh tee n t h c e n tu r y popu la r idea l s a s i t i s repug n a n tto o u r ow n . I n o th ers- su c h a s “ F lora ’ s Opera

,

o r,Hob i n t h e Co u n t ry “ The Dev i l to

1 By G eo rge Li l l o,pub l i s hed 1 7 31 .

2 E.g .

“ The Q ua ke r ’s Ope ra ,” 1 7 2 8.

v 1 OPERA BOOKS 1 59

Pay,a nd The M ock Doc to r —t h e re 18 a n a lmos t

i n c red ib le n a ivete of exp res s io n .

1 How n ea rly alyr i c ca n go to sa y i n g n o t h i n g a t al l ca n be s ee n i nt h e fo l lowi n g so n g w h ic h I suppo se we m ay look o na s a n ea r ly E n g l i s h p ro to typ e of Lepore l lo

’ s Ca talogue So n g i n “D011 G iova n n i

A ll the Wome n w h o saw him w e re fo n d o f the Sq u i re,

H e w a s Love ’s Rem edy,he t h e i r des i re ;

In V e n ice,i n T u rkey

,i n Pa r is a nd Rom e

,

H e w a s the Nosegay , the p lea s i ng perfum e .

The l a s t of t h e s e bal la d- opera s Gal l iga n tu sappea red i n 1 7 58, a nd wi t h i n fou r yea r s of t ha t t imet h e a rt ific i a l Ar n e wa s e n dea vo u r i n g to expres s t h efir s t sy l l ab le of t h e word s “ F ly soft idea s ! 3 bymea n s of 107 co n s ecu t ive n o t e s of m u s i c , a n d eve ni n v i t i n g his sop ra n o (a fte r she had su n g t h es e 1 07n o te s ) to b eg i n h e r requ est ove r aga i n w i t h a fr e s hn o te

,t h ereby g iv i n g o n e th e impre s s io n t ha t h e r

t ra peze-work wa s n o t t h e beg i n n i n g of a so n g,b u t

o n ly t he e n d of a pr iva t e gym n a s t i c exh ib i t io n w h i c hshe h ad ab se n t-m i n ded ly t ra n sferred from h er d re s si n g- room to t he s tage . I n m u s ic of t h i s so r t t h eword s wer e of 110 co n seque n c e . The mo s t a n a u t ho rco u ld do w a s t o supp ly a smoot h ly flowi n g tex t ;a n d eve n t h i s d id n o t m a t ter

,fo r

,however u n cou t h

a n d a n gul a r t h e wo rd s m igh t b e,t he s i n gers

,t ra i n ed

to s i n g E n gl i s h by t h e s tudy of I tal i a n,wo u ld very

1 T he se we re the da y s o f s u c h a dver t i semen t s a s the fo l l ow i ng :-“ A t the Uppe r end of S t . M a r t i n ’s La ne w i l l be pre sen ted

a n ew opera ca ll’

d j ephtha ’

s Ra s h Vow,or The V i rg i n

Sa cr ificed. W i t h seve ra l com i ca l en te r t a i nmen t s o f P u nch .

”

(From Toe P05t-Boy, Feb. 2 8 a nd M a rc h 2,1 709

2 From “ The V i l l a ge Opera , pu b l i s hed 1 7 2 9 .

3On e of Ma nda n e’

s a i r s i n “ A r ta xer xe s .


soo n c la im the i r pre s c r i pt ive r igh t t o lop off t h eco n so n a n t s

,sm udge o u t t h e vow e l s

,a nd

,i n a word

,

t o t ra n s l a t e t h e E n g l i s h i n to t h e i r ow n fa vou r i t efrog—l a n gu age .

As a spec ime n lyr i c of t h i s per iod,w h i c h i t m u s t

b e rem embered w a s t he per iod n o t o n ly of Dr . Ar n ebu t a l so of Dr . Jo h n so n , I a ppe n d the wo rd s of aso n g su n g by Ma nda n e i n “ Artaxe rxe s

Mo n s te r a w ay IF r om chea rfu l da yT o the ba r re n desa rt fly !Pa t h s exp l o reWh ere Lyo n s roa rA nd dev o u r i ng Tygers l ie .

”

The tra i to rou s I ta l i a n i sm s wi t h w h i c h o n e E n g l i s hdocto r wa s e n t e r ta i n i n g h i s a ud ie n ce s a t Cove n t Ga rd e n had

,of cou r se

,110 more perm a n e n t effec t o n

t h e na t ioi1a l s ty l e t h a n t h e po n d ero u s La t i n i sm s w h i c ht h e o t h e r E n g l i s h doc tor wa s pou r i n g o u t from Bo l tCo u r t . I n bo t h ca s e s t h e a r t ific i a lli ty of t h e med i umprovoked a r ea c t io n

,a nd i n t h e la s t qua r te r of th e

e igh t ee n t h c e n tu ry w e find a type of opera m idwaybe twee n t h a t o f t h e ba l la d—opera a nd t h e more d ev eloped sc h oo l of t h e ea r ly n i n e te e n t h ce n tu ry . Th en ames a s soc i a ted wi t h t h i s i n term ed i a te typ e of operaa re D ibdi n

,S to ra c e

,Hook

,Sh i e ld

,Mi c ha e l Ke l ly ,

a nd some few o t h ers . On i t s m u s i c I n eed n o tdwe l l . M u c h o f i t i s of a q u i et ly p l ea s i n g c h ara c te rwh i ch

,i n t h e n a t u r e of t h i n gs , i s i n exac t con tradic

t io n to t h e n a t i o n a l s p i r i t of t h e t imes . I n t h e lyr i c s ,howeve r

,m a n y o f wh i ch , i t m u s t be remembered ,

we r e w r i t te n d u r i n g t h e l ife t ime of Wordswo r t h ,1 The com pose r h im se l f t ra n s l a ted the “ A r ta se r se ” o f Me tas t a s i o i n t o Engl i s h .


w r i t t e n . M a n y of th e lyr ic s of t h i s age a re so

i n de l ica te a s to b e u n pr i n t a b le n owadays , b u t p le n tyrem a i n wh i c h

,qu i te h a rm le s s eve n to ou r ta s te

,ye t

Show a com p l e te a b se n ce of “ po i n t . ” They seemto b e of a bou t t he o rd er of lyr i c w h ic h a n y s tagem a n a ger m igh t scr ibb l e o n h i s c u ff d u r i n g as tage-wa i t a t r e h ea rsa l . If th e r eader wi s h es tosee how c lose t h e a rt of t h e Opera t i c poe t ca n com eto t h e a im les s ga bb l e of t h e “ cer t ified l u n a t i c

,h e

sh ou ld rea d th e lyr i cs i n s u c h work s a s “ The Gra n dDram a t i c Rom a n ce of B l u e Bea rd o r Fem a l e Cu r io s i ty

,

” by “ George Co lem a n t h e You n ger Esq .

a n d Mi c h a e l Ke lly . I sha l l quot e o n ly o n e of t h e s e,

wi t h t h e ob se rva t io n t h a t,a s I d o n o t pre t e n d to

u n d ers ta n d i t,I m ere ly copy i t from t h e o r ig i n a l

ed i t io n,Pr i n ted for Dus sek a nd Co Mu s i c Se l lers

to t h e Roya l Fam i ly ”

H en—Ye s Bed aT h u s Bed aIVhe n I m e l a n c h o ly g ro wT h i s m e l a n c h o ly h ea r t t i n k i ng soon c a n dr i ve a w ay .

Sli e.—\V h e n h ea r i ngSo u n ds chea r ingT h e n w e bl igthe a nd j o l ly g r o wH ow d o yo u wh i le t o you Sha cc aba c I play .

T i n k a t a n k .

The fir s t.

dep a r tu r e s from th i s i n t e rmed i a t e type ofopera w e re m a de by Si r H e n ry B i s h o p

,wh ose m u s ica l

a c t iv i ty l a st ed,rough ly

,from 1 810 to 1 84 0 . H e

u n doubted ly m a d e som e improveme n t s i n E n gl i s hOpera

,a nd h a nded i t 0 11 to h i s su cce sso r s (Ba lfe ,M a cfarre n

,a nd Be n ed i c t) ,

1 bot h swee te n ed

1 Ba r n e t t s t a nds ra t h e r a pa r t from a nd a bove the o t he r Engl i s hO pe ra t i c com pose r s 11 ho fl ou r i s hed i n the fi r s t se 1 en ty yea r s o f thecen t u ry .

H i s p r i nc i pa l w o rk,

“ The l\Io u n ta in Sy l ph ” ( 1 834 )

V I OPERA BOOKS 1 6 3

a nd pu r ified . Nor d id t h e improveme n t c eas e wi t hh i s dea th

,fo r if w e j udge VVa l la ce ’

s bes t work,n o t

by ou r ow n s ta n da rd s,b u t by t h e s ta n da rd s of h i s

E n gl i sh p redece s sor s,w e sh a l l be fo rc ed to a l low i t

a ce r ta i n e leme n ta ry v igou r a nd d ram a t i c spo n ta n e i tyw h i c h w er e u n k n ow n t i l l h i s day. I d o n o t m ea nt o say t h a t th i s j udgme n t c a n be u ph e ld if w e a pp lyt h e s ta n da rd s of co n t empora ry Fre n c h a nd Germ a nOpera o r of E n gl i sh Opera a s Pu rce l l w ro te i t . Wemu s t j udge VVa l la ce ’

s work a s we would t h a t of a n

ea r ly I t a l i a n pa i n te r , n o t by th e freedom a nd ea s e ofh i s su ccesso rs

,bu t by t h e s t i ff n e s s a nd awkwa rd n es s

of h i s p r edece sso rs .I t i s

,howeve r

,t he l i t e ra ry

,n ot t h e m u s i cal

,s ide of

t h e Opera t i c moveme n t t h a t e n gages ou r a t te n t io n a tt h e mome n t . U n for tu n a te ly , most of t h e popu la rimpre ss io n s of “ E n gl i s h Opera ” a re co n n o ta t io n sfou n ded 011 t h e l i t e ra ry m a te r i a l of t h i s t ime . I m u s tt h erefore a t tem p t t h e n ec es sa ry bu t d iffi cu l t ta sk of

g iv i n g t he rea der som e idea of i t s s t ra n ge u n re a l i tya n d i t s remo te n es s from a ll h um a n exper ie n ce . I t i s

,

t h e n,a n Opera of n o-w h ere a nd n o—t ime : of me n a nd

wome n who n ever h a ve ex i s t ed a nd n ever ca n ex i s t :a n Opera of Sh am se n t ime n t a nd s h am mot ive

,of

a rt ific ia l i ty a n d bu n kum . I ts dw e l l ing- p la ce i s a

fa n ta s t i c N igh tm a re- la n d , peop led , n o t by h um a nbe i n gs

,b u t by d i sm a l th ea t r i ca l ghosts a n d co rp se s

,

eac h o n e of w hom seem s to h a ve bor rowed a mora lr igou t s eco n d—h a n d from Peck s n i ff. I n th i s do lefu lco u n tr y d e n s e b l a ck s ha dow a l te rn a t e s wi t h t h e d iml igh t of gu t te r i n g ca n d les

,a nd o v er al l ha n gs t h e

d i n gy fog of V Va rdour S t r e et .

i s su pe r i or i n c h a rm a nd im a g i n a t i ve powe r to a ny t h i n g o fh i s t ime

, a nd i s u n dou b tedly a l a ndm a r k i n o u r Ope ra t i ch i s to ry .

1 6 4 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM C H A P .

If w e p ee r t h ro ugh t he fog w e ca n h alf d i scer nfie rc e c rowd s of B a n d i t t i ( be l ted a n d bewigged ) , wi t hMos l ems

,C ru saders

,Robber s

,a nd V i l l a i n s

,figu re s

of p a i n t a n d pa s teboa rd , a ll c l u tc h i n g t h e i r d agger sa n d p i s to l s a s t h ey t i p toe 0 11 to t h e 1 - 2—3 4 of t h em u s ic . Every o n e o f t h ese t e rr ib le fe l low s “ s ta n d si n per i l d i re

,

”1a nd i s rea dy to Shed h i s la s t d ro p of

grea se—pa i n t i n d efe n c e o r defia n ce . Pe rh a ps , a ft e r apr e l im i n a ry ( a nd m i r t h les s) d r i n k i n g- so n g , t h ey al l goi n to a mb u s h

,n odd i n g t h e i r exp la n a t io n s a n d in ten

t io n s a t ea c h o th er i n som e su c h wo rd s a s t h e se :

The T yge r c ouc h es i n the w oodA nd w a i t s to shed the tra v ’

ler’

s b l oodA nd so c o u c h w e l

\V e Sp r i ng u po n him t o su pp lyWh a t m en t o o u r w a n t s de ny

,

A nd so Sp r i n gshe I” 2

Pre se n t ly,tha t i s to say if the tra v

’

ler escape s t h em,

t h ey wi l l pa s s t h e gloomy wo rd

Som e mys t’

ry d a rk l i e s h e re c on cea l’

d,

Bu t so o n the t r u t h w i l l be re v ea l’

d” 3

a nd wi l l s t ea l ou t a ga i n in s i n g l e file,t o c reep 0 11 a ll

fou rs up a nd dow n mo u n t a i n s a nd sea rc h fo r t reasu rei n ca ves a nd ru i n ed gra veya rd s . Noth i n g ever sh a ke sth e i r b lood t h i r st y u n a n im i ty . The so ld i er s m ay b ea l re a d y d raw n u p i n two th i n ( a nd sho rt) red l i n e sfrom th e P romp t s id e to t h e O P . wi n gs

,e i t he r co n

gra tu l a t i n g ea c h o t h e r 0 11 t h e i r a ppa re n t safety,

1 “ The Am b e r \V 1tch,by \V a lla ce a nd C ho rl ey .

9 “ The M a n i a c,by Bi s h op a nd S . J . A r n ol d .

3 Fa i r Rosamond,by Ba rne t t . Boo k by Z . C . Ba r ne t t a nd F .

Sh a n non .


We mu s t,h ow eve r

,t u r n from t he co n t emp l a t io n

of th es e sombre a nd t e r r ify i n g s tage—c rowd s to t h ep r i n c ipa l c harac t e r s in t h e dram a

,a n d h ere w e s h a l l

find a grea t e r va r i e ty of s e n t ime n t bu t n o grea te rl ike n es s to rea l l ife .Let u s co n s ider th e m en fir s t

,n o t from a n y wa n t

of po l i te n ess,bu t i n o rde r to sa ve t h e more a t t rac t ive

fea tu re s of t h e l a d ies for a la t er par t of t h e c h a pte r .I n a ppea ra n c e t h ey a re al l very m u c h a s we see

t h em 0 11 t h e o u ts id e cover s of t h e so n gs— s t raigh tn osed a n d p a le- fa ced

,s leek a nd w h i sk e ry

,wi th d a rk

rom a n t i c eyes,fa t ca lve s a n d o i ly h a i r

,a m i x tu re of

Apo l lo a nd a Germ a n h a i r—d r e ss e r . 1 The i r m a i npreoccupa t io n i s t h e pu rsu i t of “ G lory , a nd espec i a l lyo f “Glo ry

”a chie

o

v ed a t t h e expe n s e of“The Mo s lem“The Sa ra ce n

,

”r“The Moor . ” I n t h i s p u rsu i t t hey

exh ib i t a ge ritleo

ma n ly i n d iffe re n ce to a ll form s of

d a n ge r . I n deed,t h e u n co n c er n w i t h w h i c h t h ey co n

t i nua lly refe r , i n pa re n t h e s i s , to t h e mos t d i s tu rb i n geve n t s i n t he i r pe rso n a l h i s to ry

,rs a s ge n tee l a s i t i s

su rpr i s i n gA s i nher sm i le

,w h e re bea u ty p lay

’

d

She ba de m e p l a ce my t r u s t ,A ba l l fr om yo n der c o pp i ce l a i dMy co u r se r i n the d u s t .” 2

A cava l i e r of t h i s sor t u su a l ly b eg i n s l ife a s

A yo u t h fu l K n igh t w h ose h opes a re be n tOn G lo ry ’s b r igh t c a ree r .

I t m ay be t h a t h e adopt s t h i s ca ree r i n t h e sameway t h a t o rd i n a ry mor ta l s a dop t o rd i n a ry p rofess io n s

,

1 Lum ley’

s po r t ra i t,p refi xed t o h i s Reminin mref , g i ve s o ne a

ve ry fa 1r i d ea o f t he a ve ra ge Opera t i c he ro o f t h ese day s .9 The En ch a n t re ss (Bu n n ) .3 “ The I‘i n cha n t ress (Bu n n ) .

v r OPERA BOOKS 1 6 7

Bu t fo r 110 i d l e pa ss i o n form’

d

H is h igh h e r o i c m o odG l o ry ’s subhm er c h a rm s a l o n eW i t h l o ve r ’s a rd o u r w oo ’ d ,

” 1

o r perhaps th er e m ay be a l a d y i n t h e ca se a nd

H is ra nk a nd s t a t i o n m e

T o a l l suc h p rospe c t s a n e te r n a l ba r

h e m ay h a ve fo u n d t h e impos s ib i l i ty— i n t h epa s s io n a t e p h ras e of t h e poe t Bu n n— of

ca lm i ng r oo te d gr ie f by a ll the m i n es of go l d ,” 3

a n d m a y ha ve a dopt ed th a t s i c k ly,broke n—h ea r ted

pose w h i c h w e n ow a s soc i a te o n ly wi t h some of

D i cke n s ’ s m i n or chara c te rs

J u l es de Mo n t a ngo n is my n a m e

My h om e— I h a v e 110 h om e

The b roke n n ess o f h ea r t a nd fam e

Pu rsu es m e w h e re I

At a ny ra te , t h e r e su l t i s pre t ty su re to b e th esame

The o n ly p r i v i l ege c a n be

T o w o rs h i p a nd t o die .

” 5

If,h owever , h e doe s n o t wo rsh i p a n d d i e h e

l eva n t s,a n d we find h im i n Ea s t e r n p a r t s u t t er i n g

a grea t va r i e ty of defi a n t coup le t s a n d se n t ime n t sd e roga to ry to a ll Moor s

,Sa ra cen s

,a n d Mo s lem s !

“T h i s c u rsed Mo o r m a rs e v ’ ry p l ea sa n t p l a n,

A nd I m us t s t o p his m i s c h i e f— if I c a n l ” “

1 Guy M a n n e r i n g,by Bi s h op a nd D. T e r ry .

3 The En c h a n t re s s (Bu n n ) .

3 “ The I\Ia id o f A r to i s (Bu n n ) .4 “ The lVI a id o f A r t o i s (Bu n n ) .5 “

'

l‘he Bondm a n

, by Ba l fe a nd Bu n n .

G s ‘ The Bondm a n (Bu n n ) .


The co n seque n ce of t h e se i n ca u t iou s s peec h es a n do f h i s ge n e ra l ly u n comprom i s i n g a t t i tude 0 11 t h esubj ec t o f “ G lo ry ” i s

, of cou rse,a good deal of

b lood sh ed,

The foem e n p ress,the gleam i n g b ra n d s b l a z e out

” 1

wi t h t h e ve ry u n sa t i sfa c tory resul t for ou r poo rfr i e n d t h a t h e i s u sua l ly compe l l ed

,for rea so n s of

sym pa t h y n o t u n co n n ec ted wi t h t h e P i t a nd Ga l l ery,

t o ta ke t h e seco n d p l a c e i n t h e c omba t . Eve n 0 11

t he r a re occ a s io n s w h en he i s v i c tor iou s h e i s n o ta t al l l ike ly to su rv ive

The co n q u e red foe is fly i ng

Bu t w e a re sa d ly dy i ng

bu t,

a s a ru le w e m ay sa y t h a t i t i s h i s fa t eto b e bo t h defea ted a n d s la ugh te red by “ TheM o s lem .

”

F rom e v ’ ry w o u n d r u sh ’d fo r t h a l ifeOn the lVIoslem ’

s c rim son’d fi e l d .

” 3

Hi s d ea t h u su a l ly rece ives o n ly a p a ss i n g a n dva gu e r efe re n c e

On h os t i l e p l a i n s fa r,fa r a w a y

,

The Mo o r i sh Sq u a d ro n b 1 a 1 i ng,H e d i ed a H e r ’o s de 1th- t h cy sa yThe C h r i s t i a n b a n n er sa r i ng ,

” 1

w h i le hi s ep i ta ph (“ w r i t t e n by E . Fi tz ba ll,Esq .

i s s u c h a s h e h im se lf wou ld ha v e wi s h ed i t t o be,»

1 “ The T a l i sma n,by Ba l fe a nd M a t t h i son .

2 “ The Am be r \V i reh, by \V a lla ce a nd C horl ey .3 “ Fa i r Rosam on d ” (Z . C . Ba r ne t t a nd F. Sh a n non ) .

1 The I Ie i r o f V i ro n i,by Bi shop a nd j . l

’ocock . The word

d i ed ” i s m a r k ed l ’ i a i1gev o le .

’


The l a s t two l i n e s of th i s lyr i c rem i n d u s t h a tb e s id e t he pu r su i t of “ G lory

’ s b r igh t c a r eer,

ou r h e ro h a s a seco n d occup a t io n— love-m ak i n g .

Th i s,t h e immemor i a l p r iv i lege of h a n d som e te n or s

a n d ba r i to n es,wou ld be sca rce ly wort h me n t io n i n g

w ere i t n o t t h a t,i n t h i s per iod

,we com e a c ros s

a type of pa s s io n so n amby -p amby a nd a lmos tsex les s a s to repa y desc r i pt io n . As a ru le t h ege n t lem a n a ddre s se s h i s l a dy- love i n a m a to ryco up le t s wh ose wa rm t h does n o t exceed t h a t w h i c hw e S ho u ld co n s id e r a ppropr i a t e a s be twee n a n agedSu n da y sc hoo l t eac h er a nd a prom i s i n g pu p i l

“ S tay, s ta y ! I h a ve h ea rd yo u r s tory t o l dA nd w ou l d w i t h yo u som e con v e rse ho l d .

The fo rm I see d o t h my fa n cy s t r ike ;Yes ! a nd ea c h fea t u re s u c h a s a K i ng m igh t l i ke l

” 1

a nd oft e n h i s “ froze n h ea r t i s se lec ted for spec i a la pp l a u se

,a s i n t h e fo l lowi n g lyr i c

I n a n c i e n t t im es i n Br i t a i n ’s is leLo rd H e n ry w a s w e l l kn ow n

,

No kn igh t i n a l l the l a n d m o re fam edOr m o re dese rv ’

d re n ow n .

H is h ea r t w a s a l l 011 h o n o u r be n t,

H e n e ’e r c o u l d s t oo p t o Lo veNo L a dy i n the l a n dha d po w e rH is fr o z e n h ea r t t o m o ve ;

Ye t i n t h a t bosom deem’

d so s te r nThe k i n de s t fee l i n gs dw e l t ;

H er t e n de r t a l e,w h e n Pi ty t o l d

,

I t n e ve r fa i l’d t o m e l t .

But fo r n o i d l e pa ss i o n fo rm ’

d

H is h ig h h e ro i c m o od

1 “The M a i d o f A r t o i s (Bu n n ) .

V I OPERA BOOKS I 7 1

G l o ry ’ s s u b l im e r c h a rm s a lo n e\V i t h L o ve r ’s a r dou r w o o ’ d ” 1

a n d eve n w he n h i s h ea r t i s n o t rep rese n t ed a s

“ froze n ,” he thaw s i n to su c h a mou r n ful

,brea d—a nd

bu t te r lover t h a t h i s p l a i n t ive lyr ics ca n o n ly b e rea dn owadays a s a sk i t 0 11 t h emse lves . The fo l lowi n gso n g

,w r i t t e n a pp a re n t ly i n “ dea d ea r n e s t

,

”

wa s su n gi n B i s hop ’ s The Ma n i a c

,or The Swi s s B a n d i t t i

,

” by1)t h e mos t d i s t i n gu i s h ed E n g l i s h b a r i to ne of h i s age

Edm u n d left his El l a dea r ,T o roam u po n the da ng ’

rous w a veShe w a s the fa i res t o f the fa i r

,

A ndhe the b ra ves t of the b ra v e .

Why fr om the m a i d d i d Edm u n d go ?A nd w hy d i d El l a d r o p the t ea r ?’

T w a s t h a the flew t o m ee t the foe,

’

T w a s t h a t her h e a r t w a s c h i l l ed by fea r .

But S hor t the t im e fa i r El l a m ourn’

d

H er l o v e r a bse n t o n the w a ve,

F o r soo n he t o her a rm s re tu rn’

d,

A nd s t i l l the b ra v est o f the b ra v e .

1 Guy IVI a nn er ing”

(D. T er ry ) .2 P h i l l i p s . The d a te of t h i s o pe r a i s 1 81 0

,t ha t o f Bee t hoven ’s

F i de l i o i s 1805.

3A b s u rd a s t h i s b a l l a d m ay seem ,i t i s a c h a ra c te r i s t i c a nd a ve ra ge

s pec imen o f i t s c l a ss . Suc h “ gl u ey ” l yr i c s were i n t rodu ced i n toa ll the Oper a t i c en ter t a i nm en t s Of the t im e . T hey we re set e i t he rto s im pl e a nd s ome t im e s q u i te ch a rm i n g m u s i c

,or e l se t o m u s i c

wh i c h dem a nded a ve ry h i gh d egree o f voca l s k i l l . The rea de rm ay l oo k a t I so l i ne

’ s son g,H e re t a ke my l i fe

”

( i n “ The lVI a idofA r t o i s ”) i fhe w i sh e s t o see how far a com pose r c a n go i n se t t i n gword s ogoiw t t h e i r sen se . I n genera l , however , the word s a re a t a

l owe r leve l t h a n the mu s i c . M a ny ba l l a ds,s u c h a s t h a t i n Bi s hop ’s

lVI a id IVIa ri a n,beg i n n i ng

,

O le t no t ’he s a i d ‘ wh i le ye t I l i veThe c r ue l foe m e t a ke


Let u s n ow t u r n from Edmu n d ’s ra p tu re s to s ee of

wh a t so r t wa s t h e la dy for wh ose sa ke h e wa s wi l l i n g tob e “ ab se n t 0 11 t h e wa ve . ” O 11 t h e ou t s ide covers oft h e m u s i c i t m u s t be a l low ed E l la ha s a c er ta i n t r ima n k l ed

,smoo th~ha ired

,a nd c ha rm i n g S imp l i c i t y . Sh e

cou ld n o t be m i s ta ke n for a t ragedy q u ee n o r , b e i tsa id , fo r a b a l le t-g i r l . H e r i n door “ dem i - to i le t te ”

i s equa l ly effec t ive amo n g A lp i n e c l iff s,I ta l i a n

lagoo n s,a n d Pe ruv i a n pa l ace s

,i n a ll w h ic h s i tu a t io n s

she a ppea r s to be b l i s sful ly u n co n sc iou s of t h e fea rfu lgeogra ph i ca l a nd h um a n d a n gers by w h i c h she i s

su r rou n ded . L i ke h e r Edm u n d,w hose “h igh h ero ic

m ood ” p l u n ges h im i n to su c h co n t i n u a l per i l,sheha s

a favou r i te ( a nd m u c h l es s d a n gero u s) occu pa t io nt h e p lea s i ng a nd p i ctu re sq u e h ab i t of r ec l i n i n g i ngro t toe s .Th i s i s E l la 0 11 t h e o u t s ide of t h e cover

,b u t

,wh e n

w e tur n t h e pa ge,w e a re c hagr i n ed to find th e r ea l

E l la n o t m u c h more l ike l ife t h a n Edm u n d . Tobeg i n w i t h

,she i s a lways w eep i n g o r s imper i n g

,o r

d o i n g bo t h a t o n ce . From h er s ta n dpo i n t t h i s i sper h a ps i n ev i ta b le

,fo r sh e spe n d s a grea t d ea l of her

t ime i n e n deavo u r i n g to esca pe t h e wi l es of bo ld,bad

ba r i ton e s

A nd I m u s t keep a n o t h e r sec re t t o oFo r sa ke o f pea ce

,n o r te l l my fa t h e rhow

T h a t bo l d,ba d

,m a n p u rsues m e w i t h his love ” 1

a nd t h e re su l t i s t h a t she i s i n a co n s ta n t s ta te Of

fl u t t e r a n d ag i ta t io n . If Edm u n d i s wi t h h er a n dha s

fu t wi t h t h ose l i p s o n e swee t k i s s g i veA nd ca s t m e i n the l a ke ’ ”

a re rea l l y n o t m u ch a bove Dr . Joh n so n ’s pa rody , “ I pu t myha tU pon my h ea d .

”

1 a The Am be r W i t c h


My fa t h e r’

s fl ocks a dorn ’

d the pl a i n,

Re t i rem e n t ’s j oys p ossess i ng”1

a nd t o t h e de scr i pt io n of t he s e j oy s she u su a l lydevo te s t h e fir s t v er s e . I n t h e seco n d she r efer svagu e ly to “ ru th le s s wa r o r “ th’ i n vader ’ s h o s t

,

”

a n d i n t h e t h i rd she comes d ow n—s t age a nd appeal sfor ou r p i ty a s a s e n t ime n ta l bu t ru i n ed orpha n .

Oryn thi a p u t s t h i s ap pea l i n a n u t - sh e l lFe n ced r ou n d by b ra ke a nd l a w n a nd w oodThe C o t t a ge o f my Fa t h e r s t o o dA de c e n t p l e n ty o n cehis sh a reA nd I w a s b or n a p rosp

’

rous h e i r

But r u t h l ess w a r soo n m a rr’

d o u r l o tIn r u i n l i es t h a t n a t i v e co t

T h a t S i re t o o—w h e re sh a l l so r r o w end P

Ahw h o s h a l l p r o ve the o r ph a n ’ s fr i e n d i ” 2

Of h er s eco n d s tock- top i c— h e r ab se n t lover —Ih a ve a l r e a dy g ive n a m a scu l i n e examp l e i n “Edmu n da nd E l la .

” The fem i n i n e va r i a n t of t h i s th emeoccu r s freq u e n t ly

,for i n s ta n ce :

“A t 110011 u po n the bea c h I s t o odA nd saw the w a v es de pa r t

,

W h i c h bore u po n t h e i r b r i n y fl o odThe t rea s u re o f my h ea r t ” 3

a nd 110 l e ss fr eq ue n t a re h e r fal l a c iou s compa r i so n sb e twee n “ h umb le love a nd “ g i lded sp le n dou r .

”

Sh e a sk s

1 “The V i rg i n o f the Sun,by BlS ll OP ; “

the poe t ry by F ’

Reyn ol d s .”

The Nob l e Ou t l aw,by Bi s h op a nd lVIr‘ S . Op i e .

3 “ The Br i de s o f Ven i ce ”

(Bu n n ) .

v 1 OPERA BOOKS 1 7 5

H a t h g i l ded sp l e n dou r s u c h r ew a rdsA s the p l ea su re w h i c h h um b l e lov e a cc or ds ? ” 1

a n d eve n pu t s u p a n u n n ec es sa r i ly p lebe i a nbe spa red th e p r iv i lege of h igh b i r t h :

F r om h igh b i r t h a nd a ll i ts fe t te r sMy k i n d s ta rs my l o t rem o ve !I s h a l l e n vy n o t my be t te rs ,G i ve m e b u t the y o u t h I lov e .

” 2

I t m u s t b e ow n ed,h oweve r

,t h a t

,i n Sp i t e of her

som ewh a t v io le n t p ro te s ta t io n s of democra t ic fee l i n g,

E l l a Ofte n s how s a t r u l y Peck s n iffi a n d e l igh t 111 va gu erefe re n ce s to t h e “ g i ld ed t h ro n gs ” of fa s h i o n ab l e l ife .

S h e rs n o t a bove ca l l i n g t h e a t t e n t io n of t h e g i ldedt h ro n gs ” t h em selves to the i r ow n soc i a l super ior i ty

“ I b i d ye w elc om e !

I t ca l sl fo r t h t h a nksT o see a ro u n d m e

Fa sh i o n ’s c h o se n ra nks

a nd,i n wh at eve r d rea dful p red i came n t she m ay be ,

she ca n always find t im e to dr op i n a ge n t le re

m i n de r t h a t he r p roper sph ere is t h e “ h u pp ersu ck le s

“ I n v a i n w i t h t im i d gla n ce I t ry t o p ie rce the da z z l i ngc row d t o see the n ob l e fo rm o f him I love .

”4

The rea der ca n n o t fa i l to n o t i ce t h a t i n w h a teve rE l la sa y s , she a lw ays a dopt s a mode o f expres s io nj u s t suffi c ie n t ly removed from the expected to b eu n comforta b l e . I n h e r fa t h er ’s p re se n c e she m ay

1 “The S i ege of Roch e l l e (Fi tzba ll) .2 “ The H a u n ted T owe r ,” by S to ra ce .

3 “ The Bondma n (Bu n n ) .4 “ Fa i r Rosamo nd (Z . C . Ba r ne t t a nd F . S ha n n on ) .

1 7 6 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CHA P

m a ke som e co n ce ss io n s t o t h e commo n p l ac e a n da dd re s s h im thu s

Goo d—ev e , my gen t le fa t h er

t o w h i c h h e wi l l rep ly

Goo d- ev e,my m e r ry d a ugh ter .

” 1

B u t,beh i n d h i s b a ck

,s he a lways refer s to h im a s

7 7 0M y s i r e,o r “ t h a t s i r e . S h e wi l l s ay

Wh a t j oy to see my s i re a ga i n .

A n d i t i s n o t o n ly i n t h i s par t i cul a r co n n ec t ion t ha tSh e adopt s t h i s cu r iou s p h ra seo logy

,for bo t h she

a nd Edmu n d a nd,i n deed

,t h e w ho le dra wa ti5 p er5owe

a re n a tu ra l ly so m e n tal ly a nmm ic t h a t t hey o n ly ca l la s pa d e a Spa d e u n de r t h e d i re s t n ece s s i t i es of r hym e .

I d o n o t a l l ud e to t h e i r m ere La t i n i sm s or t h e i rb e la ted im i ta t io n s of t h e e igh tee n t h ce n t u ry a l legor i ca lmu s e . Bo th t h es e a re commo n e n ough . Theyspea k of a l amb w h o i s a t tacked by a wo lf

concea l’

d ben ea t h a sh eep ’s a t t i re

a n d of a n eager c h a rger w ho

spu r n s th’ i n de n ted gr o u n d ” ; 5

t h ey say“

.

Be lg ia’

s fer t i le p la i n,mea n i n g Be lg i um

,

6

a nd “ G a lha ’s sword,

” mea n i n g the Fre n c h a rm y .

6

1 “ The Am b e r W i t c h ” (Cho rl ey ) .2 See a bove , “ The O rph a n ’s F r i end .

3 “ Fa i r R osamon d (Z . C . Ba r n e t t a nd F . Sha n non ) .1 “ The S i ege o f Roch e l l e ” (F i tzba l l) .5 “ Rob i n H ood

,by Sh i e l d . Boo k by L . M a cn a l l y (a nd E.

I rysaght r) .6 “ The by Bi s h op . “ The poe t ry by T . Mor t on .


c e n tu ry lyr i c s . Eve n R i c h a rd Coeu r d e L io n a nd

Bere n ga r i a 1 (w h o , we h a ve re a so n t o be l i eve , w er e n o tse n t ime n ta l i s t s) a re u n ab l e to say o u t r igh t p la i n

“ I ”

a n d “ me .

” The l a t te r h i s to r i ca l perso n age,for

i n s ta n ce,s a ys th a t h e r fo n d su ffer i n g h ea r t ” wi sh e s

to re t i r e t o a ca ve i n Pa l es t i n e for pea ce !I n t h i s Opera t i c pe r iod t h e re a re

,I n eed n o t say,

o t h er equa l ly l ife le s s types bes ide s t h o se of t h e h e roa n d h ero i n e . The co n fi da n t w ho ex i s t s o n ly torec e ive confidence s

,t h e aged a nd to t te r i n g fa t h e r a n d

mot her,a nd espec i a l ly th e bee t l e b row ed h ea vy v i l la i n

a re a ll s toc k fea tu re s of t h ese e n t er ta i n me n ts . Th et h u n der i n g rhodomo n ta de of t h e l a s t—n amed cha ra c te rco n ta i n s m a n y l i n e s w h ic h wou ld h a ve de l igh tedp erh a p s somet imes d id d el igh t— th e sou l of C h a r le sL amb . A 11 exq u i s i t e a n t ho logy m igh t b e cu l l edfrom t h es e h ea v i ly sce n te d flowers-of—r h e to r i c

,bu t

t h e i r t ype i s too fam i l i a r to ca l l fo r more t h a npa s s i n g me n t io n . I ca n n o t

,how eve r

,r e s i s t t h e

t emp ta t io n of quot i n g a ph ra s e w h i c h,I t h i n k

,sums

u p in a s i n gl e m a s te r ly cou p l e t t h e w h o le Tra n spo n t i n e Dram a . I t i s t h i s

C l a ra lVIon ta lha n Nam e re v i l’

d !

A ssa ss i n o f De V a lmour’

s c h i l d

“T i t h t h e p rod u c t ion of Ba r n e t t ’ s “ Mo u n ta i nSy l ph i n 1 834 E n gl i s h Opera m a de a d i s t i n c t s t e pforwa rd i n t h e d i rec t io n of n a t u ra l n es s a nd ea s e .

The a c tu a l t ex t ?»of t h i s o pe ra i s a bove,t hough n o t

grea t ly a bove,t h e average form of co n t emporar y

1 I n Ba l fe ’ s T a l i sm a n . The wh o l e o f t h i s boo k i s wor t hrea d i n g i f o n ly a s a n e x am ple o f t h e s t ra nge d ummy c h a ra c t e r i s t i c swh i c h h i s to r i ca l pe rs on 1g cs ca n be m a de to a s s ume i n (bad) Opera .

Ihe S i ege o f I\ o c l1e l le ”

( l rtz b. .1l l)3 ‘ By T . l . l h a t ke ra y Esq .

V I OPERA BOOKS 1 7 9

t h ea tr ica l l i tera tu re . I t i s,h ow e v e r

,n o t so m uc h i n

t h e word s a s i n t he ge n era l m a te r i a l of t h e d ram a,

a n d t h e h a ppy ( if somewh a t superfic i a l) ch arm of

i ts m u s i ca l trea tm e n t t h a t we find a n ew a n du n expec ted re tu r n to l ife . The ch a rac te r s a re 110

lo n ger mere pa s t eboa rd figu re s wh i c h— l ike t h e se im itars a nd t u rba n s , t h e g i l t c row n s a nd dr i n k i n g c u ps—cou ld be d raw n w ho lesa le from t h e proper ty- room .

There i s les s talk abo u t “ t h e h ea r t,

” a n d more h ea r ti n i t . I n fa c t

,o n e fee l s t h a t t h e compo ser

,a lmos t

for t h e firs t t ime s i n c e t he d a y s of Pu rc e l l , r ea l lylo v ed h i s c h a rac te rs

,a n d t h a t

,t h erefore

,d rawi n g a s

h e d id from th a t c e n t ra l l igh t of a ll a r t,h e wa s a b le

to suffu se t hem wi t h a ce r ta i n m i ld t ender n e s s .The E n g l i s h opera—book s w r i t te n i n t h e l a s t h a lf o f

t h e n i n et ee n t h ce n tu ry a re a comp le te co n tra s t t ot h o se of t h e prec ed i n g per iod . A do ub le rea c t io nha s se t i n . F i rs t we find a co n t i n ua l ly i n c r ea s i n gco n t em pt fo r t h e o ld t hea t r i cal t r icke ry w h i c h h adrobbed t h e ea r l i er s tage o f i t s v i ta l i ty . Th i s co nt empt

,i n i t s e lf a symp tom of hea l t h , w a s , h oweve r ,

al lowed to u n d uly dom i n a te t h e w ho le d ram a . On

look i n g a t t h ese o pera s w e fee l i n s t i n c t ive ly tha t t he i ra u t ho rs w ere a s a ru l e am a t eu r s

,a n d am a teu rs w i t h

l i t t le se n s e of t h e th e a t r e . The re s u l t i s t h a t i t i sex t reme ly d iffi c u l t t o c i t e a s i n g l e op era w hos e co nte n t s we re sufli c ien tly d ram a t ic— o n e m igh t a lmostsay su ffi c i e n t ly t h ea t r i ca l— t o m a ke s u cc ess po ss ib le .

Where t h e o lder com pose r had bee n b u sy se t t i n g tom u s ic t hea t r i ca l t ra s h wh ich had 110 re la t i o n to l i te rat u re o r to l i fe , h i s you n ge r , a nd more ea r n es t

,r iva l

w a s wa s t i n g h i s t ime i n a fu t i l e a t tem p t to i l l u s t ra t ed ram a t ic t ex t s w h i c h ( t hough ofte n h a ppy a s merel i te ra tu re ) could n o t by t h e very term s of t h e i r existe n c e b e ga lva n ized i n to t hea tr ica l l ife . These tex t s


freq ue n t ly co n ta i n ed b road a nd c lea r ly expre ssedv i ew s 0 11 l ife a s see n t h rough th e spec ta c les of ac omfo rt a b l e l i te r a ry Lo n do n e r . Th e i r expres s io n wa ssom et imes a dm i ra b le

,n o t “ too good ” for t h e t hea t r e

,

bu t o f a k i n d d iffe re n t from th a t wh i c h t h e th ea t rerequ i res . They w e r e

,h ow eve r

, a ll foredoomed tofa i l u r e 0 11 t h e op era t i c s ta ge w h ere a S i n g l e “ H a

,

ha ! ” a s id e ( a n d i n t h e r igh t p la c e ) ha s more va l u eth a n t h e fi n e s t s t r i n g of poet i ca l im ages a n d ph i losoph i ca l refl ec t io n s ( i n t h e w ro n g p la ce ) . Th u s t h eu n gramm a t i ca l B u n n a nd al l h i s t r i be a re

,i n a way

,

a ve n ged 0 11 t h e i r l es s p ra c t ica l,if more wide ly aecom

pl ished, su cce ssors .I t m u s t n o t b e supposed th a t

,wi t h t h e com i n g of

t h e E n g l i s h Mu s i ca l Re n a i ssa n ce,al l form s of l i tera ry

d i s to r t io n a nd i n vers io n d i sa ppea red a t o n ce from ou rOpe ra—books . Eve n a s la t e a s 1 883 t h e mos t su cce s sful c r i t i c of h i s day fo u n d i t po s s ib le to p u t 0 11 pa persu c h a ph ra s e a s

T o a n sw e r a q u es t i o n i s a t a skW h i c h g rea t ly depe n d s o n who does a sk .

” 1

To m a ke u se of su c h commo n p l a ce s a s “ 1i w h i t eha n d ”1a nd “ s pea k i n g i n sor row a nd n o t i n a n ger

,

”1

a nd to w r i t e su c h cu r i o u s ly be l a t ed b l a n k—ver se a s th i s

Ev e n a s w e l ea r nThe l a t e n t r oo t a nd sa p o f yo nd e r t reeBy b rea k i n g on e o f i ts im pe n d i ng b ra n ch es .

” 2

B u t t h e se l a pse s a re n ot typ i ca l o f t h e per iod,a nd w e

h a ve o n l to rea d th e com i le te t ex t s o f s a3 )

y,

Co lomb a,

“ The Tro uba dou r,

Pa ulrn e,Th e

V e i led Proph e t,

a nd “ The Be a u ty - S to n e,

” S id e bys ide wi t h a n y tex t s w e m ay c h oo se by George Co l e

1 “ Col om ba,

” b y S i r A l e x a nd e r IWa c ken z i e a nd Fra n c i s H ueffer .

The Trou ba dou r,

”by the sam e a u t hor s .


A m ela ncho ly j a rgon wa s i n v e n ted , a j a rgo n compo u n ded of s i x t ee n t h a nd s eve n tee n t h c e n tu ry co l lo

qu i a l ism s,a rtificia l i t ies of t h e e igh tee n t h c e n tu ry , a nd

odd sc ra p s from ou r ba l la d a n d so n g l i tera tu re . 1 Th i ss h am d i a lec t d id d u t y

,eve n n ow does d u t y

,a s the

la n guage ofEngl ishOpera . There a re,howeve r

,s ig n s

t h a t i t s r e ig n i s com i n g to a n e n d . Aud i e n ce s a r egrowi n g impa t ie n t w i t h i t s m a n n er i sm s

,a n d a re be

g i nnrng to recog n ize th a t opera - book s ca n o n ly bew r i t te n 0 11 h i s to r ica l subj ec t s i n o n e of two ways .A u t ho rs m u s t e i t h e r u se o n ly wo rd s a n d express io n s oft h e h i s tor i ca l per iod wi t h w h ic h t h ey a re dea l i n g

,o r

t hey m u s t w r i te i n t h e l a n gu age of t h e i r ow n t imes .Th e fo rmer m e thod is

,of cou r se

,ge n e ra l ly impos s ib l e

for m a n y rea so n s,o n e of w h i c h i s t h a t a ny E n gl i s h of

a n ea r l i er da te t ha n a bou t 1 550 i s p ra c t i ca l ly u n in tell igib l e to a moder n a ud i e n c e . If w e a dop t t h e l a t te rm eth od w e a re mere ly fo l lowi n g t h e examp l e of

Sh a kespea r e,a nd we m u s t rem ember t h a t w e a re n o t

fo rced by i t t o em p loy o n ly t h e t ra n s i e n t a n d co lloqu ia l form s of ou r eve ry-day speec h . Th ere i sn o th i n g to p reve n t au thors exerc i s i n g t h e u tmo s tca re i n t h e s e l ec t io n o f wo rd s , a n d th e compo s i t ec h a rac t e r of t h e E n g l i s h l a n gu age g ive s t h em a w idefie ld for t h i s s e l ec t io n .

W i t h t h i s a spec t of t h e qu e s t io n I s h a l l d eal moreful ly i n a l a t e r c h a pt e r

,b u t

,before co n c l ud i n g

,I may

d raw a t te n t io n t o a po i n t a bou t w h i c h ve ry l i t t le i ssa id by t ho s e m u s i c i a n s w ho d i s c u ss t h e re l a t io n s h ip

s o c h a rm i n g a work a s“ The C a n te rbu ry P i l gr im s

s u ffe rs from t h i s de fec t . I n m a ny o f the s cen e s ( s u c h a s t h a tbe tw ee n f l a l o ’ the C hepe’s h i re l i ngs a nd S ir C h r i s t ophe r ) thecom pose r

,S i r C h a r le s S t a n f ord

,s how s a I’urc e ll ia n fa c i l i ty i n

w o rd - pa i n t i n g,bu t the b r i gh t n e ss a nd ea se o f the m u s i c i s o ft en

m a r red by the a rt i fi c l a l i ty o f t h e te x t .

V I OPERA BOOKS 1 83

betwee n composer a nd d ram a t i s t— I mea n t h e i r a r t i s t i cequ a l i ty . I t i s ge n e ra l ly a s sumed th a t , beca u s e a grea tm a n y me n of low i n t e l l ige n c e h a ve w r i t t e n operabooks

,t herefor e t h e i r a rt i s 0 11 a lower l eve l t ha n t h a t

of t he m u s i c i a n . Bu t,t hough w e m ay (u n fo rtu n a te ly)

d raw ded uc t io n s from opera t ic h i s to ry fa vou rab l e t ot h i s v iew

,t h ere i s n o t h i n g i n t h e n a tu r e of t h e i r wo rk

to prove i t . I n deed,t h e ta sk of c o n s t ruc t i n g a fine

t ragedy o r comedy w i t h t he a dded r es t r i c t io n s o f

l a n gu age a nd t h e added l im i ta t i o n s of moveme n twh i c h a re imposed by t he opera t i c form

,m u s t b e

d i ffi cul t eve n to t h e mos t ab le a nd ea r n e s t-m i n ded .

Ne i t h er t h e m u s i c n or t h e t ex t o f a n ope ra i s t h eOpera . The two t h i n gs a re

,l ike t he two h a lve s o f a

pa i r of sc i sso r s,ea c h u s e le ss w i t hou t t h e o t h er . Th e

two a r t i s ts,t he refore 1f t he r e be two— co n ce r n ed i n

i t s crea tio ri s h a r e t h e re spo n s ib i l i ty a nd s h ou ld t h erefore s ha re t h e d ig n i t y . I t i s o n ly by a r ecog n i t io n oft h i s fa c t t h a t w e s h a l l ever put a n e n d to t h e wa s t eof composer s ’ l abou r s 0 11 ba d Opera - books . Whe nw e h a ve do n e t h a t a nd ha v e p l a ced t h e d ram a t i s t a ndt h e m u s ic i a n 0 11 th e i r prop e r leve l of a r t i s t i c a nd

,be

i t sa id,commerci a l~ eq u a l i ty,

w e s h a l l find a n improvem e n t i n t h e qua l i ty of ou r opera t ic t ex t s . Thedram a t i s t wi l l t h e n r ecog n ize t h a t th e mere suc

cess ion of eve n t s ” i s 110 lo n ger s uffic i e n t for opera t i csu cc es s . I t wil l t h e n be wo r t h h i s w h i l e to s tudy th ei n tegra l d iffere n ce s b e twee n Opera t i c a nd o t h e r form sof d ram a t i c co n s tru c t io n

,t o a dm i t t h e n ec es s i t i es i n

Opera of ex te n ded a nd deve loped s i tua t io n s,

’ ’

a nd t ofill t he se “ s i tua t io n s

,n o t wi t h pa dd i n g

,b u t wi t h

poet ry . H e wi l l n o t t h e n grudge t h e i nfin rte pa i n sw h ic h m u s t be spe n t bo t h i n t h e i n ve n t io n of h i sd ec lam a to ry se n te n ces a n d i n t h e e l a bo ra t io n of thos ei n t im a te a l l ia n ces b e twee n i n te l lec tua l a n d emot io n a l

1 84 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM C H A P V I

t ho ugh t— t h e p ivota l word—a nd -mu s i c - ph rase s o f

Opera . To do t h i s i s n o ea sy t a sk,a nd i t dem a n d s a

m a n y s ided m i n d fo r i t s a ccomp l i sh me n t . Th ed ram a t i s t m u s t a l so be somet h i n g of a m u s i c i a n a n da good dea l of a s i n ge r . Above a ll

,h e m u s t h ave t he

h ea r t a nd im ag i n a t io n Of a poe t .


A Mid s ummer—N igh t ’ s D ream,

” “ Ot he l lo,

a nd

Lyc ida s w e r e w r i t te n m u s t b e a t o n gu e of

i n fi n i t e va r i e ty a n d powe r . Nor i s t h er e a ny ot herspeec h wh i c h m a n h a s fo u n d equ a l ly sa t i sfa c to ry fort h e exp re ss io n of exq u i s i te fa n cy

,t ra g i c i n t e n s i ty

,

a nd t h e qu i e t so lem n i ty of deep per so n a l fee l i ng .

Now if,i n s tea d of d i s cu s s i n g the a ca dem i c qu es

t io n o f t h e s u i tea b i l i t y of t h e l a n gu a ge fo r m u s i cd ram a

,we take a n i n t e l l ige n t E n g l i s h opera—

gg oe r

,

a n d a sk h im w he t her h e l ikes to l i s t en to E n g l i s hi n t he t h ea t re

,w e s h a l l— n i n e t imes ou t Of te n

be a n sw e red by a n emph a t ic “ NO .

” I t wi l l h e lpu s to swa l low ou r i n d ig n a t io n a t t h i s rep ly if w eremember two po i n t s . F i rs t

,t h e p l aygoer v i s i t s t h e

Opera—hou s e so l e ly fo r w h a t w e m ay cal l se lfis hr ea so n s . H e wi s he s to ge t t h e grea tes t poss ib leamo u n t of perso n a l e n j oym e n t o u t of i t , a n d t hereh i s i n t e res t e n d s . A S a ru le

,h e i s u n w i l l i n g to e n t e r

eve n i n to a n academ i c d i s cu s s io n 0 11 t h e mer i t s of

t h e q u e s t io n w h i c h i s b efore u s,a nd h e i n va r ia b ly

refu se s to ta ke a ny pa r t i n a n a t io n a l propa ga n d a,

howeve r pra i s ewor t h y i t s obj ec t . Fu r t h ermor e,h e

ge n er a l ly ta kes to h imself, n o t b l ame b u t c red i t fort h e a ccep ta n ce of o u r n a t io n a l i n fe r io r i t y i n Opera ,a n d h e i s t h e more wi l l i n g to m a ke t h i s co n cess iona s h i s w ho le l i fe i s o rga n ized 0 11 t h e p rec i s e ly oppos i t e h ypot h es i s of ou r n a t io n a l sup erio r i ty i n everyo th er s ph e re o f h um a n a c t iv i ty Th e seco n d po i n tw h i c h w e m u s t bea r i n m i n d i s

,t h a t if we pre s shim

fo r h i s rea so n s,w e a re pre t ty su re to find t h a t h e

c o n fu se s two d i s t i n c t q u es t io n s :

( 1 ) The a dv i sa b i l i t y o f tra n s l rt i ng pu rely fo re ig nwork s fo r u s e befo re a n l f. ng l isha ud i e n c e ;

( 2 ) The poss ib i l i t y of evo lv i n g a sys tem o f

d ram a t i c so n g—s peec h i n E n g l i s h .

V I I ENGLI SH LANGUAGE IN OPERA 1 87

The firs t of t he s e qu e s t io n s i n vo lves som e discu ss ion of th e ess e n t i a l c h a ra c te r i s t ic s of moder nOpera

,th a t i s to s ay, of th e al l ia n ce be twee n word

a n d m u s ic—ph ra s e s,to w h i ch I s hal l a l l ude more

fu l ly w h e n I com e to dea l w i t h t he subj ec t of“ t ra n s l a t io n s . Of t h e seco n d I wou ld say

— i nsome j u s t ifica t io n of t h e p la ygoer ’ s “ No ” t h a t

,

howeve r po ss ib l e t h e evo l u t io n of s u c h a sys t emm ay be i n t h e fu t u re

,i t ha s n o t b ee n evo lved ye t .

Th e l a n guage i s t h e r e a n d th e mu s i c i s t h e re,bu t

t h e two t h i n gs h ave n o t bee n b rough t toge th era t a n y ra te t h ey h ave n o t bee n brough t toge th e r soa s to fu lfil t h e i r pr ime obj ec t i n t h e t h ea t r e— in tell i

g ibi l i ty. I say t h i s wi t h co n fi d e n ce , becau s e I havem ad e co n t i n u a l e n qu i ry a nd exper ime n t to a s c er ta i nexa c t ly w h a t p ropor t io n of a n Opera t ex t ca n a c tu a l lybe u n der s tood u n de r t h e p res e n t co n d i t io n s of performa nce . For th i s p u rpos e my sea tha s bee n va r iedfrom the s ta l l s to t he ga l lery

,a nd I h a ve alwa ys m a de

a spec i a l po i n t of a t te n d i n g fi r s t—n igh t s u n pr imed,

wh e n po s s ib le,wi t h a ny p re l im i n a ry k n owledge of

t h e p lo t . M y ge n eral co n c l u s io n i s tha t,t hough

t her e a re o n e o r two s i n ger s ( bu t n o t more) w hoa re fa i r ly a r t icul a te a n d i n te l l ig i b l e i n t h e t h ea t re

,

w i t h th e res t o n e i s l u cky if o n e ca n ca tc h a s i n g l ewo rd i n h a lf a doze n se n t e n ce s . I n s hor t

,t he i r

i n te l l ig ib i l i ty i s abou t o n e per ce n t .I m ay c i t e a n average exper ie n ce . At o n e of

M r . Beec h am ’ s firs t-n igh t s i n 1 9 10 ,

“W ”

( o n e o ft h e p r i n c i pa l s) w a s p a r t i a l ly i n te l l ig i b le t h roughou t :of “ X ” I co u ld o n ly ga t he r

,du r i n g th e w ho le

eve n i n g , t h e fir s t t h ree word s of a ca tc h—ph ra se,

w h ic h wa s repea ted sever a l t imes . The p lo t,a s I

aft e rwa rd s le a r n t,rea l ly tu r n ed 0 11 t h e p syc ho logy

of “ Y ” a n d “ Z .

”

Of t h e forrn er’s l i n e s I o n ly


ca ugh t,i n a n orc h es t ra l p a u se

,o n e p h ra s e

,some

t h i n g to t h i s effec t,

“ I wi l l t e l l you h ow i th a ppe n ed

,t h e n came a lo n g

,lo n g n a rra t ive

,wh ich

,

fo r al l I k n ew,m igh t h ave bee n i n Ch i n e se . Of

“ Z’

s” pa r t I ca n hones t ly s a y t h a t I u n ders tood

110 sy l l ab le from th e firs t a ct t o t he l a s t . At t h i spar t icu la r firs t—n igh t I wa s in t h e fro n t of t h ea mph i t hea t r e a t Co v e n t Ga rd e n . At Hi s Maj e s ty ’sThea t re I h ea rd a s im i la r fir s t p erfo rm a n ce from t h ed res s- c i rc le

,a n d here my exper ie n ce

,a s o n m a n y

o th er occa s io n s,wa s j u s t t h e same—a t mos t o n e

o r two s i n ger s who se word s o n e cou ld pa r t i a l ly h ea r,

a n d t he res t a mere “ fog—in—t h e—t h roa t . ” I n t h e

c h o ru s e s,w he re th e u tmos t v i v a c i ty i s a t ta i n a b le by

t h e s im u l ta n eou s u t t e ra n ce of a s imp le sy l l ab l e,

n o t h i n g wa s eve r d i s t i n gu i s ha b le . The co n so n a n ta la t tac k was co n t i n ua l ly wea k a nd h e s i ta t i n g

,t h e

co lo u r of t h e vow e l—sou n d s o va r i ed a n d gro tesq u e lyi n acc u ra t e a s t o be m i s l ea d i n g , a nd t h e fi n a l co n son a n t s e i t h e r h a lf i n a ud ib le (a nd t herefore i n effec t ive )or e l s e p ro n ou n c ed wi t hou t u n a n im i ty by d iff er e n ts i n gers i n d iffere n t pa r t s of t h e ba r .

Now,t h e o rd i n a ry Opera—goer “ 0 11 p lea s u re be n t

m ay n o t k n ow e n ough a bo u t Fre n c h,Germ a n

,o r

I t a l i a n t o be a b le to s ay wh e th er t h ey a re b e i n gsu n g proper ly o r n o t

,bu t h i s k n owl edge of h i s ow n

la n gu age t ea c h e s h im tha t t her e i s some t h i n g rad ica l ly w ro n g w he n t ha t la n gu age i s u n i n t e l l ig ib l e .

H e Ob ta i n s a c e r ta i n amou n t o f s e n suou s p lea su refrom hea r i n g fin e v oc a l i s t s s i n g i n g , say, i n I ta l i a n ,a nd t h erefore h e sa ys o u t r igh t t h a t h e p refe r s t ha tl a n gua ge to E n g l i s h fo r opera t ic pu rposes We ca nsca rc e ly b lame h im fo r t h i s

,a nd

,a s h e i s 110 pro

p aga ndi s t, w e n eed n o t be su rpr i sed if h e m ere lys h rugs h i s s h ould ers w he n w e po i n t ou t t h a t his


A n d t h e mo re h e per s i s ts i n t h i s a t t i tude th e mor eh a rd - set a n d w ro n g-hea ded h e b ecomes i n hi s co nv ict io ns

,for

,afte r a few yea rs of Cove n t Garde n

,

h e a lwa ys com es to rega rd a n ope ra a s a Sor t of

g lor ified sympho n y wi t h v oca l embe l l i s hme n t s,i n

w h ic h h i s p l ea su re l S co n t i n u a l ly d i sco u n ted by t h ei rr i ta t i n g i n t ru s io n of s ta ge pa n tom ime .

”1

I m u s t co n fe s s t h a t t h e refu sa l of suc h a m a n toa t te n d E n g l i s h op e ra t i c perform a n ces u n der th e i rp res e n t co n d i t io n s i s n o t un n a tu ra l . On t h e o n eh a n d h e h as t h e p lea su re of h ea r i n g Fre n c h a n dI ta l i an a r t i s t s w h os e t ra i n i ng ha s bee n b a sed 0 11 ac lose a n a lys i s of t h e i r ow n l i n gu i s t i c sou n d s a n d o f

t h e spec i a l a d a pta b i l i t y o f t h e s e sou n d s to m us i c .I n bot h t h e se l a n gua ge s

,be i t s a id

,t h e s i n ger ha s

to fac e gra ve d ifficu l t ie s before h e ca n becom e w ho l lyi n t e l l ig ib l e i n t h e t hea t re ; b u t t he se d i ffic ul t ie s ( tow h ic h I w i l l a l l ude la te r) a re fa ced a nd overcom e byevery a r t i s t wor th y of th e n ame . The r e s u l t i s a na ccu ra cy a nd p rec i s io n of vowe l—co lo u r a n d a co nso n a n ta l n ea t n es s a nd fi n i s h w h i c h n ever l eave t h ea ud i e n ce i n doub t a s t o t h e a c tu a l word w h ic h isbe i n g spoke n . On t h e o th er h a n d , h e ha s t h e pa i no f l i s te n i n g to E n g l i s h s i n gers who se t ra i n i n g ha sbee n ba s ed 0 11 a u se les s

,a nd ofte n s love n ly

,exam i

n a t io n,n o t of E n g l i s h

,bu t of I t a l i a n o r eve n Fre n c h .

The E n g l i s h—s pea k i n g S i n ge r,u n l ike h i s Fre n c h o r

I ta l i a n r iva l,s ta r t s u n h a n d i ca pped by a ny dec lam a

t o ry d i sadva n tage s . H e s h o u ld be t h e fir s t dec lam a to ry a r t i s t i n Eu ro pe . As a m a t te r of fa c t , lo n gbefore h e e n d s h i s s tude n t d a ys h eha s bee n taugh t to

1 I h a ve a c t u a l l y h ea rd a n Engl i s hm a n o f w i de ge ne ra l c u l t u rea nd d i sce r nm en t (a nd a gre a t l ove r o f m u s i c ) dec l a re se r i ou s l yt h a t “ i fhe u nd e rst ood e ve r y l a n gua ge 111 the worl d bu t o n e

,he

11 ou l d l i ke t o h ea r h i s Ope ra i n t h a t o n e .

”

V I I ENGLI SH LANGUAGE IN OPERA 1 9 1

co n ver t al l h i s vow e l s i n to a n u n recog n iza b le sm udgea nd t o avo id h i s co n so n a n t s a s he wou ld t he dev i l .Now

,o n t h e ra re occ a s io n s wh e n a S i n ger from

a ny o f ou r m u s i c a l sem i n a r ies ve n tu re s o n t o t h ecom i c opera (or , as i t i s n ow ca l led ,

“ The M us i ca lComedy s ta ge

,th e firs t l esso n t ha t h e rece ives i s

th a t i t i s n ecess a ry fo r h im to oo understood by t h epeop l e 011 t h e o t h e r s id e of t h e foot l igh t s . H e fi n d sou t t h a t n o per so n a l o r soc i a l w e igh t wi l l m a i n ta i nh im i n h i s pos i t io n t he re if h e per s i s t s i n rega rd i n gt h e E n g l i s h l a n guage a s a low—c la s s d i a l ec t w ho sem et h od s s h ould be e leva t ed ” t o those o f t h e I ta l i a nwhereve r pos s ib l e . H e becomes a w a re of t h e fac tth a t m a n y E n gl i s h word s e n d i n co n so n a n t s

,a nd

t h a t ( if h e i s bo th to S i n g a nd to l ive) h e m u s tp ro n o u n c e t h em a ud i b ly i n o rd e r t o d i s t i n gu i sh

,s ay,

be twee n food a nd “ foo l H e a l so,i n some

c a se s,becomes awa re of a seco n d fa c t

,t h a t t h e E n g l i s h

l a n gu age i s mor e v a r i ed i n sub t l e vow e l- comb i n at io n s t h a n a ny o ther la n guage of w h i c h h e i s eve rl ike ly to hea r

,a nd t h a t t h e refore ( if h e i s to p lea s e

a nd n o t to i r r i ta t e h i s aud i e n ce ) h e mu s t , w he n h ewi s h e s t o s a y t h e word “ te n

,

” ac tu a l ly s ay t h e word“ t e n ! a nd n o t “ ta n ” or “ ta ’ F i n a l ly h e l ea r n s t h a ta good m a n y yea r s ago a sys tem o f spe ec h—in- so n g

,

o r so n g- speec h , w a s e l a bora ted a nd a d a p ted to t h en eeds of t h e com i c o pe ra S t age a t t h e Sa voy Thea t re :t ha t t h i s c h a rm i n g i n t im a cy of wo rd s a nd me lody

,

ba s ed a s i t wa s 0 11 a p u re ly E n g l i s h fou n d a t io n, wa s

a t o n c e rece ived wi t h d e l igh t a nd apprec i a t io n,a nd

t h a t i t s t i l l p er s i s t s a s a recog n ized fa c tor i n t h esu cce s s o f eve ry l igh t op era .

1

1 G i lber t a nd S u l l i va n “ t ra n sform ed the s ty l e o f speech onthe m u s i c a l S t a ge

,a ss im i l a t i n g i t t o t h a t of the no n -m u s i ca l

t hea t re s ” (“ Com i c Opera” i n G rove ’ s Di ctiona ry, ed. 2

,vo l .


The q u es t io n,h ow ever

,rem a i n s— if t h i s ha s b ee n

do n e fo r com i c Opera a nd i s be i n g do n e for m u s ica lcomedy

,wh y has i t n o t b ee n do n e for se r iou s ope ra P

The a n swer t o t h i s i s t h a t i t ha s bee n do n e fors e r iou s opera i n eve ry cou n t ry wh ere Opera h a s b ee nd eve loped i n harmo n y wi th n a t io n a l id ea l s . I n deed

,

wi t h ou t t h i s c lo se a s soc i a t io n of wo rd s w i t h m u s i cOpera c a n n o t ex i s t exc ep t i n t h e s ta t e i n w h i c h i tex i s t s h er e a s a n u n p lea sa n t fore ig n h i r e l i n g . Bu tt h a t i s 110 r ea so n w hy , if the o ppor tu n i t y w er e g ive n ,t h e same co n d i t io n s hould n o t p rod u ce a s im i la rre su l t i n t h i s cou n t ry

,a nd t h e d e s i red d ev e lopm e n t

ha s,

a s I h a ve j u s t po i n t ed o u t , occu r red her e i nt h e ca s e of com i c opera . Th i s i s t he mo re i n te re s t i n g to u s beca u se

,ifwe exam i n e t h e m a t t er wi t h ou t

b i a s,we s h al l be fo rced to adm i t t h a t t h e p lea su re

w h i c h w e d e r ive fr om a ny o n e of t h e gay o r p l a i n t ivel i t t le so n gs of t h e Savoy Opera i s prec i s e ly t h e samepsyc h o log i cal ly a s t ha t w h i c h we ob ta i n from t h eu n io n of t h e word s

“M ir e rko re nM i r v e r lo re n

,

i . ) T h i s i s t r u e i n a s fa r a s G i l ber t s u b s t i t u ted c l ea r a nd pl a i nEngl i s h for the m a ke—be l i eve s ta ge d i a l ec t wh i c h ex i s ted be foreh i s day, bu t m u s i c i a n s ow e a l a s t i n g deb t t o S i r A r t h u r Su l l i va nfor h i s re cogn i t i on o f the fa c t t h a t i t w a s n o t o n ly n eces s a ryt o se t h i s t ex t t o m u s i c wh i c h w a s pl ea s i n g i n i t se l f

,bu t t o i n ven t

m e l od i e s i n suchc l ose a l l i a n ce w i t h the word s t ha t the two t h i ngsb ecam e ( t o the h ea re r) i n d i s t i ngu i s h a b l e . I n t h i s res pec t Su l l i va nd i d more fo r the Engl i s h s t age t h a n a ny m u s i c i a n o f h i s t ime ,

a nd h i s se rv i ce s a re n o t a t a ll o n a p a r wi t h t hose o f s u c h a m e re l ygl i t t er i n g t r i fl e r a s Offen ba ch . I t i s t r u e t h a t S u l l i va n w a s n i c kn am ed “ The Engl i s h Offe n ba c h , bu t t h a t n i c kn am e w a s n o moret h a n a p i ece o f pe rs o n a l m a l i ce a nd i gn ora nce . The two men

c a n no t rea l l y be com pa red , bu t , i f o n e we re compe l l ed t o a t temp ta com pa r i son , o n e m i g h t say t h a t ( i n t he i r w ay) bo t h S u l l i va na nd O ffen b a c h we re d i am onds , b u t t h a t the l a t te r w a s of the k i n dkn own i n Rege n t S t ree t a s a

“ P a r i s i a n D i amond .

”


t he sou n d s of t h e i r vo i c e s ( if t h ey could have bee np re served to u s ) would te l l u s n o th i n g of impor ta n c e,w h i le t h e h i s to ry of suchme n a s G l u ck

,V erd i ,Weber ,

a nd Wag n e r t e l l s u s everyt h i n g .

H e n ce i t i s t h a t,i n t h i s co u n t ry

,be h i n d a ll t h e

more superfic i a l qu es t io n s of voca l t ec h n ique,l ie s

t h e o n e v i ta l qu e s t io n of t he composer s oppor tu n i ty ;for u n t i l h e has t he po ss ib i l i ty of ex erc i s i n g h i s a r tb efore th e p ub l i c

,he ca n br i n g n o pressu r e to bea r

upo n t h e s i n ger . H e m ay dema n d reform a n d eve nk n ow h ow to sec u re i t

,bu t t h e S i n ger rema i n s i n

u n co n sc iou s ig n ora n c e of h i s ow n s h or t com i n gs—a

swo rd,perh a p s o f t h e fi n es t s tee l

,bu t u n sh a rpe n ed

a n d u se les s . The o n ly m a n who ca n s h arpe n i t i st h e swordsm a n h imse lf— i n t h i s c a s e t h e compo sera n d a t p rese n t h e i s com pe l l ed to l eave i t ru s t ingin i ts s h ea t h . I wi sh

,th erefore

,t o m ake i t par

t icula rly c lea r tha t , w h a t ever I m ay have to saywi th regard to t h e tra i n i n g ( a nd t h e m i s t ra i n i n g) ofE n g l i s h s i n gers

,t h e q u es t io n i s o n ly a “ prox im a te

o n e,a nd t ha t t h e prob lem of prod u c i n g a sc hoo l of

i n te l l ig ib le d ram a t i c S i n g i n g i s n o t,pr im a r i ly

,a

s i n ger ’ s qu e s t io n a t al l . Whe n o n c e t h e E n g l i s hcomposer i s gra n t ed t h e oppo r tu n i ty i n E n g la n dw h i c h i s d e n i ed to n o n e ofhis co l league s ab road

,hi s

dem a n d wi l l c rea te a supp ly of a dequa t e voca l i s t s .Th i s su pp ly wi l l

,of cou r se

,n o t b e b rough t abo u t by

t h e wave of a fa i ry ’s w a n d ; t h e compose r wi l l h ave todo t h e t each i n g a nd t h e u n tea ch i n g ; but t h er e is110 d ifficu l ty i n t ha t ; i t has occ u r red i n t he h i s to ryof eve ry opera t i c moveme n t 0 11 t h e Co n t i n e n t a n di t i s n ot a t a ll l ike ly t h a t h i s to ry w i l l be co n t rad i c ted here .

The d ram a t i c s i n gers of t h e p rese n t day a r e,a s

I h ave sa id,Often b lamed fo r t he i r s ho r tcom i n gs .


We m u s t,h owever

,p lea d i n t h e i r defe n c e t h a t

,a s

t h ere i s a very re s t r i c ted m arke t fo r t h e i r ta le n t s i nE n g l i s h Op era

,m a n y of them a r e compe l l ed t o ga ther

t h e i r exper ie n ce abroad,a n d ev e n to s tudy t h e i r

tech n ique i n a fore ig n l a n gu age i n ord er to s i n gto E n g l i s h peop l e . Noth i n g cou ld be more d i sast rou s . Every t ime such a s i n ger vocal ize s a fo re ig nvowe l or fo rm s co rr ec t ly a fore ig n co n so n a n t wi t hh i s l i ps

,to n gu e

,tee t h

,a n d pala t e

,h e i s a ccu s tom i n g

hi s musc l es to acq u i re a met hod of u t t e ra n c e w h i chi s,from the Engl i shpo i n t of v i ew , i n co rrec t . The

more,t h erefor e

,he s i n gs a b roa d t h e grea te r b ecomes

hi s d ifficu l ty i n S i n g i n g a t h ome .

Eve n if he i s t ra i n ed i n h i s ow n c ou n t ry,h i s

t ra i n i n g w i l l proba b ly be by t h e “Old I ta l i a n met hod

—“ a s advert ized bu t i t doe s n o t real ly m a t te rw he th er i t i s by t he “o ld o r t h e n ew ” I tal i a n method—or , if i t com es to t ha t , by th e Du tc h , Hi n d u , o rCh i n es e— beca u s e s u c h a la n gu a ge a s I ta l i a n d iffers i nevery e sse n t i a l par t icular ( i n ge n ea logy , i n sou n d , i nS t ruc tu re

,i n r hy t hm

,i n acce n t

,i n p i t c h

,i n l e n gth a nd

qual i ty of vowe l,a n d i n co n so n a n ta l a t ta c k) from

E n g l i sh,a nd t h erefore a ny S i n g i n g method based 0 11

t h e o n e ca n n o t,by i t s ve ry n a t u re

,be of se rv i c e i n t h e

o t h er . Whe n su c h a method i s t ra n sp l a n t ed fromI taly to E n g la n d by th e ignora n t va n i t y of vo ic eprod u c er s— a nd t h i s i s ge n eral ly m a de pos s ib l e byt h e humb le -m i n ded diffiden ce of t h e E n g l i sh p ub l i ci n a l l a rt is t ic m at ter s— t h e re sul t i s a c rop of s i n ger sw ho rea l ly a re be t ter e n t i t led th a n t h e i r m a s te r s tot h e n ame of “ vo ice- produ ce r s

,for al l t h ey do i s

t o produ ce t h e vo ice ” i n a h erm aph rod i t i c l a n guaget h a t would d i sgu s t a mo n key . There is a n

“Old

I ta l ia n method,

” w h ich i s a l so a “n ew I ta l i a n

met hod,

”a nd t h a t m ethod i s for I tal i a n s i n g i n g

1 9 6 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CHA P

m a s t er s to s tudy the sou n d s of t h e I tal i a n la n guagea n d t eac h t h em to I ta l i a n s for u se i n I tal i a n Opera ;a nd t h e o n ly les so n w h ich w e ca n l ea r n from t h eI tal i a n succ e s s i n t h i s wa lk of a rt is t ha t w e m u s tfo l low ,

n o t t h e d e ta i l s of t h e i r p rac t i c e i n c i r cumsta n ce s wh ic h d iffe r wide ly from o u r s

,bu t th e i r

r ig id p r i n c i p les ; a nd t h e se p r i n c ip l e s a re,w h e n

app l i ed to t h i s co u n t ry , t h e s tudy of t h e so u n d sof t h e E n g l i sh l a n gu age by E n g l i s h s i n g i n g—m a s t er sa n d t h e tea ch i n g of t h es e sou n d s to E n g l i s hme nfor u s e i n E n g l i s h Opera .

1

I n o rde r to see how i n a pp l i cab le ar e I ta l i a nmeth od s a n d I tal i a n s ta n d a rd s to t he t ra i n i n g of

E n g l i s h voca l i s t s we m u s t gl a n ce for a mom e n ta t t h e c h ief d i ff e r e n ce s be tw ee n t h e two l a n gu age s .

( 1 ) I ta l ia n is i n i t s s tock compara t ive ly a pu reto n gu e . I t Spr i n gs

'

from t h e l a n gu age—La t i nw h i c h wa s Spoke n i n t h e I ta l i a n pe n i n su la bo t hbefo re a nd aft e r t h e t ime Of C h r i s t . Its word s d ifferfrom t hose of La t in m a i n ly i n t ha t t hey h avemod ified t h e e la bora t e sys tem Of suffixes w h i c h

,i n

t h a t to n gu e,fix t h e re l a t io n s h i ps of word s wi t h o n e

a n oth er i n a s e n te n ce . I n add i t io n to t h a t,t h e re

h a s b ee n a ge n e ra l de tr i t i o n,o r rubb i n g-dow n

,Of a l l

a n gul a r co n so n a n ta l sou n d s , a n d , whe re th i s ha s b ee nimpos s ib l e

,n ew a nd eas i ly spoke n word s (w h i ch had

pr obab ly bee n i n vu lga r u se eve n i n c l a ss ical t imes )h a ve Ofte n t h ru s t t h em se lves u p a bove t h e su rfa ce

,

w h e re t hey n ow a ppea r a s a recog n ized par t of t h e

1 A s a n ex am pl e of co sm opol i ta n wron g-hea dedn es s the fo l l ow i n gq uo ta t i o n d eserve s s t u dy : Whe reve r s i ng i n gha s bee n c u l t i va tedwe l l

,i t ha s been c u l t i va t ed on I ta l i a n pr i n c i p l es . W i t h a rega rd

for t r u t h ra t h e r t h a n f or the amour / ”0111 5 o f o t he r n a t i on s , w e ca n

t a ke the be s t I t a l i a n s i ng i n g a s the s t a nd a rd n orm ( l o Opera ,Pm ! a nd P1 front, by W . F . A p t horp ) .


vowe l—sou n d s occ u r le s s frequen tly i n E n g l i sh , b u t th eyoccu r pr i n c ipa l ly i n word s tha t expres s s t ro n g ideas

,a nd

w h i c h t h e refore d em a n d a la rge u t te ra n ce . B u t,

be s ide s t h e se “ b ig vowe l s,t h e l a n guage po sse s ses

a s ub t ly gra ded sys tem of vowe l comb i n a t io n squ i t e d i ffer e n t from t ho se of a ny Rom a n ce la n gu a ge .

The to ta l n umber of t h e se vowe l- sou n d s ( p u re a ndimpu re) i s 6 1 , of w h ic h 9 a re u sed o n ly i n fore ig n

,

s em i—fore ig n,

a nd E a r ly E n g l i s h wo rd s . Bes ide st h ese 6 1 so u n d s t here a re t he vo ice-g l ide

,a s u sed

i n t h e word s “ ab l e ! a n d “ ea t e n,

” a n d 2 dou b tfu ld iph t ho n gs . 1 I t s co n so n a n t s a re 2 3 i n n umber , ofw h ic h 7 a re u s ed o n ly i n fore ig n , sem i-fore ign ,

a n dEa r ly E n g l i sh word s . I n t h e s t ru c tu r e of i t s word si t d i ffers wide ly from I tal i a n fo r

,n o t o n ly i s almost

every co n so n a n ta l comb i n a t io n pos s ib l e , bu t—a s

t h e se co n so n a n t s occu r n ot o n ly i n t h e m idd l e,bu t

a t ea c h e n d of i t s word s—t he se b eg i n n i n gs a n de n d i n gs ar e l ia b l e to be brough t u n p lea sa n t ly c loset oget he r i n a se n t e n ce .

2 Th e t e n de n cy,i n commo n

speec h,i s to r ub ou t t h e se awkwa rd comb i n a t io n s

,

b u t,if t h i s i s do n e i n so n g

,t h e word s becom e

u n i n t e l l ig ib le . The proces s o f “ rubb i n g-ou t ! t h ed iffi cul t co n so n a n t s ha s n o t go n e so fa r i n E n g l a n da s i n I ta ly . The E n g l i s hm a n m ay have c eased topro n ou n c e t h e “

gh” i n “ th ough t ” as h e d id i n

The im pe rfec t d i ph t h on g h ea rd i n the word “ fa te , a nd

( 2 ) the no n—recogn i z ed v ow e l - e l eme n t wh i c h i s de ve l opedbefo re the two form s of “ R .

”T he se two f orm s of “ R ”

a re

the sou nd s h ea rd i n “heR a nd “ Ra n” respec t i ve l y

,a nd the

vowe l—e lemen t wh i c h i s deve l oped be fore t hem m ay be hea r di n s u ch word s a s p i e r

,

” pa re ,” po re ,” poo r,

”a nd wea ry .

(T he se de ta i l s a re t a k e n from the P reface t o M u rra y ’s Diotiona ry. )A s a n exam pl e the re a d e r m ay say the two w o rd s mos t

s t ra n ge,

” n o t a s t h ey a re gene ra l l y p ro nou n ced mo's t ra nge

,

” b u td i s t i n c t ly

,t h u s

,mo - st J tr-a nge .


Sha kesp ea re ’ s d ay,bu t h e i s s t i l l able to say employ

wh e re t h e I ta l ia n sub s t i tu t e s imp z'

ega re . Spe a ki n g ge n eral ly w e m ay s ay t h a t t h ere i s a s t ro n gte n de n cy 111 E n gl i s h to obscu re a ll t h e wea k sy l l ab le sa n d to group al l t h e e l eme n t s of a s e n t e n ce ac cord i n gto wha t I m ay ca l l t h e “ Dram a of t h e se n t e n c e

,

tha t i s t o say, rou n d i t s cen tra l idea,w h i c h t hu s

acqu i re s a n i n t e n s i ty expre s sed to th e ea r by t h el e n gth

,

’

p 1tch a n d “ fo rce of a sy l l ab le o r agroup of sy l lab les . To th i s po i n t

,w h i c h i s of t h e

grea t e s t impor ta n ce i n t h e qu es t io n of dec lam a t io n , Ish al l a l lude l a t er .Le t u s n ow see w h a t th e obj ec t s of t h e s ing i n g

m a s te r sh o u ld be a n d wh a t they a c tual ly a re . Hi sm a i n Obj ec t s ho u ld be

,a s I have sa id

,th e e labo ra t io n

of a n Eng lishs i n g i n g tech n iqu e fou n ded 011 t hes tudy of t h e E n g l i s h la n guage as i t exi s t s a t t h epre se n t d ay . Th i s n eed s n o d emo n s t ra t i o n o r proofbeyo n d th e fac t t h a t t he obj ec t of t he pup i l ’s s tudy i st h a t h e sh ou ld be able to s i n g i n te l l ig i b ly i n E n g l i s ht o E n g l i s h peop le . The tec h n iq u e mu s t g ive h i spu p i l s t h e powe r of p rodu c i n g

,i n a l l mu s ica l c i rcum

s ta n ce s,voca l to n e a c c u ra te ly co lou red wi t h t h e

exi s t i n g vowe l - so u n ds of th e E n g l i s h la n gu age . I tm u s t

,fu r th ermore

,g ive h im th e powe r of so p ro

nounc ing t h e co n so n a n t s t h a t t h ese so u n ds becom ei n te l l ig ib l e to t h e a ud ie n c e a s word s .Now

,t h e s i n g i n g-m a s t er u sua l ly a pproa c h es hi s

tas k from a prec i se ly Oppos i t e s ta n dpo i n t . Hi sobj ec t i s so le ly t h e p rod u c t io n of se n s uou s b ea u t y

,

a n d t h i s h e a c h ieves a t t h e (h eavy ) expe n se Of

dram a t ic t ru t h .

1 H e degrade s t h e vo ice from w h a t1 “ T hu s c h a ra c te r i z a t i on

,d ram a t i c effec t

,va r i e ty Of t on a l a nd

emo t i on a l co l ou r i ng a re a l l ba r tered awa y for sen suou s b ea u ty oft o ne ” (H . T . F i n c k

,Wagner a nd bi :

z oo MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH AP

s h ou ld be i t s d i s t i n gu i s h i n g pos i t io n of su per io r i tyto t h e leve l of a n y o ther i n s t rume n t

,su c h a s t h e

c la r i n e t o r v io l i n . A ll t h e i n h er e n t fo rce a nd t h ega th e red v i tal i ty w h i c h h a ve com e to th e l a n guage i ni t s lo n g ce n tu r i e s of evo l u t io n ar e ig n ored

,a n d t h e

“Word —wh ic h h a s b ee n h a pp i ly c h r i s te n ed “TheSwo rd o f Ma n ’ s Sp i r i t — becomes a s u n recog n izab lea s a l ump of c la y . I n o rde r to a t ta i n t h i s l ame n tab l eid ea l th e s i n g i n g—m as te r fir s t of al l b l a ck l i s t s t h ee n d less vow e l—comb i n a t io n s of t h e l a n guage a s u nfortuna te l a p ses

,0 11 t h e pa r t of t h e E n g l i s h peop le

,from

t h e way of t ru t h a nd Vi r tu e , - l a pses t o wh ic h heco n s i der s i t po l i t e to qu ie t ly c lose h i s eye s . Hi sm e thod is to b a s tard ize h i s own speec h by t h esu b s t i tu t io n ( fo r t h es e vowe l- comb i n a t io n s) e i t h er oft h e I ta l i a n vowe l- sys t em pu re a n d s imp l e

,or of a

r id i cu lo u s foggy vow e l- sy s tem th a t ex i s t s n owh ere o nea r t h ou t s ide t h e S i n g i n g—s tud io s of t h e West-E n d .

In fac t,h e exerc i ses h i s pu p i ls

,e i t h er ha lf- h ear t ed ly

o r w ho le—h ea r ted ly,a s if t h ey w e re go i n g to s i n g

I tal i a n,n o t E n g l i s h

,a n d h i s i n va r i a b le me t h od i s t o

t ra i n t h em 0 11 a very few,som et imes 0 11 o n ly o n e

,of

t h e b ig I ta l i a n vowe l- sou n d s .Na tu ra l ly pu p i l s w ho ha ve rec e ived th i s so r t of

t ra i n i n g a re qu i te i n ca pa b le Of s i n g i n g i n th e i r ow nto n gu e . I n deed

,th ey a re n ot capab l e of do i n g

a n yth i n g m u c h exc e p t s i n g i n g s low vocal i s e s ” 0 11

some su ch sy l la b l e a s“a . V ery few of t h em ca n

be m a de to u n d e rta ke t h e ser iou s a n a lyt ical s t udy ofso u n d wi thou t w h i c h t h ey ca n n o t pos s ib ly g ive t h eco rrec t co lou r a nd mea n i n g to th e i r wo rds . Theydo n o t see t h a t

,if o u r

t

la n gu age i s poore r t h a nI ta l i a n i n t h e b ig vowe l sou n d s

,i t i s t h er efore t h e

m 0 1 e n ec e ssa ry th a t t h ey sh ould s tudy i ts i n t r i cac i esa n d obsc u r i t ies . The sub s t i tu t io n of i n co rrec t for

L)0 2 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CHAP .

t o a sce r ta i n w h a t t h ey a re ta lk i n g a bou t . By th et ime the so n g i s e n ded al l oppor t u n i t y for p l ea su rei s go n e

,a n d t he a ud i e n ce—n ow t h a t i t h a s m as tered

t h e t ra n s l a t io n,a n d pu t i t s e lf 0 11 equ a l te rm s , so to

s pea k,wi t h th e s i n ger—a s s er ts i ts Br i t i s h lov e of fa i r

p la y by dem a n d i n g a n e n co re,— a n u n h appy experi

me n t wh i c h i s bou n d to fal l fla t,a s t/z z

'

s time i t h a s110 i n te l l ec tual emp loyme n t t o fa l l bac k o n d u r i n gt h e warb l i n g .

I n t h e t h ea t r e i t i s n o t pos s ib l e to e n co re ad ec l am a tory p h ra s e so t h a t o n e m ay h ear w h a t i tsou n d s l ike w h e n o n e k n ows i t s mea n i n g

,a n d i t is

a n everyd a y occu rr e n c e for a pr im a do n n a t o ha n g0 11 by t he eye- l id s ! t o som e i n determ i n a te vowe lso u n d wh i l e t h e a ud i e n c e l i s te n s wi t h a sor t of

a go n ized su sp e n se i n t h e hope th a t i t m ay ob ta i nsom e c l u e to h er m ea n i n g from t h e fi n a l co n so n a n t .If i t com es t he aud i e n c e is

,o f co u rse

,a t l iberty to

a s soc i a t e i t wi t h a n y o n e of 50 pos s ib l e vowe l- sou n d s,a n d i t t h e refor e op e n s u p a wide fie ld for i n s ta nta neou s specu la t io n . B u t mo re p robab ly i t d oe s n o tcome

,for t h e s i n g i n g—

,m a s te r bes ide s tampe r i n g wi t h

t h e vowe l s,i s a lwa ys a dv i s i n g h i s pu p i l s t o w eake n

a nd d es t roy su c h l et te r s a s R,

” G,

GH , a n d“ S - to e l im i n a t e

,i n Sho r t

,w h a t a re cal led t h e

b uzz i n gs a nd h i s s i n gs . These h e r ega rd s,n ot a s

a mea n s of i n te l l ig ib i l i ty,bu t a s t h e n a t u ra l e n em ies

of t h e co rrec t v o i c e—prod u ce r .

The S i n ger m u s t b e very c a refu l to Sh orte n th eS a s m u ch a s pos s ib le .

“ I t m u s t i n deed be h ea rd,bu t i t m u s t b e very

u n ob t ru s ive . ” 1

1 Prozzmtoi a tion for Si t/got : (El l i s) .


Bu t w h a t doe s t h i s mea n ? The s imp l e po i n t i stha t t h e co n so n a n t m u s t be so h eard t ha t i t co n vey si t s s e n s e to t h e a u d i e n c e : a n d if i t i s to beso hea rd

,i t m u s t b e p ro n ou n ced d i s t i n c t ly a n d t h i s

,

i n a la rge t h ea tr e , i n vo lves i t s s t re n gt h e n i n g , n o ti t s weake n i n g . To th e s i n ger t h e co n so n a n t s m ayappea r to be over—ob t ru s ive , bu t h e m u s t , l ike t h ei n s t rume n tal i s t

,t h e p rea c h er

,a nd t h e pub l i c speaker

,

adj u s t his method to his su rro u n d i n gs . Eve n su c hadv ice a s t h a t

The Si n ger ’ s bu s i n es s i s t o m ake t h e mos t of t h em u s ic a l c h ara c t e r s of h i s vowe l s a n d c u t t h eb uzzes a nd h i s se s dow n to t h e s h o r te s t in telli

g ible du ra t io n1

ca n o n ly be ca l led good if w e emph a s ize t h e word“ i n te l l ig ib l e

,for i t i s p rec i se ly i n t h e ( u n voca l ) co n

so n a n tal s epara t io n s,i n c l ud i n g t h e buzzes a n d

h i s se s,

” t h a t t h e i n t e l l ig ib i l i ty of t h e word s re s id es .The reader h a s o n ly to remove t h e co n so n a n t s a n dth e vow e l s i n tu r n from a l i n e a n d th e n a t temp t t or ead both ver s io n s e i t h e r wi t h t h e ea r o r wi t h t h eeye ; t h ere ca n be n o doub t a s to w h i c h grou p o f

le t te rs h e w i l l r e ly 0 11 for t h e m ea n i n g Of t he sen

t e n c e . As a n examp l e

o - o - o -o —e —o o a -a - u - e - e

T -m - rr -w t fr- shw —ds —nd p-st - r - s n-w .

I t m u s t n o t b e supposed th a t I have l a id st res s 0 11

t h i s po i n t— t h e n ece ss i ty of accu ra t e vowe l-co lou ra n d co n so n a n t a l d i s t i n c t io n— a s a mere u n a t ta i n ab l e“ cou n se l o f perfec t io n . I t i s a t ta i n ab l e by in tell ige n t p ra c t i ce

,p rov ided t he s i n ger devo te s t h a t

p rac t ice to t h e E n gl i s h l a n gu age a nd a cc ep t s i t for


wha t i t i s,n o t w ha t i t m igh t b e . I n deed

,i t i s n o t

o n ly a t tai n ab le bu t a t ta i n ed by some few S i n gers .These a re most ly me n

,t h ough i t i s a c u r i o u s fac t

t h a t t h e o n l y E n g l i s h a r t i s t wh o,i n my exper ie n ce

,

i s comp le te ly i n t e l l ig ib le from al l pa r ts of t h e t hea t rei s a la dy . We m u s t rem ember

,too

,i n favou r o f

o u r s i n g i n g-m a s te r s a nd ou r voca l i s ts,t ha t t h ey

h a ve bee n t e rr ib ly ha n d ica pped i n t h e pa s t by t h es love n l i n ess of o u r com posers

,a n d t h a t a grea t pa r t

o f t h e i r me thod i s real ly d i rec ted towa rd s overcom i n gd iffi c u l t ie s w h i c h t h ey Sh ou ld n ever be a sk ed to overcome . One co n t i n u a l ly mee t s wi t h comp l a i n t s t h a ts i n ger s m u s t b e p repa red to s i n g lo n g

,h ea vy sy l la b le s

to s ho r t n o te s,a nd s ho r t

,l igh t sy l lab l es to lo ng

n ote s . 1 I t i s,of cou r se

,mo n s t rou s t h a t s i n g i n g

m a s t er s s h ou ld be se t t h e ta sk of i n ve n t i n g a methodto cope wi thth e s e pe rver s io n s of la n gu age

,b u t i t i s

u n for tu n a te ly t ru e t h a t t h ey a re compe l led to do t h i sby t h e ig n ora n ce of E n g l i s h com po ser s . I t wo u ldb e ea sy to fi l l a h u n dred pages of pr i n t wi t h ev ideuce s of t h i s ig n ora n ce

,a nd,

eve n amo n g th e mo stb r i l l i a n t of o u r yo u n ger m u s i c i a n s , t h e i r i n s e n s ib i l i tyto t h e rhy thm of t h e la n guage seem s to be so m a rkeda s to b e a lmos t a co n sc io u s a ffec ta t io n .

For t h i s t h ere i s 110 excu se . The E n gl i s h composer ha s a l a n guage w h ic h

,bot h i n t h e va r i ety o f

i t s vowe l- sou n d s a nd in t h e d ram a t i c group i n gs ofi t s rh yt hm s i s a far more t ra c ta b le i n s t rume n t of

m u s i ca l t hough t t h a n e i th e r Fre n ch o r I tal i a n . I n

1 For i n s ta nce,i n El l i s ’s Spoor/1 a nd Song . The a u t h or Of thi s wor k

says ve ry j u s t ly ( i n h i s Prommrid tio/z for “ I t i s a grea tm i sfo r tu n e t ha t bo t h a u t ho rs a nd com pose r s i n ge ne ra l t rea t a ndh a ve a ppa ren t ly a l wa y s t re a ted l a ngu a ge a s a veh i c le o f m u s i c w i t hsu c h l i t t l e rega rd t o i t s n a t u ra l l aws

,a s t o lay t hem se l ve s open t o

the impu ta t i o n of igno ra n ce .

”

2 0 6 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH AP

mea n i n g i s almos t impercept i b l e ; a nd i n t ha t caseh i s c h o i ce i s to b e m ad e so le ly by ea r a n d by t h erequ i r em e n t s of h i s voca l ph ra s e .

B u t t ha t i s n o t al l ; for, w he n h e h a s s e lec ted t h emos t approp r ia t e wo rd for hi s u s e

,h e wi l l find t h a t ,

in ge n eral,i t s lo n g vowe l s a re lo n ger a n d i t s s h or t

vow e l s a re s hor te r t h a n t h e s im i la r vowe l s i n s u c ha l a n guage a s I ta l i a n . Co n sequ e n t ly

,whe n t hese

vowe l s u n dergo fu r t h e r a r t ific i a l le n gth e n i n g ors ho rt e n i n g i n m u s i c

,t h e resu l ta n t word- a nd-mu s i c

p h ra s e comes wi t h a grea te r ea se a nd n a tu ra ln e ss tha n i s po s s ib l e i n a ny o t h er l a n gu age . Everysu n g—ph rase t hu s t rea t ed by t h e compose r h a s 011 i t sface t he ha l l-m a rk w h ic h c hara c t e r ize s i t a s a h igherd eve lopme n t of a spoke n—ph ra se . Aga i n

,t h e acce n tua

t io n of i n d iv idu a l wo rd s i n E n g l i s h i s fixed a nd r ig id ,a n d th i s a cc e n tu a t io n i s

,of cou rse

,t h e commo n

proper ty of a n E n g l i s h a ud ie n c e . A 11 E n g l is h composer

,t herefore

,if h e wi s h es to be u n ders tood , ha s

mere ly to t ra n sferhi s ow n speec h i n to m u s i cal n o tat io n . I n som e o ther l a n gu ages bot h t h e compose ra n d h i s a ud ie n ce a re fa ced by fu n d ame n ta l d ifficul t ie s0 11 t h i s po i n t . I n Fre n c h e spec i a l ly t her e is n osy st em a t a ll of syl la b i c fo rc e o r s t res s Th e acc en ti s pu re ly a n a r t ific i a l c rea t io n 0 11 t h e pa r t of t h e compose r . A Fre n c h d i s sy l la b l e —w h ic h a n E n g l i s hm a nwo u ld probab ly p ro n o u n ce a s a s t ro n g vowe l fo l lowedby a w eak— m ay be set by a Fre n c h compo se r to adow n -bea t fo l lowed by a n

“ u p,

” wh i l e i n t h eve ry n ex t m u s i c a l ph rase h e m a y ( a nd ofte n doe s )se t t he same wo rd i n a p rec i s e ly oppo s i te m a n n er .From th i s a r i se : (firs t) grea t d i ffere n ce of op i n io na nd pra c t i ce 0 11 t h e pa r t of v a r iou s composer s ;( seco n d ) a n u n n a tu ral type o f voca l ph ra s e ; a nd

( t h i rd ) a d egr ee o f co n so n a n ta l d i s t i n c t io n a nd of

v u ENGLI SH LANGUAGE IN OPERA 2 07

vow e l accu ra cy 0 11 t h e pa r t of t he s i n ge r wi t hou tw h i c h h e co u ld n o t po s s i b ly be u n ders tood eve n byhi s ow n cou n tryme n .

For d rama t ic expre ss i o n,howeve r

,t h e ch ief

adva n tage of t h e E n g l i s h l a n guage doe s n o t l i ei n i ts fixed sys tem of a cc e n t s o r i n i ts va r ie ty of

vow e l a n d co n so n a n t—comb i n a t io n s,b u t i n t h e

r hy t hm of i t s se n te n c e s . The reader m u s t re

member t h a t t h e d iv is io n of l a n guage i n to sy l lab le sa n d words i s o n ly a n a r t ific i a l a nd compa ra t ive lymoder n inve n t io n . I n a c tua l speec h t he se wo rd sex i s t v i ta lly to o u r i n t el l ige n c e a s Group s

,a n d the se

word-groups a re a r ra n ged ro u n d some ce n t ra l sy l la b l eo r sy l l ab l es

,w h i ch are to t h e comp le t e se n te n ce w ha t

t h e h igh - l igh t i s to a p i c tu re,Fu r t h ermore

,t he

m ethod by wh i c h t h i s h igh - l igh t i s ob ta i n ed i s t h esame i n Speec h a n d i n so n g—by a d iffere n ce Of e i t h e r

( 1 )“ le n gt h

,

”

( 2 ) p i tch , (3) force,

” or by a comb i n a t io n of two or more of t h e se d iffe re n ces . Now

,

i t i s j u s t i n t h i s ve ry fac t,t h e ex i s te n ce of word

grou p i n gs rou n d a ce n t ral idea,t h a t ou r la n gua ge

show s a n a tu ra l super ior i ty to a n y o th e r for dram a t i cp u rpose s ; fo r i tha s a m u c h s t ro n ger te n de n cy tha na n y o th e r to force th es e ce n t ral sy l l ab les i n to prom inence , a n d to obscu re t h e ( les s—importa n t ) su rrou n di n g sy l lab les . 1 Th i s fea tu r e

,w h ich Oft e n procu re s i t a

bad n ame o n t he Co n t i n e n t a s a hammer i n gl a n guage

,i s real ly a n a t tem p t to om i t every th i n g bu t

t h e “ drama of t h e s e n t e n c e , a n d so t o forc e i t1 Th i s d i fferen ce s t r i ke s on e very p l a i n l y i f on e l i s ten s

,a few

ya rds of , t o the conve r s a t i o n of a grou p of roa d la bou re r s , say i nI ta l y a nd Engl a nd . I n the forme r ca se the ta l k

,howeve r ho t a nd

e x c i ted i t may be, a lwa y s soun d s to Engl i s h ea r s l i ke “ pra t t l e,

wh i le i n the l a t te r ca se a qu i e t conver s a t i o n t h a t i s rea l l y to t a l l ydevo i d of em o t i on ha s a s or t o f d ram a t i c ea r n e s t ne ss

,even sol em n i ty

—i f one i s fa r enough awa y n o t to c a t c h the sen se of the words .


more v iv id ly 0 11 t h e hea re r ’ s a t te n t io n .

1 I t i s,i n fa c t

,

a n e n d ea vou r to h e igh t e n t h e effec t of speec h bygo i n g o u t s ide i t s n a t u ra l l im i t s ; i n o ther word s , t oa pp roxim a t e sp eech to so n g . Bu t t h i s h e igh te n i n gOf effec t ” i s

,as I h a ve

t

po i n ted o u t,ac h ieved by

exa c t ly t h e same me a n s i n bot h c a se s . The o n ly d i st i n c t io n i s th a t

,i n t h e ca se of speec h

,t h e po ss ib le

l im i t of t he se d i ffe re n ce s i s smal l,w h i le i n t h e ca se of

so n g i t i s la rge .

H ere i n l i e s wh a t sh o u ld be t h e grea t s t re n gt h of

t h e E n g l i s h compose r ; for, if h e wi l l o n ly d i sca rdt h e a rt ific i a l i t ies a nd i n a n i t i e s wh i c h h eha s too Oft e nr ega rd ed a s su i ta b l e for m u s i c

,

”a nd c hoose i n s tead

E n g l i s h t h a t i s s imp le,n ervou s

,a n d racy : a nd if he

wi l l t h e n g ive h i s m u s i ca l -ph ra s e t h e sam e o u t l i n e a shi s word -ph ra s e

,h e wi l l find h i s aud i e n ce m ee t i n g

h im,a s i t were

,half-way

,a nd u n ders ta n d i n ghis com

bined wo rd -a nd-m u s i c p h ra se a lmos t befo re i t i su t t e red . The s i n ger t h e n o n ly n eed s to pro n ou n c et h e wo rd s co rr ec tly a nd h i s u t tera n ce b ecom e s “ so n g !

i n i t s t ru e se n se —“ a h igher deve lopme n t of spea ki n g .

” 9 Th i s m e t hod of expre ss io n,i n wh ic h we h ave

a com p l e te ly n a tu ra l Spoke n ph ra s e j o i n ed to a n dgover n i n g a comp l e te ly n a tura l m u s i ca l- ph ra s e

,i s

1 Of co u rse the h i g h- l i gh t s of s peec h a re ma de t o d i ffe r , eveni n the s ame sen ten ce

,a ccord i ng t o the p rec i se s ha de o f mea n i ng

wh i c h the s pea ke r w i s h e s t o convey,a nd the s ub t le d iffe rence s of

grou p i n g wh i c h a ccompa ny a nd i l l u s t ra te the co r respo nd i n g d i ffe ren ces o f i dea a re con t i n u a l l y b e i n g a dded to a nd va r i ed . I t i ss t r i k i n g to no t e bo t h the ra p i d i ty w i t h wh i c h t he se v a ria t IOn s a nd

a dd i t i o n s a re , when u seful , i n co rpora t ed i n t o the l a ngu a ge a nd theu n a n im i ty o f m e t h od wh i c h i s em pl oyed i n forc i n g the “ h i ghl i gh t ” i n t o p rom i n en ce a nd t h row i ng the u n im por ta n t sy l l a b lesou t o f focu s .

2 l'oi rt’

,Sol/g , ( 2m! Sport /1, by Len n ox Browne a nd Em i l

Beh n ke .


s ta n da rd s a nd by t h e evo l u t io n of a new so n g-speec hmod e l led to t h e requ i rem e n t s Of o u r ow n la n guage .Whe n t h a t i s do n e

,a ll t h e m ere s i n g i n g-m a s te r’ s

d iffic u l t i e s,ba s ed a s th ey a re e i t h er 0 11 a n a t t emp t

to “ improve ” t h e S i n g i n g q ual i t i es of t h e E n g l i s hla n gu age

,or to fake th e ca r e le s s c raft sm a n s h i p of

t h e E n g l i s h composer,wi l l va n i sh

,a n d w e s h al l h ave

t h e po s s ib i l i t y of a n a rt i n E n g l a n d d iv ided fromt h a t of Fra n c e or Germ a n y by the same gu lf t ha td iv ides Cor n e i l le a nd Sch i l ler from Sh a kesp ea r e .

Th e E n g l i s h compo ser n eed n o t im a g i n e t h a t h ewil l find a n Ob sta c le i n t h e s tubbo r n n e s s of h i s n a t iveto n gu e . H e ha s . i n deed

,i n h er i ted a la n guage more

po te n t t h an a ny i n t h e moder n wor ld : so i n fi n i t e i ni t s var i e ty t h a t i t c reep s

,l ike mo l t e n go ld

,i n t o every

fo ld a nd c r ev i ce of t hough t . I n i t s h i s to ry i t i s l ikea r iver w ho se m a n y h ea d—wa t e r s fl ow t h rough m a n ycou n t r i e s t i l l t h ey j o i n t h e m a i n - s t ream . There eac ho n e b le n d s wi t h t h e o t her s

,bu t b l e n d s so a s to g ive

t h e r iver some n ew t h read o f co lou r,w h ich

,0 11 i t s

way to t h e sea , keep s w i t h i n i t se lf a r emembra n ce oft h e so i l over wh i c h i tha s p a s sed .

Notch—The rea de r m ay pe r h a ps c a re t o see a cou pl e o f ex t ra c t sfrom a qu a i n t ol d de fen ce o f the Engl i s h l a ngu a ge . T hey we rep r i n ted i n 1 6 44 a nd repr i n ted ( i n the Hot /a im; M i tre/la rly, vo l . i i .pa ge 33, London , u nd e r the t i t l e V i n de x A ngl i cu s

,o r The

pe rfec t i on o f the En gl i s h l a n gu a ge defended a nd a sse r ted .

”The

a u th or , a fte r po i n t i n g ou t the fac i l i ty w i t h wh i ch the l a ngua ge i sl ea r n t by fore ign e r s , the cop i ou s ne s s o f i t s vo ca bu l a ry a s compa redw i t h t h a t OfLa t i n o r F rench , i t s v a rie ty, a nd the grea t oppor t u n i tywh i c h i t offe rs for s ay i n g t h i n gs e i t h e r p l a i n ly

,o r by m e ta pho r

,or

by im pl i ed m e ta pho r,proceeds

,The [ to/ta rt i s so fu l l o f Vowe l s

t h a t he i s c um be red w i t h El i s i o n s ; the Da ft /z w i t h Con son a n t s,

t h a t h i s Ve r se i s s i c k o f the Sci a ti ca ; the Front /t ca n no t a fford yo ufou r Word s w hos e A c c en t s a re i n the Antopotm/timo, a nd t h e reforeu n fi t for Da c t y l s

,wh i c h the A cce n t a nd the M e t re do n a t u ra l l y

sq u a re w i t h u s , t h a t i n bo t h w e dese rvedl y bea r the P r i z e from a ll

V I I ENGLI SH LANGUAGE IN OPERA 2 1 1

the re s t . The Sp a nira a nd the I ta li a n wa n t ou r Cernra i n the m i d s to f the Verse s the I ta li a n ca n n o t a ffo rd you a moron/int Rhyme n orthe Franco ma ke Me t re of the d ntoponu/ti t na , a nd yet t h e re i s n o ta ny of the t h ree Sy l l a b l es , whe reu n to ou r A b i l i t y e x ten de t h n o t .”La ter o n he spea k s o f I ta l i a n a s

“a n e x ce l len t

,pr i n ce l y

,a nd

p lea sa n t La ngu a ge u pon wh i c h the be s t J udgm en t s l oo k wi t hgrea t Respec t ; ye t i t wa n t s S i n ews a nd pa s se s a s a s i l en t Wa te r .The Front /z a re t r u l y de l i ca te

,bu t t oo a ffec ted a nd effem i n a t e .

The Sponttn maj es t i ca l,bu t te rr i b le a nd bo i s terou s . The Duff /z

m a n ly,bu t very h a rs h . Now w e

,i n borrow i ng from e a c h o f t h em

,

g i ve the S t reng t h of Con son a n t s to the I ta li a n, the fu l l s ou n d o fSy/Zao/at t o the Franco

,the Va r ie ty o f T e rm i n a t i o n w i t h m i l de r

Ac cen t s to the Sp a ni a rd, a nd d i s so l ve w i t h more fa c i l i ty the Dntofi

Vowe l s ; l i ke Bees , ga t he r i n g t he i r Pe rfec t i on s , lea ve t h e i r Dros s t ot hem se l ve s ; So when Sub s t a n ce combin e thw i t h De l i g h t

,P l e n ty

w i t h De l i ca cy,Bea u ty w i t h M a j e s ty

,a nd Exped i t i o n w i t h G ra v i t y

wh a t ca n wa n t t o the Pe rfec t i o n o f s u c h a La ngu a ge ? TheM i x t u re of ou r Ex t ra c t i on s from o t h e r s

,j o i ned w i t h o u r own

Monosy l l a b les,m a ke u p su c h a pe rfec t H a rm ony

,t h a t s o you m ay

fram e you r speec h m aje s t i ca l , p lea sa n t , de l i ca te , o r m a n ly a ccord i n gt o you r Subjec t , a nd exa c t ly represen t , i n ou rs , wh a t soeve r gra ce sa ny o t he r La ngu a ge ca r r ie t h .

”

CHAPTER V I I I

OPERAT IC T RANSLAT ION

IN t he beg i n n i n g of t h e l a s t c hap ter I po i n t ed o u tt h a t m a n y per so n s

,w he n d i sc u ss i n g t h e top ic of

“ E n g l i s h i n t h e op e ra—h ou se,a re a p t t o co n fuse

two wide ly d iffere n t qu es t io n s : ( 1 ) Is i t po ss ib le toevo lve a s ys t em of d rama t i c so n g- s peec h i n E n g l i s h ?a nd ( 2 ) I s i t adv i sab l e t o t ra n s la t e fore ig n work s foru s e before a n E n g l i s h a ud i e n ce ?The l a t ter q u e st io n

,to wh i ch t h e o rd i n a ry l aym a n

wou ld prob a b ly a n swer “ yes ” offh a n d,i s s t i l l m a t t e r

of co n t rover sy amo n g tho se few ed u ca t ed peop le whotake a n y i n t e re s t i n t h e su bj ec t .Wh i ch ever V iew we m ay ta ke , we sha l l , I t h i n k , b e

forced to gra n t t ha t t ra n s la t io n i s o n ly a m a kesh ift .I t i s

,however

,a m ake sh ift wh ic h ha s b ee n a dop ted

0 11 t he Co n t i n e n t i n every co u n t ry wh ic h po s se s se s an a t io n a l Opera a nd t h i s a dopt io n ha s bee n bro ugh ta bou t by th e cu l tu red recog n i t io n of o n e fa c t— t h a ta rt ca n n o t exi s t a nd d eve lop h ea l t h i ly u n les s i t i s bo t h“a cc e s s ib l e a nd i n te l l ig i b le ” 1 t o t h e peop le . H e ret h i s fa c t i s s t i l l

,a s fa r a s Ope ra i s co n cer n ed

,almos t

u n r ecog n ized .

The h i s to ry Of Opera i n t h i s co u n t ry h a s,for m a n y

yea rs pa s t , bee n mere ly t h e h i s to ry of a fore ig n cu l tu re

1 Leo T ol s t o i .

2 1 4 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH A P .

m u s i c-p h ra se s i n te n s ified emot io n a l ly by t h e orc hes t ra .

Every d ec lam a to ry a n d n ear ly every me lod ic ph ras ep la ys a n i n t egra l pa r t i n t h e b u i ld i ng

-up of t h ecomp le te fab r i c

,a n d

,if t h e a ud i e n ce i s u n ab le to

ap pre he n d t he form a t t h e mome n t of h ear i n g,t h e

who le th i n g b ecome s e i t h er u n i n te l l ig ib l e o r a t m o s ta t h i n g of t h e s tudy a nd n o t of t h e t h ea t re . If

,

t h e refore,w e a re to expec t a n E n g l i s h a ud i e n c e t o

r eal ly u n ders ta n d a n opera a s i t s (Fre n c h , Germ a n ,or I ta l i a n ) composer i n te n ded i t to be u n ders tood ,we m u s t pre sume o n i ts pa r t a fa i r ly comprehe n s ivea n d a ccu ra te acqua i n ta n c e wi t h t he se t h ree la n gu ages .On th i s po i n t i t i s n o t po ss ib l e to g ive more t ha n

a perso n a l Op i n io n , bu t I d o n o t t h i n k t h a t I Sha l l bem i sj udg i n g a Cove n t Garde n a ud ie n c e if I sugges tt h a t i ts k n owledge of I ta l i a n i s n o t brough t to t h et h ea t re a s a n accomp l i shme n t n ecessa ry to t h e unders ta n d i n g Of t h e opera

,bu t ca r r i ed away from i t a s

a resul t of t h e “ d am n a b le i te ra t io n ” of opera t i ccommo n p l aces . H e re a n d t h ere

,i t i s t ru e

,w e may

find a n E n gl i s hm a n w i t h e n ough I t a l i a n to ge t h imth rough t he ( ex ec ra b le) cu s toms—hou s e a t V e n t im ig l i a

,b u t a s a ru le his I ta l i a n word s hav e be e n

p i cked up betw ee n t h e tu r n ip s a n d t h e tub e s ta t io na t Cove n t G a rd e n , a n d th ey co u ld be w r i t t e n , wi t h ou tc rowd i n g

,o n t h e ba ck of a n i n te r n a t io n a l pos tage

cou po n . Of Fre n c h,a nd e spec i a l ly of Bo u log n e

p ier Fre n c h,t h er e i s of co u r se a grea te r k n owl edge

but eve n here t he Fre n c h t h a t e n a b l es o n e t o cal l atax i a t t he Ga re S t . La za re i s n o t exa ct ly suffic i e n t forth e compreh e n s io n of “ Lo u i se ” o r “Le Chem inea u .

”

Eve n sm a l ler i s t h e ge n er a l k n owledge of Germ a n,

t h ough we m u s t remember t h a t a grea t m a n y of ou rm u s i c i a n s

,a nd e spec i a l ly of ou r e ld er m u s i c i a n s

,a r e

,

Owi n g to th e i r ed u ca t io n , fl u e n t Speaker s . On t h e

V I I I OPERATIC TRANSLATION 2 1 5

w ho l e I t h i n k we may sa fe ly say t h a t , howeve r m uchthe E n g l i shm a n a nd t h e E n g l i s hwom a n m ay e nj oyt he o rc he s tra l a nd voca l so u n d s i n t h e ope ra—h ou se ,t hey do n o t u n ders ta n d t h e opera i t se lf. 1

I t m igh t,t h er efore

,be though t t h a t t h e v ery

s imp l e a n d log i ca l n ec es s i ty of u n dersta n d i n g t h eopera wou ld l ead to a n immed i a t e dema n d , n o to n ly for adequa t e t ra n s l a t io n s

,bu t for t h e i r use i n

t h e t h ea t re . Th i s i s,howeve r

,fa r from be i n g t he

ca se . Ma n y Obj ec t io n s to th i s cou rs e a re a dva n ced,

bu t,t h ough we mu s t co n ced e t h e i r w e igh t , i t is

po ss ib le 0 11 t h e who le to doubt t h e i r val id i tyface of th e overw h e lm i n g n ec ess i ty for “ opera t i ci n t e l l ig ib i l i ty .

”

I n summ i n g u p t h ese obj ec t io n s w e m u s t,

of

cou r se,pu t o u t of ou r m i n d s a ll t h e m er e ly m a t e r i a l

obj ec t io n s— t h e ves ted i n te re s t s of u n pa t r i o t i c fin a nc i e rs a nd a r i s toc ra t s

,t h e mu tu a l s u ppor t w h ic h fore ig n

a r t i s ts a fford ea c h o t her,t he i r commo n a n x i e ty to see

t h e co lou r Of E n g l i s h go ld,a nd t h e i r i ro n det e r

m i n a t i o n t o keep bro th er Jo h n a nd cou s i n Jo n at ha n

1 I h a ve often m a d e po i n ted,a nd some t im e s u n com for t a b le

,

enqu i r ies a ft e r fo re i g n opera t i c pe rform a nce s i n orde r t o a s ce r t a i nexa c t l y h ow m u c h or how l i t t leha s been u nder s tood . The re s u l tha s a lwa ys been the s ame . W i t h the except i o n o f the few peop l ewho h a ve a c t u a l l y l i ved a b roa d for a con s i de ra b l e t ime

,pra c t i ca l l y

nobody u nder s t a nd s a s i n gle ph ra se o f the s ong—s peec h a s i t i smea n t t o be u n ders t ood . Du r i n g the en t r ’a c te s a t a first-n i gh tthe a ud i en ce t r i e s

,i n a ser 1es of wh i spe red d i s cu s s i o n s

,t o com e t o

some con c l u s i o n o n po i n t s t h a t wou ld a ppea r to be a s i n tegra l t othe u nde r s t a n d i n g of the ope ra a s a re the re la t i on s h i ps be twee nthe Mon t a gu e s a nd the Ca pu le t s t o the u nde r s ta n d i n g of “ Romeoa nd J u l i e t .” I n the s ta l l s a t Coven t Ga rden I on ce hea rd twobej ewe l led l a d i e s d i sc u ss i n g the fi rs t a c t of “ R i go le t to

,

” wh i c ht heyhad j u s t hea rd

,u n de r the impre s s i o n t h a t i t w a s C a rm e n .

I t w a s ev i den t l y t h e i r fi r s t v i s i t t o t h i s p a r t i c u la r ope ra , a nd theb i l lhad been ch a n ged .


ou t s ide th e door s excep t 0 11 t h e co n t ra c t t e rm s t h a tt h ey a cc ep t fore ig n s ta n da rd s

,fore ig n ideal s

,fore ig n

l a n gu ages,a n d for e ig n a rt . These a re of n o accou n t

,

beca u se if t h e pub l i c w i s h ed to u n ders ta n d Op era

( a nd t h er efore de te rm i n ed to hea r i t i n Engl i s h )s u c h m a te r i a l Ob s tac les would va n i sh

,a n d t h e pub l ic

would ge t w ha t i t wa n ted . The fa c t,how eve r

,

rem a i n s t h a t t h e pub l i c doe s n o t so wi s h .

We m u s t,t herefore

,before d eal i n g wi t h t h e m a t te r

0 11 ge n era l l i n es,t ry to a dj u s t ou r v i ewpo i n t to t h a t

of t h e average Opera goer . We m us t e n deavou r tosee t h e q u es t io n

,n o t wi t h t h e eye s of t h e compo se r

o r t h e cr i t i c,b u t w i t h t h e eyes of t h e m a n wh o ha s

bee n”lo n g accu s tom ed to h ea r i n g a n d e n j oy ing Opera

111 a fore ig n to n gu e .

1 n eed n o t d i sc u s s aga i n t h e type of opera-goer tow h om I have a l l uded i n a p rev iou s c h apter—t h e m a nw ho 13 a lwa y s fa tal ly co n s c iou s t ha t Opera IS a m i x edform of a rt

,who t h e refor e dem a n d s i t i n a n y fore ig n

l a n gua ge w h ic h h e ca n not u n ders ta n d,a n d w h o

wou ld prob a b ly pr efe r i t i n t h e co n c er t room wi t ht h e d ram a t i c pa r t s n ea t ly voca l ized o n th e Ope nI ta l i a n “

a . Fa n a t i c s o f t h i s type a re for tu n a te lyr a re

,bu t a k i n to t hem i s a s eco n d a nd very l a rge

c l a s s Of opera -goers wh ose Oppo s i t io n to t he u se of

t h e E n g l i s h l a n guage i s 110 less d e te rm i n ed . Thesea re t h e peop l e w ho

,a fte r r epea t ed v i s i t s to t h e opera

hou s e u n d er t h e d ep lora b le co n d i t io n s w h ic h haven ow exi s t ed i n Lo n do n for so m a n y yea r s

,a t las t

a r r ive a t a h a rd - b i t te n a nd l ud i c rou s ly mudd led s ta teof m i n d

,m a de u p

,i n equa l pa r t s

,of e n t h u s i a sm for

t h e m u s i c a nd comp le t e ig n ora n c e of t h e i n t e l lec tualid ea s w h ic h t h e m u s i c i s e n dea vou r i n g to i l l u s tra t e .

To suc h peop l e a n acc ide n ta l v i s i t to o n e of t h e i rfavou r i t e o pera s w h e n su n g i n E n g l i s h comes a s a

2 1 8 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH AP .

wi t h w hose mu s i c th ey a re a lrea dy fam i l ia r , for t h ed ifficu l t ie s of t ra n s l a t io n a re grea t

,a n d t h e re su l t

,

e sp ec i a l ly to t h e h a rd—sh e l l id ea l i s t,u n sa t i sfac to ry .

1

Nor m u s t w e over look t h e fac t t ha t,t h ough from

t h e i r exper i e n c e t h ey m a ke a n a bso l u te ly fa l se deduct io n— n am e ly

,t he u n su i ta b i l i t y of E n g l i s h for Opera

—ye t t h ey a re i n fl u e n ced i n m a k i n g t h i s dedu c t io nby a n idea l i sm a nd a h a t r ed of opera t i c i n co n gru i tyw h i ch i s

,bo t h h i s to r i cal ly a nd a s a m a t t er of pre se n t

day fac t , a n i n tegra l par t of t h e E n g l i s h c ha ract e r .The i r u n co n sc io u s e n d eavou r i s to recog n iz e Operaa s a pu r e ly m us ica l s ta teme n t Of emot io n . Th i s

,of

co u r se,i t ha s n ever bee n

,a n d i s n o t a t p rese n t .

Ther e i s,how e v er

,some th i n g to be said o n bo th

s ides from o u r n at io n a l s ta n dpo i n t , a nd we n eed n o tj ump to the h a s ty co n c l u s io n t h a t t h i s id eal i s t i ca t t i tude

,by i ts very n a tu re

,forb id s a n y t ru e a ppre

c ia t ion of Opera a s a n ar t fo rm . Nor ca n w e ig n oret h e ex i s te n ce of t h i s m e n ta l a t t i t ude excep t a t ourper i l .We sh ou ld ra the r adopt t he v iew t h a t t h e E n g l i s h

m a n ’ s d i s sa t i sfa c t io n w i t h h i s ow n speec h a s a med i umfor m u s i c- d ram a is o n ly a rat io n a l d i s sa t i sfac t io n w i t ha n a r t- form deve loped so le ly i n ha rmo n y wi t h fo re ignidea l s . The revo l t i n h i s m i n d aga i n s t t h i s spec i al ly

1 I s h ou l d men t i o n t ha t t hese Obj ec t i o n s t o the use ofEngl i s h i nOpera a re me re l y obj ec t i o n s wh i c h I h a ve a c t ua l ly hea rd ra i sed byope ra—goe r s—a ve ry m i n u t e fra c t i o n of the c omm u n i ty . On on e

or two occa s i o n s I h a ve been a b le t o obs er ve the d iffe ren t effec t o ftwo ope ra t i c pe rform a n ce s—o n e i n I ta l i a n

,the o t he r i n Engl i s h

on a n u n b i a s sed per so n qu i te u na cqu a i n ted w i t h the con ven t i on sof the l yr i c s t a ge . In eve ry su c h ca se the I ta l i a n perform a nce

,

de s p i te i t s v oca l a nd i n s t r um en t a l gl o r i e s,mere l y pu z z led the

l i s tene r,wh i l e the Eng l i s h pe rforma n ce , h a nd i ca pped by a pove r ty

s t r i c k e n m i se-en - s cene a nd a ra gged orc he s t ra,a rou sed the s ame

l i s t en er t o e n t h u s i a sm .

V I I I OPERATIC TRANSLATION 2 I 9

deve loped form beg i n s a s soo n a s h e h a s t h e opportun i ty Of real ly u n der s ta n d i n g i t s co n te n t s by mea n sof a perform a n ce i n h i s ow n l a n gua ge . A nd t h i s i sa most hopeful s ig n , beca u s e i t i n d i ca t e s 0 11 his pa r ta n a cu te co n sc iou s n es s of a n a r t i s t i c d iffe re n ce be twee nh imse lf a nd t h e fore ig n er . We m us t h op e for t h eday wh e n E n gl i s h com posers wi l l h ave t h e mea n s ofdeve lop i n g a sc h oo l of Na t io n a l Opera free fromrefere n ce s to tho se m a te r i a l a nd ex te r n a l t h i n gs w h ic hso m u c h d i s tu rb t he E n g l i s h m i n d .

Whe n t h e se ba n a l i t i e s have b ee n cu t dow n t o t h e i rsmal le s t d ime n s io n s w e s h a l l h a ve a s imp le type ofOpera co n d i t io n ed o n ly by some few ,

ea s i ly u n ders tood phy s i ca l a n d psyc ho log i ca l re l a t io n sh ips . I n110 o t her way wi l l t h e pub l i c co n se n t t o mee t t h ecompo ser h a lf-w ay, a nd to a cqu i re t h a t grad ualfam i l i a r i ty w h i c h alo n e ca n teac h t h em t h e i n here n tb ea u t i es of emot io n a l m u s i c j o i n ed to emot io n a lE n gl i s h Speec h .

From t h i s po i n t of V iew the t ra n s l a to r,l a bo u r i n g

u n der d iffi cu l t a nd u n sa t i sfa c to ry co n d i t io n s,i s ra th er

a h i n d ra n ce t h a n a he lp . I n t he pas thi s workha softe n bee n so bad t h a t m a n y opera -goer s

,w h o se

d i scer n me n t n a tu ra l ly gu ided th em i n t he di rect io n of “Opera i n E n g l i sh , h a ve bee n fo rced

,

a fte r a few me la n c ho ly exper i e n ce s of i ts S l ipshod m ethod s

,to sa c r ific e t h e i r pa t r io t i sm a nd

i n te l l ige n c e i n order to a vo id su c h a n i n fl i c t io n i nt h e fu t u r e .

In rece n t yea r s,i t i s t r u e

,more tha n o n e n o ta b ly

fine Opera t ic t ra n s la t io n ha s a ppeared .

1 I t i s,h oweve r

,

1 Of wh i c h Mr . J ame so n ’s m on umen t a l t ra n s l a t i o n o f “ TheR i ng

,

” Mr . VV a lla c e ’s v i va c i ou s render i ng of Be r l i oz ’s Fa u s t,

a nd

the wor km a n l i k e ver s i on of T r i s ta n a nd I so l de ” by H . a nd F .

Corder a re o n ly a few examp le s . Mr . C l a u de A vel ingha s ma de


obv iou s t h a t,t h e more h igh ly d eve loped t h e fore ig n

so n g- sp eec h from w h ic h th e t ra n s la t io n h a s to b em a de

,t h e grea te r wi l l be t h e spec i a l iza t io n of i ts

word s,a n d th e c lo ser t h e ir u n io n w i t h t h e m u s i c .

I t t h erefore fo l low s t h a t t h e grea t e r t h e ca re a n drefi n em e n t of t he o r ig i n a l id iom (whe t her m u s ica l o rverb a l) t h e grea te r wi l l be th e d ifficu l ty of t ra n s l a t i n go n e h a lf of i t ( t h e ve rba l) , a n d , a t t h e same t ime

,

l ea v i n g t h e o t h e r h a lf ( t h e mus i ca l ) u n a l t e red . Ase t of ver se s 0 11 a commo n top i c w r i t te n a n d s et t o as imp le r h yt hm n a tu ra l ly offe r s 110 grea t d iffi cu l ty tothe t ra n s l ato r

,bu t if t h e top i c a n d i ts expre ss io n i n

word s a n d m u s ic a re deve loped a n d spec ia l ized i nh a rmo n y wi t h some pa r t i cu la r n a t io n a l i dea l

,t h e

t ra n s la to r i s a t o n ce fa ced by a l l t h e d i ffere n ce s ofn a t io n a l ou t look a n d of l ingu i s t ic a nd m us ica l method .

Thes e d i ffe r e n ce s a l so co n t i n ua l ly te n d to becomew ider a s a r t d eve lops

,a nd t he refore h i s task offinding

a lea s t—commo n -de n om i n a to r become s i n c rea s i n g lyd iffi cul t a n d somet imes imposs ib le . I n deed

,t h i s i s

so t ru e tha t o n e m a y almos t s a y t h a t t h e be t te r t heo r ig i n a l so n g-speec h t h e wor se t h e t ra n s l a t io n m u s tb e .Now

,i t i s j u s t 0 11 t h i s po i n t t h a t th o se cu l tu red

peop le w h o obj ec t to t ra n s la t io n s a re mos t em pha t ic .For t h ey have n o d iffi c u l ty i n prov i n g t ha t

,eve n i n

t h e bes t t ra n s la t io n s,a sa t i sfac to ry t ra n sfere n c e of t h e

comp lete t h ough t from o n e m ed i um to a n o t he r i simposs ib le . I t s h o u ld

,t h ey say, n o t b e a t t emp ted .

I t i s n o t d e n ied t h a t a ca p a b le ope ra t i c t ra n s l a to r ca npa r t i a l ly reprod uc e hi s o r ig i n a l

,bu t i t i s c o n te n ded

t h a t,s i n ce mode r n Opera i s fo u n d ed 011 a c lo se

som e e xce l l en t t ra n sl a t i o n s ( s u c h a s t h ose o f “ T e s s a nd “ Ger

m a n i a i n to r hy t hm i c p rose,bu t t h e se a re

,o f cou rse

,n o t for use

on the s ta ge .


i t s ow n la n gu age , a nd if t ra n s l a t ed Opera i s eve r tobecom e popu l a r i n t h i s cou n t r y

,t h e average s ta n da rd

Of n i n e tee n t h ce n tu ry tra n s la t io n w i l l h ave to bem a te r i a l ly al te red . Aga i n

,t h e ig n ora n ce of for e ig n

Opera w h i c h i s sh ow n by t h e pu b l i c i s a n ig n o ra n c efo u n ded 0 11 s e lf- k n owl edge

,t ha t i s t o say, 0 11 a

c o n sc i o u s d i s l ike to ce r ta i n a spec t s a n d i n co n gru i t i e sof fo re ig n opera t i c fo rm s . Th i s is a s ig n

,n o t of

d e spa i r,bu t of h ope

,a n d eve n ou r Lo n do n Opera t i c

impresa r ios (w h o a re,I s u ppose

,a s de tac h ed a s a n y

set of me n ca n be from a k n owledge of pub l i co p i n io n ) m ay o n e day awake to t h e fa c t t ha t t h er ea re some m i l l io n s of peop le i n Lo n do n alo n e w h ow i l l p ay a ll th e yea r ro u n d to h ear m u s i c of w h ic ht h ey a pprove

,bu t w h o a re n o t wi l l i n g to sac r ifice t he i r

mo n ey a n d t h e i r s i n cer i ty for t h e dou b tfu l pr iv i l egeof ec ho i n g th e s e n t imen t s of t h e Fre n chm a n

,t h e

Germ an,a n d t h e I tal i a n .

F i n a l ly,I m u s t a sk t h e reader t o ta ke a b roa d

m i n ded v i ew of t h e qu e s t io n a s i t aff e c t s t h e fu tu re,

a n d to real ize how u t te rly imposs i b le i t is for

compos ers ( a n d t h erefor e fo r s i n gers ) t o fou n d a n yE n g l i s h dec l am a to ry s ty le o n t ra n s la t io n s . I t wo u ldbe a s reaso n ab l e t o expec t t h e forma t io n of a grea tsc h oo l of pa i n t i n g from t he co n t em p l a t io n

,n o t of

n a tu r e,bu t of l i n e engrav ings “

a fte r t h e I tal i a nm a s t er s .To the compo se r t h i s qu e s t io n i s of t h e grea t e s t

mom e n t,fo r h e wi l l h a ve to co n v i n ce t h e p ub l ic t h a t

E n g l i sh Opera ”

( t h a t i s to s a y,Opera w r i t t e n a n d

su n g i n E n g l i s h ) i s t h e e sse n t i a l , w h i le“ Ope ra i n

E n g l i s h ( t ha t i s to s ay, fo re ig ii Opera t ra n s l a t edi n to E n g l i s h ) i s o n ly a m akesh ift . The recog n i t io n ,n o t o f t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n

,bu t of t h e importa n ce to ar t

of t h i s d i s t i n c t io n,i s s t i l l imperfec t

,a n d w e m ay be

V 111 OPERATIC TRANSLATION 2 2 3

pret ty su re tha t,if eve r t h e fo re ig n opera-mo n gers

h e re becom e awa re of a n a t i o n a l movem e n t i n t h ed i r ec t io n of Na t io n a l Ope ra , t h ey wi l l ta ke care tom ake t h e co n fu s io n worse co n fou n ded .

The s i n ger s a re perha p s more immedi a te/y co n ce r n edi n t h i s ques t io n t h a n e i t h er t h e compo se r s o r t h e

p ubl ic , for t h e more t hey a re com pe l led t o s i n gtra n s la t io n s th e l es s l ike ly t h ey a re to approac ht h e i r a r t from t h e p rope r s ta n d po i n t . By t he i r veryn a tu re even t h e bes t t ra n s la t io n s mu s t b e

,to som e

ex t e n t,s tu n ted a n d d i s to r t ed i n t h e i r vocabu la ry

t h ey m u s t co n ta i n a cer ta i n n umber of u n n a tu ra lexpres s io n s a n d Odd,

awkwa rd tu r n s of t h ough t .The compu l s io n s of r hym e

,t h e n ece ss i ty of m ak i n g

t h e E n g l i s h fo l low a me lod i c cu rv e o r t h e e n d i n g of

a m u s i c se n t e n c e spec i a l ly des ig n ed to amp l ify afore ig n word -ph r a se

,t h e la x i ty of Fre n c h a n d I ta l i a n

word- r hy t hm s (w h i c h pe rm i t s t h e i r j u n c t io n w i t halmos t a n y m u s i cal- r hyt hm ) , t h e ex t reme s t r inge n cyof t h e E n g l i s h wo rd—rh ythm (wh i c h ca l l s a lou d fo r o n epa r t icu la r form of mu s i ca l expres s io n ) —a ll t h e se a nd

m a n y o the r fac to r s comb i n e to i n crea s e t h e a rt ific ia l i tyof t h e t ra n s la tor ’ s work The s i n ger

,t h e refore

,w h o

i s co n dem n ed to a lo n g t erm of t ra n s l a t ed Opera w i l lbe ab le t o m ake h i s ex i s te n ce to lerab l e o n ly by a

s e r ies of “ fa kes ” a n d subt erfuge s ; a n d , eve n if h ei s o cca s io n a l ly a l low ed to emerge from h i s fe t t ereds ta t e

,h e wi l l probab ly find tha t h i s pa s t exper ie n c es

prec l ude h im from ea r n i n g a n ( a r t i s t i cal ly) ho n e s tl iv i n g i n t h e wor ld o u t s id e .

From t h e a bove co n s i dera t io n s t h e read er wi l l seet h a t t h e q u es t i o n of a ccu s tom i n g th e pub l i c t o t h eperforma n ce of t ra n s l a ted for e ig n Opera i s by 110

mea n s s imp l e . Nor i s i t mo re pos s i b le 0 11 t h i squ es t io n t h a n 011 t h a t of n a t io n a l—subve n t io n to


d raw co n c l u s io n s a pp l i ca b le to E n g l a n d from t heh i s to ry of Fra n c e

,I ta ly

,o r Germ a n y . I n t hese

co u n t r ie s t h ere i s a d eve loped home p rodu c t byw h ose s ide t h e sem i u s e le ss f01 e ig n Ope i a i s w e lcometo ex i s t fo r t h e same rea so n t h a t we ca n afford tom a i n ta i n a qua n t i ty of sc ra p i ro n a t t h e tai l-e n d of

ou r n a vy l i s t,b ec a u s e of t h e D read n o ugh t s a t t h e

o t h e r e n d .

If we look a t i t from th e s ta n dpo i n t of t h eE n g l i s h compo ser

,whose o n e obj ec t i s t h e es tab l i s h

m e n t of a n E n g l i s h Opera t i c Sc hoo l— I do n o t,of

co u r se,mea n from h i s m ere ly pe rso n a l o r se lfis h

s ta n d po i n t— i t i s n o t des i ra b le,beca u s e

,u n le ss t he

t ra n s la t io n s a re of t h e ve ry h igh es t s ta n dard , h i s ow nc a s e i s l ike ly to be prej ud i ced wi t h t h e p u b l ic .

Aga i n,from t h e s ta n dpo i n t of t h e S i n ger

,h i s a rt

ca n n o t be sa i d to b eg i n t i l l i t i s fou n ded 0 11 o r ig i n a lE n gl i s h wo rks : i t i s rea l ly imposs ib le to adopt t h ecommo n Vi ew t h a t t ra n s la ted opera

,t h a t i s to s ay

“ Opera i n E n g l i sh,

” i s a so r t o f b r idge be tw eenOpe ra i n a fore ig n l a n gu a ge ” a n d E n g l i s h

( ) pera f’

From t h e s ta n dpo i n t of th e pub l i c t h e re wou ld bea n u n do ub ted ga i n prov idevery d iffi cul t o f fulfilm en t— t h a t o n ly suc h work swer e pre se n ted to i t a s m igh t b e rea so n ab ly expec tedn o t to c la s h w i t h i ts s t ro n g opera t i c prej ud ices .Ther e wo u ld a l so be a n u n doubted r i sk t ha t t h eu n a vo id a b le fa i l i n gs of t ra n s l a t io n wou ld cha n ge th ea t t i tude o f th e pub l ic from i t s p r ese n t a pa t h y to o n eo f ope n ho st i l i ty .

Before lea v i n g t h i s top ic we m ay gl a n c e for a

mome n t a t t h e pu re ly l i n gu i s t i c a s oppo sed to t h el a rger Ope ra t i c d ifficu l t ie s o f t ra n s l a t io n .

Every l a n gua ge,o f cou r se , d i ffer s i n s t ru c tu re a n d


idea s . I t is a s if t h e E n g l i s h a t temp ted , b y t he i rword-gro u p i n gs

,to r e produ ce t h e eve n t s of a n ac tu al

d ram a a s see n t h rough a ve i l of m i s t . Th e ce n t ra li dea i s m a de to loom up i n to sudde n , overw h e lm i n gs iz e

,w h i le the s ub s id i a ry ideas rem a i n scar ce ly recog

n i z able fig u re s of ph a n tom a n d shadow . I n u n i so nw i t h t h i s te n d e n cy w e fi n d a co n t i n u a l rubb i n g-dow na nd rubb i n g- ou t , n o t so m u c h of S i n g l e co n so n a n t sa s of comp l et e sy l l ab le s

,a n d eve n gro u ps of sy l l ab les .

W i t h t h i s goes a per s i s te n t m i n g l i n g a n d dege n eracyof vowe l- sou n d wh i c h would lo n g ago h ave produced u n ifo rm i ty of speec h ( eve n i n suc h a m i xedr a c e a s t h e E n gl i s h) w ere i t n o t for t h e su rfa ceco n d i t io n s of t h e cou n t ry .

Now ,i n th e U n i t ed S ta t e s w e h ave t h e exac t ly

oppos i t e co n d i t io n s . W i t h a n a rea o f over 321

m i l l ion squa re m i le s a n d a popula t io n of 7 6 m i l l io n st he cou n t ry ha s a n u n i n de n ted coas t—l i n e a n d asu rface t ha t i s a mere fl a t p la i n

,w i t h m ou n tai n s

ru n n i n g dow n ea c h coas t . The re su l t i s t h a t no

group of Amer ica n s i s,i n ge n era l , s ec l uded from a n y

o t h er grou p . Wherever a c i t iz e n of t h a t cou n t ryi s loca ted a n ea sy wa y i s ope n to h im to a n y o th e rpa r t of h i s va s t p l a i n . V\7e find h im

,t h e refore (w i t h

a m u c h grea te r a dm ix tu r e of b lood t ha n t he E n gl i s hm a n

,a nd l iv i n g i n a cou n t ry seve n ty t imes t h e s ize

of E n gl a n d ) , ye t wi t h d i ff e re n c e s of d i a lec t t h a t ar eu n apprec i a b le w h e n compa red w i t h t h os e i n E n g la n d .

Aga i n,t h e d ry n ess

,b r igh t n e s s

,a nd exh i l a ra t io n of

h i s a tmosphere p rod u ce a n exac t ly S im i la r effec t o nh i s d e l ivery . To a n E n g l i s hm a n h e seem s to b eco n t i n u a l ly a c ce n tua t i n g wo rd s th a t a re of n o impor ta n c e w ha teve r to t h e s e n t e n c e

,t h ough a c tu a l ly

h e i s n o t g iv i n g th e se wo rd s a ny grea te r prom i n e n cet h a n t h ey wou ld rec e ive i n Fre n c h o r I tal i a n . H i s

V I I I OPERATIC TRANSLATION 2 2 7

vowe l -sou n d s h e dwe l l s o n ra t h er t h a n avo id s,wh i le

t he i r c o lou r ha s a cer ta i n prec i s io n a n d so n or i tyw h ic h appea r t o a n E n g l i s hm a n t o be —n o t new a n d“up

- to -d a t e ” l ike h i s idea s—b u t o ld -fa s h io n ed a n ds l igh t ly prosy . I t i s a s i f h e had take n h i s vowe lsys t em from E n g la n d to Amer ica a bou t a coup le of

h u n d red yea r s ago ,a n d had t h e n a nd t he re s topp ed

tamper i n g w i t h i t .Now ,

t h e s e d i s t i n c t io n s b e twee n E n g l i s h a n dAmer ica n a re o n ly th e s l igh t

,s uperfic i a l d i ffe re n ce s

w h i c h h ave c rep t i n to a la n gu a ge u n d er t h e al t e redco n d i t io n s of a (compa ra t ive ly ) few years . Thed iffere n ce s w h i c h t h e t ra n s l a to r ha s to fac e a re of am u c h more deep - s ea ted c h a ra c t er

,for t h ey spr i n g

e i t h e r from d iffere n ce of or ig i n a l s tock, from d iffer

e n c e of e n v i ro n me n t d u r i n g lo n g l a pses of t ime,o r

from a comb i n a t io n of t he se two d iffe re n ces .They compr i se eve ry co n ce iva b l e va r i e ty of a cc e n t

a n d de l ive ry,of word a nd s e n te n ce s t ru c tu r e . H i s

or ig i n a l m ay be d i s t i n gu i s hed by a comp let e gramm a t ica l a ppa ra tu s of wo rd prefixe s o r s uffixes

,n o n e

of w h ic h i s perh a ps u sed i n h i s ow n to n gu e . H em ay h ave to r hyme a t ra n s la t io n i n a l a n gu age wh i chha s o n ly o n e-fou r t h t h e n umber of rh ym e -e n d i n gspos se ssed by h i s or ig i n a l . If h e i s a n E n g l i shm a n h em ay eve n h a ve to t ra n s l a te back i n t o h i s ow n speec ha poem w h ic h w a s bor n i n a n E n g l i s hm a n ’ s b ra i n

,

a n d t h e n t ra n s l a ted i n to a fore ig n to n gu e a n d fittedou t w i th m u s ica l r hyt hm s app rop r ia t e to tha tt ra n s l a t io n .

A l l t h e s e d iffic u l t i e s h e ha s to overcom e,bu t a

worse p rob l em rem a i n s ; fo r, u n der t h e va ry i n gi n fl ue n c es of ra ce a n d of geograph i ca l a n d c l im at i cco n d i t io n

,t h e dec l am a to ry rhy t hm s of t he two

;1 E.g . Verd i ’ s Ote l l o ” a nd Debu ssy ’ s Bl e ssed Damoz el .


l a n guages i n w h ic h he i s work i n g h a ve bee n d ev e loped a lo n g l i n e s so d iffere n t t h a t t h ey b ea r n oresemb l a n ce a t al l t o eac h o t h er . I n o n e l a n gu ageh e may fee l t h e co ld g l i t ter of a n a ler t

,po l i s h ed

,

log i ca l n a t io n i n a n o t h er t h e v owell’

d u n der so n g ”

of a p a ss io n a t e a nd wor ld-w ea ry peop l e : or h e m ayhave to take t h e hea vy t h ud

,t h e h oa rs e ma r t i a l

s hou t s of a n a t io n m a rch i n g u n d e r a rms,a n d expres s

t h em i n a l a n gua ge w h ose deep rhy t hm i c u t t e ra n c ei s t h a t of t h e grea t es t of al l t rag i c po e t s a n d of t h eso lem n m aj e s t y of t h e B i b l e .

1

Now,if w e s e t a l i t t e ra t eu r to m ak e a prose

t ra n s la t io n of a metr i ca l or ig i n a l,i t i s qu i t e p la i n

t h a t h i s ta sk i s b y n o mea n s ea sy . H e h a s t oexp re s s to h i s r ea d er s fore ig n idea s 111 word s w h o seco n n ota t io n i s d iffe re n t f1 om t h a t of h i s o r ig i n a l .H e is

,i n deed

,u n fe t te red by a ny co n s id era t io n s of

metre,r hyme

,o r rh y thm ; yet o n e h a s o n ly to tu r n

t o t h e bes t E n g l i s h p rose tra n s l a t io n s of fore ig npoe t ry to see h ow immeasu ra b ly t hey fal l be low o u ro rd i n a ry a r t i s t i c a nd l i te ra ry s ta n da rd s .B u t

,n ow , su ppose t h e t ra n s la to r compe l led to work

bot h from a n d i n t o ve rse . Th e d iffi cu l t y ofhis task,

excep t by t h e m ere s t acc id e n t,i s a t o n ce i n c r ea sed

,

1 The rea der w ho w i s h e s t o see how ba fll ing t hese d ifficu l t ie sc a n be , eve n u nde r the c on d i t i on s o f t ra n s l a t i o n be tween twoa l l ied l a ngu a ge s a nd o f ex t reme s impl i c i ty o f voca l ph ra se

,m ay

l oo k a t the fi rs t s i x words of Bru n h i l de ’ s awa k en i n g i n S iegfr i ed,

H e i l d i r Son n e ; H e i l d i r Li ch t . I n t hese two ph ra ses t h erea re o nl y seven n o tes of m u s i c , a nd ye t i t i s impos s i b le t o ob ta i n a

sa t i sfa c t ory t ra n sfe ren ce o f the or i g i n a l s ong- s peec h . Mr . J ameson ’ srende r i ng , “ Sun ,

I h a i l thee ; H a i l O l i gh t,

” i s,I su ppose

, a s

good a s i t c a n be, yet i n ea c h ph 1 a se he i s for ced t o effec t a

j u n c t i o n o r ca r ry i ng ove r o f the t hough t ( i . .a be tween “ I ” a nd“ H a i l ” a nd be tween “ O

”a nd “ l i gh t ’ wh i c h i s q u i te a b sen t

from the or i g i n a l , a nd w h i c h sub t l y a l ters the so ng speech i n a

w ay no t i n tended by the composer .


a n y wi thw h i ch a n ord i n a ry l i t te ra t eu r i s a c cu s tomedt o d ea l . I n deed

,t h e o n ly pu re ly l i te rary prob l em

wh ic h re semb les i t a t a ll - a n d t h e two a re n ot compa ra b l e i n p o i n t o f diffi culty

—” i s t h e p rob l em of

t ra n s l a t i n g som e su c h exqu i s i t e a nd h igh ly fi n i s h edor ig i n a l a s Ho ra c e ’ s Odes

,a prob lem ofte n a t tempted

a n d n e v e r so lved .

1

I t i s p l a i n t h a t we n eed n o t expec t , a nd w ec er ta i n ly sh a l l n o t ge t

,l i te ra ry o r d ram a t i c perfec t io n

i n a n opera t i c t ra n s la t io n . I t w a s my or ig i n a l in tent io n to Show t h e rea der

,by mea n s of quo ta t io n

,w ha t

we ha v e rec e ived in t h i s way ; bu t , afte r wad i n gt h rough t h e m a n y wa te r s of n i n e te e n t h ce n tu r yopera t i c t ra n s la t io n

,I have com e to t h e co n c l u s io n

t ha t t h e m ere s igh t of t h em wou ld b e more t ha ne n ough to qu e n c h a n y lov e of Opera wh i c h h e m aypossess .Wha t eve r I h a ve sa id w i t h rega rd to t h e verba l

d i s to r t io n s a n d i n vers io n s o f t h e ea r ly n i n e tee n t hce n tu ry sc hoo l of E n g l i s h Opera a pp l i e s a s Spec ifica l lya n d wi t h grea te r fo rce to a ll t h e E n g l i s h tra n s la t io n sdow n to t h e la s t q u a r te r of t h e ce n tur y . Th e read ern eed o n ly se lec t a n opera a t ra n dom from t he morepopu la r work s o f Ross i n i

,V erd i

,or Go u n od to see

how ba d ly m au led t h ey al l we r e i n t ra n s la t io n . Th efirs t twe n ty page s of Il Trova to re wi l l teac h h imal l t h e wi cked n e s s ( i n t h i s k i n d ) t h a t h e ca n po ss ib lywi sh to k n ow . H e m u s t remembe r

,h owever , t h a t

i t i s n ot fai r to c r i t ic ize t hese effo r t s of t h e Mu s e

l Perha p s a l so the m ed i a eva l a ccom pl i s hme n t o f wr i t i ng poem swhose words a ll bega n w i t h the sam e l e t t e r . H ucba ld, the Flem i s ht heor i s t

,a dd re ssed a poem of t h i s s or t 0 11 the s u bj ec t o f “ Ba l d

n e s s C a rm i n a C la r ison a e Ca lv is C a n t a te Camoena e”

)—t o theEm pe ro r C h a rl e s the Ba l d ; bu t i t i s n o t k nown wha t form themon a rc h ’s re t a l i a t i on t ook .

v m OPERATIC TRANSLATION 2 3 1

from a n y o th e r t h a n a l i t e ra r y s ta n d po i n t . Theyw e re oft e n m a de , n o t fo r u se by s i n gers i n t h et h e a tre

,bu t wi t h t h e obj ect— n o t a lwa y s ach i eved

of he lp i n g s tude n t s to u n ders ta n d t h e mea n i n g of

t h e o r ig i n a l . From th e a r t i s t i c po i n t of v i ew t h et ra n s l ator ’ s a im wa s n ot m u c h above t ha t of a p la yeri n t he c la s s i ca l game of “ Au n t Sal ly . H e m ere lywa n ted to k n ock t h e p ip e o u t of h er mou th . I nfro n t of h im so m a n y m u s i ca l n o te s w e re s tu ck up

,

a n d h e h ad to “ c hu ck ”a sy l lab le a t ea c h . The

game was rea l ly n o t ve ry d ifficul t , a nd t h e p l ayerwa s

, of cou r se , pa id for i t , wh e t h e r h e wo n o r n o t .I t m u s t n o t b e su pposed t h a t t h i s race of t ra n s l a to r s

came (a s t h ey de served ) to a sudde n a n d u n p lea sa n te n d a bou t t h e t h i rd qu a r te r of t h e n i n etee n t h ce n tu ry .

There wa s a t t ha t t ime a n u n doub t ed improveme n ti n the qua l i ty of our E n g l i s h t ra n s la t io n s

,bu t t h e

t ra d i t io n of care less n ess d ied h a rd . Eve n w i th i n t h epa s t twe n ty—fiv e yea r s o r so t ra n s la t io n s have b ee npub l i s h ed by who se s id e su ch a n exe cra b le work a s

P i t tm a n ’ s R i e n z i ” 1a pp e a r s a s a m i rac l e of c l ea r

n e s s a n d d i s t i n c t io n . I t i s d i ffi cu l t t o appor t io nt he b l ame i n m a n y of t h e se works . Fo re ig n m u s i ce n gravers a n d per h a ps fore ign t ra n s la to r s m ay havei n n oce n t ly co n sp i red toge th er to produ ce t he s ad

w reckage of t h e E n gl i s h l a n gu age wh i c h w e see i nsom e of t h es e pub l i ca t io n s . Th e fa c t

,howeve r

,t h a t

su c h word s were eve r a l lowed to be e n g r a ved u n dert h e mu s i c

,s h ow s s t r ik i n g ly t h e co n t emp t wi t h w h i c h

t h e pub l i s he r wa s a cc u s tomed to v i ew t h e averagei n t e l l ige n c e of a mu s i ca l E n gl i s hm a n .

My copy of “ Cava l ler i a Ru s t ica n a bea rs,0 11 i t s

ou t s ide cover,t h e n ames o f t h ree d i s t i n gu i sh ed

pub l i s h ers,o n e I tal i a n

,o n e Germ a n

,a nd o n e

1 P ub l i s h ed by Furs tner, Ber l i n .


E n g l i s h,a s well a s t h e lege n d

,

“Pr i c e 7 5 . 6 d. n e t .Let u s see w ha t I ta ly

,Germ a n y

,a n d Engla n d offe r

u s i n r e tu r n for ou r 7 3 . 6 d.

A l l t h rough t h i s work t h e word- ph ras es seem t oh ave bee n se t to t h e mu s i c wi t h t h e so le obj ec t ofou t rag i n g t he i r n a tu ral a cce n t a n d rhy t hm . Therea re s o m a n y examp le s . of t h i s t h a t ful l q uo ta t i o n i simposs i b l e

,bu t

,a s a n i n s ta n c e

,I m ay c i t e (from p .

81 ) t h e p h ra s e w h ere t h e s i n ger , afte r two ba rs r e s t ,beg i n s t he se n te n ce of her ow n h u sba n d forgetful ,

”

wi t h t h e word of set 0 11 th e dow n -bea t .No a t temp t i s m ade to d i s t i n gu i s h b etwee n t h e

E n gl i s h l e t t e r s “ I ” a n d “J ,

” “ I ” a n d “ Y,

” o rV

” a n d “W a n d co n seq ue n tly we ge t su c hexpre s s io n s a s “ A n d j ou (p .

“ love m i o n cemore ” (p . a n d o s of H eave n ” (pp .

57 Som e of t h ese m i s ta ke s —in a t ragedyremember—read l ike co n sc i ou s “ Sam We l ler i sm s . ’

For i n s ta n c e

Me Lo l a is a v a i t ingA ll o t h e r low e rs h a t ing (p .

I v i l l n ow go i n (p .

I h a ve w a in ly p rom i sed t o c o nduc to the a l ta r (p .

T ohus i tha s bee n t o ld (p .

The n,aga i n

,t h e t ra n s la to r , o r perhap s t h e

e n grave r,s eems to h a ve exper i e n c ed grea t d i ffi cu l ty

in dec id i n g i n to how m a n y sy l la b le s a n E n g l i s hwo rd wou ld cu t up . The wo rd “ i n j u r ed is set

a s a t r i sy l l ab le to t h ree q uave rs ( p . a nd

t h e word “ e n t ra n c e ( i n t h e s e n se of “ a p l aceof e n t ry ) i s s e t i n a s im i la r way wi t h t heseco n d o f i ts sy l l a b les f i l l i n g 011 t h e dow nbea t of a ba r ( pp . 105 a nd The wo rd


d ra g dow n ou r la n gu a ge .

1 Si n c e t h e p roduc t io n of

Ma scagn i’

s firs t op era,s evera l ex c e l le n t E n gl i s h

opera t i c t ra n s l a t io n s h ave bee n i s sued , a n d we m aysay tha t , wh e n eve r i n rec e n t ye a r s t h e ta sk ha s bee ne n t ru s ted to m e n po sses s i n g t he n ece ssa ry comb i n at io n of l i te ra ry sk i l l a nd m u s ic a l k n owledge

,th e r e

ha s bee n a very ev ide n t a nd e n cou ra g i n g d es i re 0 11

t h e i r pa r t t o p rod u c e good a r t i s t ic wo rk . By i t svery n a tu re t h i s wo rk i s

,a s I have said

,a m akesh ift ,

a n d a m a kesh ift whose exped i e n cy i s s t i l l m at t er of

d i scuss i o n . Everyo n e w i l l,howeve r

,agree tha t

,if

Op era i s to b e t ra n s la ted,t h e work mu s t b e do n e ,

n o t a s i t wa s i n t h e firs t h alf of t h e n i n e tee n t hc e n tu ry by l i te ra ry a n d m u s ica l h a ck s

,b u t by m e n

E n g l i s hme n—of wide c u l tu re . M e re l i t era ry fac i l i tyi s u se les s u n les s i t i s supported by m u s i ca l ab i l i ty ,a nd e spec i a l ly by a n i n t im a te k n owledge of t h ehum a n vo i c e .

Above a ll,i t i s n eces sa ry t ha t t h e t ra n s la to r

shou ld keep c l ear ly befo re h i s m i n d t h e h a rmth a t wi l l ce r ta i n ly resu l t from bad a n d ca re le sswo rk . The p u b l ic i s ve ry qu ic k to d e tec t

,n o t

so m u c h i n a c curac i es of t ra n s la t io n a nd l i te ra ryfau l t s

,a s d i s c repa n c i e s be tw ee n t h e t ra n s la t io n

i t s e lf a nd t h e speec h w h i c h i s t h e i r mos t pr izedh e r i ta ge . At th e fir s t su sp ic io n of a ny u n n a tu ra ln es s i t e i t h e r l a ugh s o r t a kes fr igh t

,a n d t h ese

a re t h e two t h i n gs w h i c h eve ry lover of E n g l i s hOpe ra mos t wi s h es to avo id .

The reade r m a y t h i n k su c h a wa r n i n g a s I haveg ive n a bove q u i t e u n c a l led fo r a t t h e p re se n t day

,

1 T h e re i s a d i fferen t (a nd m uch be t te r) t ra n sl a t i on by F . E.

VV ea the rly p re f ned t o t h i s Ope ra , bu t the w o rds , a s I h a ve quo tedt hem a bove , a re the a c t u a l w ord s a s t h ey a re e ngra ved u nde r nea t hthe m u s i c

,pres uma b l y fo r the use o f ou r u n h a ppy voca l i s t s .

V I I I OPERATIC TRANSLATION 2 35

b u t,a s a m a t ter of fa c t , t h ough t he co n sc iou s n e s s of

t h i s r i sk is growi n g,t her e i s s t i l l n eed of co n t i n u a l

wa tchfu l n es s . Eve n t h e sumptuou s voca l score of

M . Del ius’

s“A V i l la ge Romeo a nd Ju l i e t —a work

th a t w a s spec i a l ly p rodu ced by M r . Beec h am tofu rt he r t he i n t e re s t s of “ Br i t i s h Opera—co n ta i n so n i t s very firs t page ( i n t h e

“ l i s t of c ha ra c te r s ” )suc h gro t esqu e m i s t ra n s la t io n s a s t h e se '

Ba uerin

Der a rm e H o r n i s tErs ter1Z w e i ter Sc h iffe r

Dr i t te r JOrt der H a n d l u ngSchmuckw a renfra u

Th ese t h i n gs a re n o t of grea t impor ta n c e , b u t t h eya re q u i te e n o ugh to m ake a n E n g l i s hm a n rub h i seye s a n d wo n der whe t h e r t he word Br i t i s h doe sn o t co n ta i n som e mea n i n g wi t h w h i c h he i s n o t a tp rese n t acqu a i n t ed .

Tw om a n

The po o r h o r n i s t playe rF i rs tSec o n d Ba rgeT h i r dPl a c e ofa c t ion

N i ck—n a ck v en do r-w om a n

CHAPTER IX

THE COMPOSER AND H IS PUBLIC

B E FORE c lo s i n g th i s s hor t s tudy of t h e re l a t io n s h i pbe twee n Na t io n a l i sm a nd Opera I w i sht o d raw t h eh i s to r ical t h reads

,a s i t were

,to a po i n t

,a n d to Show

how t h e ea r ly e igh tee n t h ce n t u ry co n d i t i o n s ar ea s a n ece ssary re sul t of ou r lo n g- co n t i n u ed a t t i tud eof n at io n a l ex t e r ior iza t io n—r ep rodu c ed i n E n g la n da t t h e p rese n t day . Mo re e sp ec i a l ly I wi s h to dwe l lo n t he se d e te rre n t co n d i t io n s a s t h ey affec t t h e compose r , a n d , i n o rd e r to d o t h i s , i t wi l l be co n ve n ie n tto gro u p t h e d i scu s s io n u n der fou r h ea d i n gs

,

( I ) The Pub l i c ; ( 2 ) The Composer’ s Co n d i t io n s ;

( 3) Fore ig n I n fl ue n c es ; (4 ) Ma t e r i a l Necess i t i es .W i t h i n t h e l im i t s w h i c h I h a ve se t myse lf i t i s n otpos s ib l e t o more t ha n h i n t a t t h e m a n y a s pec t sp re se n ted by t h ese fou r to p ic s . On t h e l a s t a lo n et h e m a t e r i a l n eces s i t i e s o f th e ca s e— i n vo lv i n g

,a s i t

d oe s,t h e q u e s t io n of S ta t e - a ided Opera , a vo l ume

m igh t,a n d o ugh t to

,be w r i t te n .

1 I Sh al l,howeve r ,

co n t e n t m yself wi t h po i n t i n g ou t som e of t h e fac tor sw h i c h m u s t b e ta ke n i n to co n s id era t io n w h e n o n e iss tudy i n g the q u e s t io n .

( I ) TH E PU BLIC .

No ch a n ge,h oweve r sudde n a n d s ta r t l i n g i ts m a n i

fes ta t ion,occu rs spo n ta n eou s ly i n t h e realm of a r t .

1 See Bi b l i og ra phy a t end.


h ere i n to a mode of n a t io n a l exp res s io n , a n d ,e spec i a l

,t h e m ethod s by w h i ch E n g l i s h opera t i c

a c t iv i t y - n ever h igh i n re l a t i o n t o t ha t of I ta ly ,Fra n ce

,a nd Germ a n y —wa s s tu n ted a n d twi s ted

i n to o t h er fo rm s by a fo re ig n c u l tu re i n t rodu ceda nd m ai n ta i n ed for soc i a l r ea so n s . Th a t t h i s cu l tu reha s n eve r p e n et ra ted dow n wa rd s v ery fa r i s bo t hn a t u ral a n d gra t ify i n g

,for i t i s very cer ta in t h a t ,

w h a tever fo rm th e E n gl i s h Opera m ay take i n t h efu tu re

,i t m u s t c la im i t s leg i t im acy

,n o t a s a n ex

pre ss io n of t h e a cq u i red ta s t e s of t h e a r i s toc racy ,b u t of t h e d rama t i c i n s t i n c t s of t h e p eop le . Whe no n c e w e h ave s et w i t h i n i t t h i s co re of hope w eca n r e s t a s su red of i t s h eal t h y d eve lopm e n t

,n o r n eed

w e h ave a ny a n x i e ty t h a t t h e d rama t i c ge n i u s of t h en a t ion w i l l ever find i t se lf fa ced by a n y deep a n dab id i n g l aw of n a tu re w h i c h w i l l preve n t t ha t ge n i u sexp re ss i n g i t s e lf 111 t erm s of mu s i c .Bu t

,to e n su re t h e fu tu r e po ss ib i l i t y of t h i s ex

press io n,w e n eed two co n d i t io n s a t t h e pre se n t t ime

—w h a t I m ay c a l l a good so i l a n d good ga rde n er s ;t h a t i s to say, w e n eed , 0 11 th e o n e h a n d , a suffi c i e n tn umber of peop le who a re wi l l i n g a n d rea dy to h ea ra n d pay for E n g l i s h Opera , a nd, 0 11 t h e o th e r

,a

s uffi c ie n t n umber of composer s w ho have e n oughsympa t hy wi t h t h e pub l ic to e n ab le t hem to su pp lyt h e opera s th a t a re wa n t ed .

I n t h i s co n n ect io n t h e firs t qu e s t io n wh ic h i sge n eral ly a sked i s

,

“ To w h a t s ta t e of rec ep t iv i tyha s t h e Pub l i c of t h e prese n t day been b ro ugh t ?I n o t h er wo rd s

,

“How fa r ca n t h e Compose rb

lookto t h e Pub l ic a s a mot ive pow er ? ” The ac tu a lforce s w h ic h h a ve bee n a t wo rk 011 t h e pub l i c fort h e pa s t twe n ty o r t h i r ty yea rs a re

,of cou rs e , well

know n to a l l , a n d t h ought h ey a re - in E n g la n d , a t

Ix THE COMPOSER AND H I S PUBLIC 2 39

a n y ra te—h i s tor ica l ly i n te re s t i n g , t h e i r e n umera t io nn eed n o t occu py o u r a t t e n t io n for lo n g . The resultof t h ese fo rce s i s , however , S t i l l m a t te r of—I am

afra id n o t very d i s i n t e re s t ed— co n t roversy .

I n t h e prov i n ce s , t h e n , w e h a ve a n umber o f

t ra ve l l i n g opera compa n ies,su c h a s t ho s e a s soc i a ted

wi t h t h e n ames of Ca r l Rosa a nd Moody—M a n n er s,

w h ic h from t h e i r ea r l i e s t b eg i n n i n gs have ba s ed t h e i reffor t s 011 o n e of t he two pr i n c i p le s w h ic h gover n t h ep rod u c t io n of Na t io n al Opera—perform a n c e i n t h ever n ac u la r . One fa c t alo n e ha s m a de t h i s p r i n c ip l epos s i b le

,a n d i n deed i n ev i tab le to t hem

,t h e fa c t t h a t

,

i n ou r p rov i n c i a l tow n s , t h ey h a vehad t o a ppea l , n o tto a sm al l co smopo l i ta n a r i s toc ra cy

,b u t d i rec t ly to

t h e m a s ses of t h e p eop l e . The se ope ra compa n i e shave a l so p a r t i a l ly gra sped t h e s eco n d p r i n c i p l eth e n eces s i ty for t h e produc t io n o f wo rks by E n g l i s hcomposer s . I u se t he word “ pa r t i a l ly

,beca u s e I

fee l t ha t,t hough t hey c a n Show a n ex t rem e ly ho n ou r

ab l e l i s t of su c h produ c t io n s,t h ey h ave a l so

,i n a

mea su re,n eg lec t ed to fa c e t h e a c tu a l m u s i ca l co n

di t ion s of t h e cou n t ry . The fac t t ha t w e have apopu la t io n of som e m i l l io n s a n x iou s to suppor t t hel igh t er form s of E n gl i s h Opera I S a ve ry s er ious o n e

,

a n d i t i s n o t t h e le s s so bec a u se i t i s ge n era l ly m a det h e subj ec t o f a s ingle co n t emp tu ou s se n t e n ce i nbooks of opera t i c c r i t i c i sm . As fa r a s I k n owp rac t ical ly every ope ra com pa n y dec id ed a t t h eo u t se t of i t s caree r to ig n o re

,wi t h ou t fu r t h er

t hough t,t he w e igh t of t h i s popu la r te n de n cy .

The s i tu a t io n,how eve r

,crea ted by t h i s c rav i n g

wa s a n d i s c h arged wi t h po ss ib i l i t i e s . The a ccum ula ted m a s s of tale n t a n d m a te r i a l o n ly n eededd i rec t io n

,n ot to tu r n i t ou t of i t s c ha n n e l

,b u t t o

b roade n a n d pu r ify t h a t c h a n n e l . Bu t,i n s t ea d of


bo ld ly se iz i n g t h e s i tua t io n a n d e n deavo u r ing tod eve lo p from i t a ge n u i n e

,pe rh a ps more comp l ex

a n d h igh ly o rga n ized typ e of Na t io n a l Opera,t h e

opera com pa n ie s w e re co n te n t to adop t t h e somew h a t r ig id c r i t e r ia of “Gra n d Opera a s evo lvedo n t h e Co n t i n e n t , a n d to a t temp t , n o t a lways toosu cce s sful ly

,t o impose t h es e o n t h e i r a ud i e n ce s .

Na tu ral ly t h i s h a s fo rced th em,a s fa r a s t h e l a rge

m a ss of t h e t h ea t re—go i n g pub l i c i s co n c er n ed,i n to

a po s i t io n of som e sec l u s ion w h ic h m ay be rough ly,

a nd I t h i n k n o t u n fa i r ly,e st ima ted by compa r i n g

t h e i r comb i n ed a c t iv i t ie s w i t h t hose of t he m a n ys u c ce s sful t rave l l i n g compa n i e s of “Com i c Operaa n d Mu s i ca l Comedy .

” I n add i t io n t o t h a t,i tha s

l eft t h em a r t i s t i ca l ly i n a sor t o f h igh - a n d—d ry d eta chm en t : t h ey h ave 110 Na t i o n a l Opera t o draw0 11

,110 sou rc e from w h i c h t h ey ca n co n t i n ual ly

v i ta l ize t h e i r ac t iv i t i es : t h e i r or ig i n a l p roduc t io n sa re few

,a n d t h ey run t he r i sk of s i n k i n g t o t h e

po s i t io n h e ld by Cove n t Garde n a s mere pu rveyorsof seco n d- ha n d good s , repea te rs to-day of w h a t wa ssa id 011 t h e Co n t i n e n t ye s te rday .

I n s tudy i n g t h i s qu e s t io n i t i s n o t suffic i e n t foru s to d i sm i s s o r evad e t h e p rob l em mere ly beca u set h e two form s of a c t iv i t y— a h igh ly comp lex fore ig na r t- form a nd a s imp l e , almos t p r im i t ive , home a r tfo rmea c h o the r . Nor is i t adv i sa b l e fo r u s to l ay dow n ,for ou r ow n u se , t h e d iv id i n g- l i n e be twee n t h e h ighe ra n d t h e low er type s of Opera , w h ic h ha s bee n e s tabl i shed 0 11 t h e Co n t i n e n t by a n d for Co n t i n e n ta l u se .The po s i t io n of t h a t d iv id i n g- l i n e var i e s ve ry s t r iki ngly eve n amo n g t h ose two or th ree n a t io n s w h ic hh a ve evo lved t he more comp lex form s of Opera .For us w h o a re o n ly now a t tem pt i n g to fo u n d a


( t h ough al l t h e i r w h i r l i n gs a n d tw irl ings h ave n everr esu l ted i n a n y t h i n g bu t a lowe r i n g of t h e i r ow nt em pera tu r e ) ye t t hey r epres e n t t he h igh es t a n d m os tp erfec t type of ex i s te n c e

,a n d t ha t a l l t h e wor ld ou t

s id e t h e i r l i t t l e box i s c l amou r i n g for e n t ra n ce a n dfor t h e p r iv i lege of be i n g tu r n ed i n to a pre t ty l i t t leNeapo l i ta n i ce .

Of cou rse w i t h c r i t i c s of a c e r ta i n m en ta l b i a s t h i sco ld a n d n a r row log i c soo n h a rd e n s i n to a fix edh ab i t-of-m i n d w h ic h h a s a twofo ld eff ec t . F i r s t

,

i t p reve n t s t h em from see i n g t h e exi s te n ce,ou t s ide

t h e i r ow n immed i a t e c i rc l e,of a ge n u i n e adm i ra t i on

for t h e h igh er types of m u s i c comb i n ed w i t h a nequa l ly ge n u i n e be l i ef t ha t t h es e h igh er types

,a s

evo lved abroad,ca n n o t b e m ade t h e ba s i s i n t h i s

cou n try for a n y a rt i s t i c adva n ce ; a nd s eco n d,wh e n

i t i s po i n ted o u t t o t h em t h a t,h i s to r ical ly

,t h e s e

h igh er types,w he n t ra n sp la n ted from ab road

,h ave

n ever b ee n k n ow n t o d eve lop here,t h e same h ab i t

of-m i n d preve n t s t h em from m ak i n g a n excu rs io n ofe n qu i ry i n to t h e po s s i b le ex i s te n ce of o th e r ba s e s fordeve lopme n t . I n s tead of do i n g t h i s t h ey p refer totu r n t h e i r h ead s awa y a n d l ift t h e i r eye s to t h e s ta r s

a i sewo rthy pos i t io n for a n a r t i s t , prov ided h i sfee t a re 0 11 firm grou n d .

If we tu r n n ow from th e pos i t io n i n t h e p rov i n ce sto t h a t i n Lo n do n w e see t h e same sm al l ca su a lopera—s ea so n s wh i ch

,u n t i l M r . Beec h am ’s adve n t

,

ga ve u s o u r o n ly oppor tu n i t i e s of h ear i n g Opera i nE n gl i s h . These sea so n s

,w h et h e r g ive n by o n e of

thetD

p rov i n c i a l t rave l l i n g ope ra com pa n ies,by a

p r iva t e specul a to r,o r by a sy n d i ca te

,h ave occu r red

a t 110 fixed i n te rva l s , a nd,wi t h few exc ep t io n s

,have

co n c er n ed th em se lves so le ly wi t h Fo re ig n Opera i nE n g l i s h . On t h e o t h er ha n d

,t h e s t r ik i ng ta s te of


t h e Lo n do n pub l i c for a ll form s of l igh t Opera h a sevo lved a cu r iou s ly comp l e te a ppa ra tu s for d i sp l ay i n gt h i s form of e n te r ta i n me n t . M a n a ger s a nd syndi

ca t es,re ly i n g o n t h i s tas t e

,h ave bee n ab l e t o i n ve st

w i t h p rofit l a rge s ums of mo n ey a n d to ed u ca t eLo n do n er s to a po i n t w he re t h e i r eyes a n d ea r sd em a n d someth i n g more comp le te a n d p erfec t ini ts p resenta t ion t h a n ca n be fou n d i n a n y o th e r ca p i tali n t h e wor ld . I d o n o t say

,of co u rs e , t h a t t h e

ac tual pre se n ta t io n h a s a n yt h i n g to do w i t h t h e val u eof a m u s ica l work . A l l w e ca n s ay i s t ha t i t i s afai r i n dex of t h e popu la r e s t eem i n wh i c h th e mu s i ca lwork i s h e ld . I t i s n o t

,how eve r

,so l e ly i n t h e

p re se n ta t io n of l igh t Opera t h a t Lo n do n ha s a dva n cedbeyo n d th e re s t of Eu rope

,for

,almost u n ob served

,

a n d ce rta i n ly desp i sed by mos t of o u r o rt h odoxm u s i c i a n s

,a c ha rac ter i s t ica l ly E n g l i s h schoo l of

com i c opera h as grow n up i n o u r m id s t . Thework s of t h i s sc hoo l

,u n l ike t ho s e of ou r or t h odox

mu s i c i a n s,a re by 110 mea n s e i t h er u n ob served or

desp i s ed 011 t h e Co n t i n e n t . I t i s a m a t t e r of i 11

d iffere n c e u n der w h a t t i t le w e k n ow t h i s sc h oo l ; i ti s suffic i e n t t o s ay t ha t i t exi s t s a nd ra n ges from th epo l i s h ed a nd refi n ed me lody of t h e “ Savoy Opera st h rough th e m u s ical ga i ety a nd t e n der n e s s of M r .Sid n ey Jo n es to t h e m e l low c h a rm a nd h umou r ofS i r Char l e s S ta n ford ’ s Sham u s O ’

Brien .

” Fu r t he rmore

,i t alwa ys ha s ex i s ted (u n der o n e n ame o r

a n o t h er ) from t h e ea r l i es t d ays of Opera t i l l n ow,

a n d we mu s t b e co n te n t to pu t u p w i thgthe h a rdt h i n gs 1 t ha t a r e sa id abo u t i t i n i t s p res e n t s tage

,

1 Dr . Wa l ker ( i n h i s H i story of flfns i c in Eng la nd) c ha ra c ter i z esm u s i ca l comedy a s h a v i ng “ en t h ro ned on a ve ry so l i d ca s h ba s i si dea l s of ve rba l a nd m u s i ca l vu l ga r i ty .

” La te r o n he spea k s ofSu l l i va n a s h a v i ng no “ s tea d i nes s of a r t i s t i c pu rpose

MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH A P .

S imp ly becau se i t ha s popu lar ap prec i a t io n beh i n d i t,

a n d i s t her efore a po ss ib l e bas i s for d eve lopme n ta n d improveme n t .Th e real ly v i ta l po i n t i n t h e s i tua t io n t hu s c rea ted

i s t h a t 0 11 two or t h ree o cca s io n s t im id a t temp t sh a ve ac tu al ly bee n m ad e t o d eve lop from t h i s popu la rform of Opera a h ighe r a n d m ore comp l ex type .

No n e of t h e s e a t temp t s ha s b ee n fu l ly s u c ce s sful,

bu t I n eed n o t po i n t ou t t ha t t h i s doe s n o t affe c tt he i r i n tere s t . I t i s to S i r Arthu r Su l l iva n

,w ho se

ea r ly opera , “ The Sa pp h i re Neck lac e,

wa s n eve rp rodu c ed ow i n g to t he u n su i tab i l i ty of i t s “ book

,

”

t h a t w e h ave t o look for t h e firs t l e a n i n gs towa rd st h i s n ew deve lopme n t . I n “ Haddo n Hal l ” a n d“ Th e Bea u ty S to n e ” w e find i n dub i ta b l e ev ide n c eof a de s i r e to e n la rge th e scope of h i s o u tloo k a n dto i n form h i s m u s i ca l i dea s wi t h a grea t e r s ha re ofpoe t ry . B u t i t wa s n o t t i l l t h e prod u c t io n of

I va n ho e ” 1 t h a t w e find h im q u i te co n sc iou s lye n d ea vou r i n g to beg i n t ha t work of deve lopme n tw h i c h h e fe l t wa s t h e o n ly so l u t io n of o u r n a t io n a lopera t i c p rob lem . There i s a cer ta i n pa t hos i n t h erefl ec t i o n t ha t t h e m a n w ho h ad so m u c h refi n edt h e a rt of com i c opera , a n d i n do i n g so h ade n dea red h imse lf to h i s w h o l e ge n era t io n

, wa s for

b idde n by t he v ery qu a l i t i e s ofhi s s ucce s s t o movewi t h fr e edom ou t s id e t ho s e l im i t s . “ I va n hoe ” d idn o t su c c eed . I t i s

,i n deed

,n ot h i n g b u t a co n fu s ed

su cce s s io n of eve n t s t o w h i c h t h e com po ser ’ s s t ro n gse n se of t h e t h ea t re cou ld n o t g ive eve n t he appea ra n ceof u n i ty . The c lo s i n g of t h e E n g l i s h Opera Hou se

w i t hou t t h a t,a com pose r

,wh a teve r h i s tec h n i ca l a b i l i t y m ay be ,

i s ea s i l y l i a b l e t o degenera t e i n t o a m e re popu l a r i ty—hu n t i n gt r i fl e r .

1 Wr i t te n a t the s ugges t i o n of Q ueen V i c t o r i a .


come to b e assoc i at ed w i t h t h e words “ SavoyOpe ra

,t h e I ta l i a n g ives u s a sm a l ler fab r ic

,appa

rently n ea r e r i n ac tu a l scale to th e o ld Savoy pa t te r n ,b u t r eal ly fa r t h e r r emoved from i t by rea so n of awa rm t h of t i n t a n d a s t ra n ge n es s of des ig n w h ic hw er e comp l e te ly u n fam i l i ar to hi s aud ie n ce . U n dert h e c i rc umsta n ces t h i s wa s i n ev i tab le

,a n d i t wa s

equal ly i n ev i ta b le t h a t n e i t h er M r . Leo n i ’ s c ha rm i n gme la n c h o ly n or h i s exqu i s i t e p re t t i n es s of o rches t rat io n cou ld so fa r preva i l w i t h hi s aud ie n c e s a s tom a ke t hem forge t t h e t h i n gs wh ic h h ad bee n .H er e w e com e ba c k to t h e o ld d eep—roo ted

obj ec t io n w h ic h w e h ave stud ied i n t h e e igh tee n t hce n tu ry

,t h e n a tu ra l obj ec t io n of th e E n g l i s hm a n ,

n o t t o a good t h i n g,bu t to a good t h i n g i n wh i ch

h e ha s n o pa r t . A n d i t i s 0 11 t h i s very po i n t t h a to n eha s t h e grea t e s t h ope of E n g l i s h t h ea t r i ca l a ud iences . As co n cer t-goers

,i t i s t ru e

,t hey h ave l i t t le

exper i e n c e,a n d w i l l app l a ud bot h good a n d bad

a l i ke fu r iou s ly a n d w h o le -h ea r ted ly .

1 Th ey wi l l,

i n deed , h ea r ou t , wi t h a re s ig n ed a n d pa t i e n t i i1a t t e n t io n

,a ny lo n g , d u l l wor k w h i c h h a s bee n

r ecomme n d ed to t h em a s good,a n d

,a t th e e n d

of t h e i r g lum s i t t i n g , w i l l b r igh te n up a n d offe rt h e i r app la u s e a s a n ervou s apo logy for t h e i r l ac k of

i n te re s t . B u t a s soo n a s t h ey e n te r t h e t h ea t r e a l lt h i s a t t i tude of humb l e -m i n ded se lf- sa crifice va n i s h es ,a n d i t s p la ce i s ta ke n by a sor t of h ered i ta ry se lfas su ra n c e . Eac h m a n h a s pu t d ow n hi s mo n eya n d k n ow s w h a t h e wa n t s . H e m ay n o t ge t i t , bu ti n t h a t ca s e 110 amou n t of super ior adv ice wi l l pers uade h im tha t h eha s .

1 Pe r h a ps e x pl a i ned by the fa c t t h a t to the ma s ses c o ncer t-go i n g ,a nd e sp ec i a l l y fore i g n con ce r t -go i ng , i s a m u ch more moderni n s t i t u t i o n t h a n the pl a y .

Ix THE COMPOSER AND H I S PUBLIC 2 4 7

Our c o n cer t aud i e n ce s a re p er h a ps be i n g ed uca tedi n to a s ta te of grea t e r a r t i s t ic d i sc r im i n a t io n , bu t t h i sedu ca t io n ca n n o t p roceed very qu ick ly

,becau s e i t i s

o n ly a n infin i tes im a lly sm al l propor t io n of o u r w ho l epop ul a t io n t ha t a t te n d s co n cer t s . On t h e o t h e rh a n d

,t h ea t r i ca l perform a n ce s h ave bee n popu la r eve r

s i n ce su c h th i n gs came i n to ex i s te n c e,a n d conse

que n t ly th ea tr ica l aud i e n ce s h ave by n ow a cqu i red avery c lea r idea a s to w h a t t h ey wa n t a n d w ha t t h eydo n o t wa n t . I t i s j u s t t h i s fac t t ha t le n d s so

p iqu a n t a n i n t ere s t t o t h e s i tua t io n w h e n a com po sero r a n impresa r io p i t s h i s b ra i n s aga i n s t t h os e of t h epub l i c o n t h e produ c t io n of a n ew work

,for t h ough

i t i s co n s ta n t ly a sse r ted t h a t a ud i e n c es n eed to beed u ca ted u p to a c er ta i n l eve l of r ec ep t iv i ty b efor eth ey wi l l app la u d ( a nd pay for) a n opera w h i c h a nimpresa r i o des i re s t h em to a pp l a ud ( a n d pay for) , i tm u s t b e r emembered t h a t i n n i n e ty n i n e ca se s o u tof a h u n d red th i s ed uca t io n 1s r eal ly n o t a proc ess ofe-duca t ion a t al l— t h a t i s t o s ay, a d raw i n g-o u t ofw h a t is good a n d wort hy i n t hem —bu t a proce s sof a d-duca t ion—t h a t 13 to sa y, a lead i n g u p to t h emof n ew a n d s t ra n ge co n cep t io n s b y w h ic h t h ey arer equ i red to readj u s t t h e i r p rev i ou s a r t i s t i c idea l s .B u t t h e se idea l s

,h ow eve r ea s i ly c r i t ic ized 111 t h e l igh t

of fore ig n ac h i eveme n t s,a r e t h e r e su l t of a lo n g

cou rs e of ge n u i n e ar t i s t ic se lf- ed uca t io n,a n d i t i s

fo u n d t ha t m prac t ice t h e E n g l i sh p eop le a re verys low to aba n do n a n y me n t a l po s i t io n w h i c h t h eyh ave ga i n ed t h e more so beca u s e i t seem s t h e s u re rto t h em from t h e d iffi cu l ty w h ic h t hey h a ve experi

enced i n rea c h i n g i t .The re su l t Of this co n t i n u a l s t ruggl e i s t h e ex i s te n c e

of a prob lem wh ic h I S co n t i n u a l ly refe r red to a n d d i scu s sed 1n ou r j ou r n a l s

,a n d w h ic h ge n eral ly takes th e


form of a ques t io n a s to w h e th e r suffic ie n t “ spadewo rk ha s yet bee n do n e to g ive ou r impresa r io sa n d compo ser s a prope r fie ld i n wh i c h to exe rc i s et he i r tale n t s a s m u s i cal ga rd e n e rs . Bu t though i twou ld seem to b e t h e prov i n ce of a good ga rd enerfirs t to a sce r ta i n t h e n a tu re of t h e so i l a n d t h e n top l a n t t h er e i n som e s u c h n a t ive roo t a s m ay n a tu ral lyh a ve a cha n ce of l ife ra the r th a n to se lec t a fore ignp l a n t a n d to s t i ck i t

,a n i n c h o r so deep , i n a n y pa t c h

t h a t ha ppe n s to Show a l i t t le top-d res s i n g,yet t h i s

p l a n ha s n eve r bee n grea t ly i n favo u r w i t h o u rope ra t i c ga rd e n e rs .H e n c e t h e que s t io n of Spad e—work b ecome s an ever fa i l i n g subj ec t for t h e i r d i s c u s s io n s

,a n d o n e

m igh t suppose t h a t,wi t h a l l t h i s bu r n i n g i n te re s t i n

t h e top i c,t hey w01i ld by n ow h ave a r r ived a t very

defi n i t e co n c l u s io n s,a t a n y ra te a s to t h e exac t

amo u n t of “ spad e—work a l ready do n e a n d t h eamo u n t s t i l l “to do . B u t t h i s i s fa r from be i n g t h ecas e

,for t h e m a n w h o wi s h e s ( for rea so n s of h i s

ow n ) to go 0 11 perform i n g “ M a ri ta na” a n d “The

Bohem i a n G i r l co n s ider s t h a t p ra c t i ca l ly 110 spad ewo rk ” ha s bee n do n e a t a ll , a n d t ha t i t i s e sse n t i a lt h a t t h e s e two opera s s h ould

,a s i t w ere

,be u sed for

a grea t m a n y yea rs to b re a k t h e grou n d . On t h eo t he r h a n d

,t h e e n t h u s i a s t w h o wi s he s to e nj oy su ch

h umb l e d e l igh ts a s “ Sa lome a n d E lek t ra affordco n s ide rs t ha t 110 spade—work a t a ll is l eft to do ,a nd t ha t i t i s o n ly n eces sa ry to sp read a good t h i c kl ayer of adver t i s eme n t 0 11 t h e h ea vy E n g l i s h so i l topro cu re a sa t i sfa c to ry a r t i s t i c c ro p .

Eve n t ho se me n w hose bu s i n es s i t i s to st a n d a s idea n d gauge wi t h a ccu ra cy t h e co n t e n d i n g force s of o u rco n tem pora ry m u s i ca l l ife seem to b e puzz led a tt imes by t h i s ques t io n . I wi l l co n t e n t my se lf wi t h


proces s sh ou ld,a s i t i s h op ed i t w i l l

,be

ex te n ded o v e r more t h a n o n e sea so n beforeth e pup i l

,wi l l i n g a s h e u n do ubt ed ly i s , ca n

be co n s id er ed a s fit fo r exam i n a t io n i n h i sread i n es s t o ta ke i n tel l ige n t a n d co n t i n uo u si n t er es t i n m u s i c dram a .

”

Yet i n t h e same j ou r n a l,S i x mo n t h s l a t e r

,

1 we readt h e fo l low i n g c r i t ic i sm of t h e Opera- Com iqu es ea so n w h ic h M r . Beechamhad j u s t a n n ou n cedTher e is 110 reaso n w hy t h e Br i t i s h temperame n t

,

w h ic hha s al ready s h ow n t h e read ie s t a pprec iat io n of t h e form of M us i cal expr ess io n k n ow na s Gra n d Opera

,a fte r du e s tu dy should n o t

ta ke rea d i ly to i t ( i .e . to Opera—Com ique) .The pre se n t d egree of a pprec i a t io n of gra n dopera

,howeve r

,ha s bee n o n ly a r r ived a t

aft e r a lo n g cou r s e of edu ca t io n,i n wh ic h t h e

r eprese n ta t io n s i n E n g l i s h h ave ta ke n a n

a c t ive pa r t . The hea r ing of gra n d opera i nE n g l i s h ha s do n e m u c h to fo s ter a ge n u i n elove for t h e form wh i c h o t h erwi se wo u ld havebee n of m uc h S lower grow t h .

I do n o t q uo t e t h ese two ex t ra c t s for a n y o th errea so n t h a n t o Show t h a t

,u n d er ou r pre se n t sy s t em

o f l ea v i n g t h e grea t m aj o r i ty of t h e peop l e ou t of

a ccou n t,t h ere 15 a ge n u i n e doub t i n th e m i n ds of

eve n ou r be s t i n fo rm ed observe rs a s to t h e ex t e n t tow h i c h a n impresa r io ca n r e ly 0 11 h i s pub l ic for i t is ,of cou rse , q u i te impos s ib le th a t M r . Beec ham

’ s s hor tspr i n g sea so n ofOper a (w h ic h h ad i n te rv e n ed b e twee nt h e w r i t i n g of t h es e two cr i t ic i sm s) co u ld h aveeffec t ed t h i s s ta r t l i n g c h a n ge .

1 May a nd, 19 10 .

1x THE COMPOSER AND H I S PUBLIC 2 51

A S a m a t te r offac t,M r . Beec ham ’ s vagu e q u e s t io n a s

to w he th er t here does,o r does n o t

,exi s t i n E n g la n d a

pub l i c rea dy to t a ke i n t e l l ige n t a n d co n t i n uo u s i n t er es ti n mu s i c -dram a p er se if i thad t h e Ch a n ce i s u n real .I t al so imp l ie s a spec ies of fa l l a cy

,b ecau s e i t p re

supposes,firs t , a detac hme n t of a rt from th e a r t

p rod u cer,a n d

,s eco n d

,a n o n - ex i s te n t a rtific ia l ity of

soc i a l co n d i t io n . On t h e fir s t of t h e se po i n t s I n eedsay l i t t le , a s i t obv io u s ly degrade s a r t t o t h e l eve l ofa toy

,a n d 110 a rgume n t ba sed o n i t i s wor t h a

mome n t ’s co n s idera t io n . The seco n d i s equal lyig n ob l e a n d equal ly fa ta l to t h e c l a ims of t rue a rt

,

for i t a s sumes th a t a grea t m as s of v igorou s a nd

i n t e l l ige n t peop l e ca n ex i s t so to ta l ly devo id of persona l i ty t h a t t h e m er e ex h ib i t io n to t h em of t h ea r t i s t ic exp re s s io n of a l ie n pe rso n a l i t i e s wi l l sa t i sfyt h e i r id eal s . If th i s w e r e s o

,ou r opera t i c h i s to ry

would , of cou r se,b e very d i ffer e n t from wh a t i t

ac tual ly i s . We S hould lo n g ago have pu t t h en a t io n a l m i n d to wha t would h a ve bee n i t s p rope ru se , t ha t of a spo n ge to so a k u p t h e i n t e l lec t u a l a n demot io n a l ac h ieveme n t s of I ta ly

,a nd to produc e ( by

some myst er iou s a lch emy u n k n ow n to n a t u re) new

deve lopme n t s ofour ow n . I t i s n o t so ,how ever ; a nd

t h e h i s to ry of ou r lo n g opera t i c s t ruggle s how s t h a ti t i s n o t so . I n deed

,i n a ny o th er wa lk of a rt bu t i n

t ha t of Opera t h i s z a n y- log ic wo u ld n o t be t o lera t edfor a m i n u te . Wh a t w e h ave i n E n g l a n d i s n o t aco here n t

,ar t i s t i cal ly u n i ted n a t io n

,bu t a n a t io n sp l i t

u p , as fa r a s m u s i c goe s , i n to m u tual ly opposed pa r t i e s .In I taly

,Fra n ce

,a n d Germ a n y we h ave prec i s e ly

oppo s i te co n d i t io n s : i n each ca se a n a t io n h omo

geneous a n d a r t i s t ical ly u n i ted . Spea k i n g b road ly ,w e m ay say wi t h t r u t h t ha t t h e eEect of a ny m u s icalwork , n a t ive o r fore ig n , o n t h e n at io n a l co n sc iou s n es s


i s m u c h th e same w i t h i n a n y o n e of t h e se cou n tr ies,

t h ough na tu ra l ly i t d i ffe r s grea t ly a s be twee n o n ecou n t ry a nd a n o th e r . I n E n g l a n d

,011 t h e o t he r ha n d

,

w e a re p syc holog ical ly i n m u c h t h e same po s i t io n a swe w er e whe n I tal i a n Ope ra fir s t came to ou r s h o re stwo h u n dred yea r s a go . Art i s t i cal ly w e m ay be al i t t le more adva n ced

,bu t w e m u s t b e carefu l t o n o te

t ha t t h e t h ree fa c t io n s w h ic h ex i s t ed i n t h e ear lye igh tee n t h c e n t u ry— t h e a r i s toc ra t ic pa tro n s of pu re lyfore ig n Opera

,t h e sem i de n a t io n a l ized profess io n a l

m u s i c i a n s who a t tem p ted to cu l t iva te E n g l i s h Operaby a m ech a n i ca l repe t i t io n of for e ig n form u lae

,a n d

t h e a dh ere n t s of popu la r e n t e r ta i n me n t—a re S t i l lw i t h u s i n t h e twe n t ie th . I t ca n n o t b e sa id t h a t t h ea r i s toc ra t i c pa tro n age of fo re ig n Opera h a s a l te red i nc h a rac t e r o r me t hod o n e j o t i n t ho s e two h u n dredyea r s

,n o r ca n w e w e l l s ay t h a t Wag n er i s im i tat ed

a ny be t t e r to—day t h a n M e n de l sso h n was ye s te rd a ya n d Ha n de l la s t week . A n y l iv i n g c ha n ge

,t h e n

,wi l l

h a ve to b e looked fo r i n a comp a r i so n betwee n t h ep u re ly n a t ive a c t iv i t ie s i n th e S imp le form s of Operat h e n a n d n ow . To sum th e m a t te r u p , t h e readerwi l l see t h a t t h e w ho le qu es t io n o f “ p ub l i c r ecept iv i ty i s i l l u sory

,a n d i t s d i sc u s s io n

,t h erefor e

,n ever

e n d i n g . I t i s,i n s ho r t

,a r ed - herr i n g d raw n ac ro s s

t h e t ra ck of t h e importa n t qu e s t io n , “ O11 w ha t ca nw e fo u n d a Na t io n a l Sc h oo l of Opera a n d to t h a tq u e s t io n ou r p re se n t lowly a nd u n deve loped s ta ten eed n o t p reve n t u s g iv i n g the o n ly a n swe r p oss ib le ,On s im i l a r fou n da t io n s to th os e wh i ch s erved I ta ly ,Fra n c e

,a nd Germ a n y— t h e n a t io n a l t em pe rame n t

a nd t he n a t io n a l co n v ic t io n s .


t i n y p i n n ac le of l ive roc k whose o n ly c e r ta i n ty i s t h a twh e n i t h a s fal l e n someo n e m ay p ick i t u p from t h esea -s h ore w h ere i t i s ly i n g a n d p l ac e i t

,u n labe l led

,

i n t h e du s t o f a geo log i ca l m u s eum .

Let u s e n d eavou r to ca t c h a g la n c e of h im a t h i swo rk . Th e wo rd “ work

,

” u n for tu n a te ly, ha s a

co n n o ta t io n fo r h im very d iff e re n t from t h a t w h ic h i tha s for t h e l i t t era teu r , t h e pa i n te r , o r t h e co n cer tcom po ser . We o n ly n eed to look a t t h e h ugea n n u a l vo l ume of p ub l i sh ers ’ l i s ts a n d t h e ca ta logu e sof ou r p i c tu re exh ib i t io n s to see t h a t 110 l i t t era teu r o rpai n te r n eed o ccu py more t h a n a sma l l pa r t of h i st ime i n t h e a c tua l p l ac i n g of h i s wor k . I n ea c hof t h e s e ca s es t h e ge n era l p ub l ic dem a n d for n ewwo rk of al l c l a s s e s i s l a rge , a nd i t m ay fa i r ly b e sa idtha t eve ry m a n wh o i s p rod u c i n g good so u n d wo rkca n find a n o u t le t for i t wi t h o u t exc es s ive d iffi cu l tyTh e co n cer t composer i s , i n d eed , i n n o t so good apos i t io n t h e new book s a n d p i c tu res p l aced befo ret h e pu b l i c eac h yea r n umber ma n y t h ou sa n d s

,w h i l e

t h e n umber of n ew wo rks perfo rmed a t o rc h es t rala n d ch amber co n cer t s i n t h i s co u n t ry i s c ompara t ive lysm al l . S t i l l

,eve n h e re t h er e a r e , a nd h ave bee n for

m a n y yea r s,recog n ized ce n t re s— su c h a s t h o se a t t he

C r ys ta l Pa l a c e u n d er t h e l a t e S i r Augu s tu s Ma n n s,

t h e co n ce r t s o f t h e Ph i lh arm o n i c Soc i e ty,t h e fes t i

val s,a n d t h e pe rfo rm a n ces a t Q u ee n

’ s Hal l u n derS i r H e n ry J . Wood—wh ere E n g l i s h com poser s haveco n t i n ua l ly rec e ived

,a n d s t i l l r ece ive

,t h e be n efit of

a ca r eful a nd a r t i s t i c prese n ta t io n o f t h e i r works .Bu t fo r t h e s e r i ou s Ope ra t ic com po se r

,u n le s s h e

be a m i l l io n a i r e o r t h e fr i e n d o f a m i l l io n a i re,t h e

o u t look i s qu i t e d i ffere n t . Whe n h e e n te r s t h em a rk et h e fi n d s i t fil l ed wi t h fore ig n wa r es w h i c h ace r ta i n por t io n of t h e pub l ic wi s h es to b uy . Ow i n g


to t h i s fac t,a nd to t h e d i sp ropo rt io n betwee n t h e

expe n s e of t h ea t r ica l prod u c t i o n a nd t h e n umber ofpe rso n s w i l l i n g to suppor t t h i s spec i a l form—Ope ra ,—i t i s n ot more t h a n o n c e i n s eve ra l year s t h a t a n ywork of h i s ha s a c h a n c e of performa n c e . Th eco n seq u e n ce of t h i s i s

,a s o n e ca n see by read i n g

a lmost a n y opera t i c b iography,t h a t h i s t ime i s o n ly

occu p ied very s l igh t ly i n a c tu a l ly w r i t i n g m u s i c t h ere s t of i t i s spe n t i n a co n t i n ua l a n d hea r t—break i n gsea rc h for a ma rk e t m a s ea rc h w h ich n ece s s i ta te s fori t s su c ces s t h e cu l t iva t io n of every q ua l i t y of cu n n i n ga n d i n t r igue mos t l ike ly to b reak h i s s e lf—re spec t a n ddam th e fl ow ofhis a rt i s t i c l ife .These co n d i t io n s

,wh i ch a re n o t fam i l i ar to th e

p ub l i c m i n d,m a y be m ad e p la i n er by a para l le l . To

p u t t h e E n g l i s h pa i n t e r i n t h e same pos i t io n a s t h eE n gl i s h opera t ic com p ose r w e s hou ld h a ve to im ag i n et ha t h i s o n ly poss ib l e oppor tu n i ty occu r s

,say,o n ce a

year,w h e n a few ex t ra feet of wa l l- spa c e a re re served

a t a p ub l i c gal le ry for t h e po s s i b le exh i b i t io n o f as i n g le moder n E n g l i s h p ic tu re . Th i s ex tra wal lspace ha s t o b e fo ugh t for by every pa i n t e r i n t h ec ou n t ry

,a n d i t s ex t ra r e n t

,w e m u s t im ag i n e

,ha s to

b e paid by t h e p ropr i e tor s of t h e ga l le ry . They,of

c ou r s e,a re qu i t e i n d i ffere n t w h e the r t h ey h a n g a n

E n gl i s h o r a C h i n e se pa i n t i n g,so lo n g a s t hey ca n

take t h e ga te mo n ey,a nd

,a s t h ey k n ow by exper i e n ce

t ha t t h ey ca n a lways re ly 0 11 a cer ta i n s ec t i o n of th ep ub l i c t o suppor t a dead Ch i n am a n i n s tead of a l i veE n gl i shm a n

,t h ey Show a good d ea l of re l u c ta n ce to

h a n g th e E n g l i s h p i c tu re . Th i s 15 no t u n n a tu ra l fromt he i r s t r i c tly commerc i a l po i n t of v i ew . B u t wor sei s t o come

,for i t i s fou n d n ec e ss a ry th a t a p a i n te r

,

i n o rder to pa i n t a p ic tu re,mu s t be a li v e a t t h e t ime

,

a n d t h i s m a kes i t n ece s sa ry ( i n most , t h ough n o t a ll


i n s ta n c e s ) t h a t t h ey s hould p a y h im a fee for t h et em pora ry exh ib i t io n of h i s p i c tu re . Th i s fee t h eyvery n a tu ra l ly grudge w h e n t hey k n ow t h a t t he i ra t t i c i s fil l ed wi t h a d u s ty a r ra y of o ld (a nd d ead)m a s t e rs w ho a t a ny ra t e h ave , i n M r . Beec ham

’ s wo rd s,

a “ g lo r iou s a n d c la s s i c ” i n ab i l i t y to ex t rac t fees .F i n a l ly w e m u s t im ag i n e th a t

,w h e n eve r t h e p ub l i c i s

a dm i t ted t o s ee t h i s p i c tu re,a n a rmy of j ealo u s

m i n ded a r t i s t s h a s to be e n gaged a t grea t exp e n se, of

w h om a few i n offe n s ive sou l s a re em p loyed to g ivet h e wal l a su i tab le coa t of pa i n t

,o t h er s to see t ha t t h e

p i c tu re h a n gs fa i r a n d sq uare 0 11 i t s n a i l,b u t t h e va s t

m aj o r i t y to pa i n t o u t a s m u c h of t h e p i c t u re a s

pos s ib l e a n d to repa i n t i t to su i t t h e i r ow n com p lexio n s . Shou ld w e wo n d er if

,i n th e s e c i rc umsta n ce s

,

ou r cou n t ry fa i led to prod u ce a sc hoo l of pa i n te r s ?Sho u ld w e n o t ra t her h ave ca u s e to m a rve l if sheeve r p rogre ssed beyo n d t h e s tage of c h alk a n dpav i n g- s to n e sYe t t h ese a r e p rec i se ly a n d wi t h ou t exaggera t io n

t h e p r im a ry d iffi c u l t i e s t h a t s u r ro u n d t h e com pose rw ho i s s t rugg l i n g t o eXp 1eS S him self in t h i s form of

m u s ic . The pa i n t er i s Ofte n happy i n fi n d i n gamo n g th e ow n er s of grea t

,a n d eve n sm al l

,hou s e s

a t rad i t io n t h a t t h ey s h ou ld have a few moder np i c tu re s 0 11 t he i r wa l l s . These t h ey ca n tou c h a n dh a n d l e if t h ey wi s h to a ssu re t h em se lves t ha t t h eya re s t i l l i n t h e i r frames : t hey ca n a l so (afte r o n epre l im i n a ry paym e n t ) look a t t h em w h e n eve r t h ey sode s i re wi t ho u t a ny c h a rge : fu r t h e rmore , t hey ca nrefl ec t t h a t

,i n commo n w i t h t h e se t t ee s a n d over

m a n t e l s,t h e p i c tu re s a re always su re of a c er ta i n

w e lcom e a t t h e a u c t io n ee r ’ s . Bu t a n opera t ic scorei s a mu ch more impa lpa b le t h i n g . I t ca n n o t b e h u n gu po n a wal l , o r e nj oyed wi t hou t expe n se , o r eve n p u t

2 58 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM c a n :

of al t erca t io n w i th t h e per so n who s ho u ld b e h i sbes t fr ie n d .

A fa i l u re ! ” w e m ay im ag i n e h im say i n g to t h ep ub l i c . “ I t i s no t I t h a t am t h e fa i l u re . I ti s yo u I

I I says t h e a s to n i sh ed pub l i c . Why,wh a t do

yo u mea n I do n ’ t w r i te ope ra s .No

,b u t yo u l i s t e n to t h em ; a nd i t ’ s yo u rl i s te n i n g or n o t l i s te n i n g th a t m ake s m eposs ib le or impos s i b le . I ’m t ry i n g to do myj ob h o n es t ly . Why do n ’ t yo u do yours

We l l,so I d o ; bu t , you k n ow ,

th ere ’ s a l im 1t,

my fr ie n d ; a nd a ft er a ll you r,s hal l I s ay,

n o n—su cce s se sExcu s e m e I sa ys t h e Com po ser

,Your n o n

su cc e sse s,n ot m i n e . Why

,yo u ar e a s bad

over yo u r Mu s ic a s a Fre n chm a n i s over h i sj ockey s . H e does g ive h i s Composer s ac h a n c e

,b u t a s soo n a s h e see s a Fre n c hma n

i n t h e sa dd le , h e says ‘ Oh,he ca n ’ t r id e ‘

H e’

s n o tWe l l

,b u t p er h a p s h e ca n ’

t r id e .

V e ry prob a b l e ! Th i n k o f t h e Fr e n c h cavalry 'No

,i t wo n ’ t d o . I t ’ s s imp ly a fad a n d a

fa sh io n . The E n g l i sh j oc key IS i n po s ses s io nt her e a nd t h e Fore ig n M u s i c i a n i s i n posse ss io n h ere

,a nd you

’r e fa r too l azy a n d s tup idto l ift a fi n ger .

Ma n y t h a n ks , my fr ie n d , bu t I wi s h t o a sk youa qu es t io n —PV/zy i s t h e E n g l i s h j ockey inpos se ss io n a b ro a d a nd t h e Fo re ig n Mu s i c ia ni n po sse s s io n h e re ? ”

The rea so n i s s imp l e,a n d ho ld s good i n bot h

ca s e s . I n your ca se i t i s becau se , w h i le I havebee n do i n g my par t (very w e l l a t t imes a s you

THE COMPOSER AND H I S PUBLIC 2 59

k n ow) , yo u’ve bee n su lk i n g i n t h e cor n er

wi t h you r pocket s b u t t o n ed up t igh t . Howd o you th i n k I ’m go i n g to ea t a n d dr i n k a n ds leep a nd w r i t e Mu s i c if yo u n eve r g ive m e athough t o r a pe n n y—p i ec e ? You m a ke a

grea t s h ow wi t h you r h or se s a n d j ockeys ,you r fa t ca ttle

,you r p r ize sheep a nd you r

o t h er h ou se ho ld pa ra phe r n a l i a ; bu t w h a tabou t a ll t h e ca re a n d pa t i e n ce a n d t ime a nd

mo n ey th a t yo u h a ve spe n t 0 11 t h em ?”

on

m a de t h em,a nd t h ey ex i s t b ecau s e you w i s h

t h em to exi s t . ”

We l l,a n d why n o t

Ce rta i n ly ! Why n o t . The Fore ig n er says t h esame t h i n g a bou t lz i s h o u s eho ld good s . Bu th e sa ys i t a l so abou t h i s M u s i c . A n d

,w he n

h e says i t,h e a c t s u p to i t . You wo n ’ t

,of

cou rse . Yet you’ve go t e n ough se n s e to

k n ow t h a t if yo u do n ’ t pu t t ime a nd mo n eyi n to you r ca t t le-br eed i n g a nd hor s e—rea r i n gi n d u s t r ie s you ’ l l h ave n e i t h e r ca t t l e n or h or se sby a nd by

,bu t yo u a re fa r too d e n s e to see

tha t wh a t a pp l i e s to t h em a pp l ie s j u s t a s

p la i n ly t o Mu s i c . Do you t h i n k yo u cou ldru n a n y o f you r o t h er Na t io n a l affa i r s wi t ht h i s Sh a bby i n d iffer e n c e ? Of cou r se you

do n ’ t ! A n d I k n ow,by t h e look o n you r

fac e , t h a t yo u a re go i n g to s ay t h a t M u s i c Is

n o t a Na t io n a l a ffa i ra

a t a ll . We l l,w ho se

fau l t i s th a t ? ”

I do n ’ t k n ow,bu t a t a ny ra te n o t m i n e , sa ys

th e exa spera ted Pub l i c . “ I d o my bes t t oe n cou rage the so r t of t h i n g I l ike i n my ow nhou se . I t i s n ’ t p erfec t by a ny mea n s , I k n ow ,b u t I ’m wi l l i n g to lea r n

,a nd you o ugh t to b e


t eac h i n g me . On ly you wo n’ t . Tha t ’ s where

t h e t roub le i s . A n d look h ere,my lad ! I

see o n e th i n g p re t ty c lea r i n t h i s d i scu s s io n ofou r s

,a n d t ha t i s t h a t I m ea n to b e m as te r i n

my ow n ho u se . Yo u ca n com e t h ere wh e never you l i ke a nd a s oft e n a s you l ike

,a nd

very we lcome you’ l l be

,o n ly leave you r

fo re ig n a i rs ou t s ide,for I do n ’ t l ike ’ em a n y

more t h a n I l ike t h e fo re ig n ca t t le a n d t h efo re ig n h ors es a nd t h e fore ig n sh eep .

”

(3) FORE IG N I NF LU ENC E S .

A n d so w e com e ro u n d to t h e o ld dead lock t h ep ub l i c

,w h ic h i s r i c h a nd v igorou s a nd s tro n g ly

n a t i o n a l,a sk s fo r o n e t h i n g

,a nd t he compose r

,w h o

i s poo r a n d we a k a n d s l igh t ly co smopo l i ta n,offer s i t

a n o th e r . A n d th e r esu l t i s a lwa ys d i sa s t ro u s fo r t h ecompose r . Ofte n by some c h a n ce i n fl ue n ce of mo n eyor fr ie n d s

,o r by a comb i n a t io n of bo t h

,he s ta ves off

t h e d i sa s ter for a t ime . H e m ay perh ap s,by co n

s ta n t a n d l a bo r iou s im i ta t io n of som e o n e fore ig nmode l

,n a rrow h i s c i rc le to t h e l im i t s of a few

t hough tfu l sou l s w h ose ca refu l breed i n g h a s el im ina ted from the i r n a tu re s a ll d e l igh t i n m a n ’ swo rk sa ve o n ly i n o n e m a n ’ s—a n d t h e se c i rc le su n h a pp i ly s t i l l ex i s t i n E n gl a n d— b u t i n t h e e n d

,be

h e c l umsy worke r,c l ever

,s e r iou s-m i n ded a r t i s t

,eve n

a ge n i u s,h e i s bea te n

,a n d bea te n n ot i n fo re ig n

ba t t l e n o r i n down r igh t c iv i l wa r , bu t by h i s ow npeop le i n s ec re t a n d m u rd erou s l eagu e wi t h t h e i row n e n em i e s .How lo n g wi l l i t b e befo re w e rea l ize th e fa c t t h a t

w h e re t h e f ore ig n mu s i c i a n i s t h e re is t h e e n emy ?H e m ay come to t h i s i s la n d i n Sh oa l s , bu t h e comes


for Germ a n y - ~ t o se ize th e h ighes t a ch i eveme n t s a n dideal s of a s tra n ge ra ce

,to p a s s t h em

,a s i t w ere

,

th rough t he fire of h i s ow n s p i r i t,a nd t he n

,w h e n

t h ey h ad bee n pu rged of a ll s t ra n ge n e s s,t o b r ing

t h em fort h aga i n i n h i s ow n glor iou s u t te ra n ce a s ahom age a nd a g lo ry to h i s ow n co u n t ry .

Nor w a s t h er e eve r a ny h o n es t u se o r h ope i n t h eE n g l i s hm a n ’ s proce s s of im i ta t io n

,for h i s su c c e sso r

n ever a t tem pted to b u i ld u p 011 h i s p redeces sor ’ sw or k i n t h e n ob l e way t h a t Bee t hove n b u i l t upo nM oza r t o r Wa g n er u po n Weber . I n s t ead of t h a th e w a s co n te n t t o S ta n d by i n id le n e s s w h i l e o the rsw ere suffer i n g i n o rde r t ha t t h ey m igh t l ea r n . H ewa s co n te n t

,wi t h a gu i le less ye t mo n s t rou s fo l ly

,t o

a cc ep t t h i s v icar iou s to i l a nd su ffer i n g i n t h e va i nhop e t h a t h e m igh t p rofit by i t s w i sdom . B u t th ewi sdom n ever came to h i s h ea r t n or t h e pa lm to h i sdu s t l es s h a n d s . A n d hi s rep roa c h w a s t h e r eproac hw h ic h th e grea t I ta l i a n s e t aga i n s t t h e n ames of al lt ho se w ho t h i n k to com pa s s t h e Vi c tory wi t hou te n d u r i n g th e h ea t of t h e ba t t l e —t ha t h e a n d al l h i srace had m a d e t hem se lve s “ n o t t h e so n s

,bu t t h e

gra n d so n s of Na t u re .

”

Let i t n o t b e t hough t fo r a n i n s ta n t t ha t,i n

s pea k i n g of t h e fo 1 e ign c om posers , o n e s hou ld ba t ea ny j o t of ho n ou r o r r e spec t for t h a t m igh ty ph a l a n xof h e ro e s w h o h a ve i n t e rwove n t h e i r l i v es i n to a

c h a j l e t of aglory for t h e i r cou n t ry . Ba ch

,H a yd n ,

Moz a r t , Bee t hove n , M e n de l s soh n , Sc huma n n , Weber ,Wag n e r— t h ey a ll ga ve t h em se lve s wi t h a s imp l e a n dpe rfec t s i n cer i ty to t h e serv i ce of Germ a n a rt

,a nd

,i n

do i n g so,m a d e Germ a n y a ugu s t . B u t wh a t h a v e

th ey do n e fo r u s ? They h a ve do n e n ot h i n g,a n d

,

bu t fo r ou r ow n b l i n d stup id i ty,t h ey m igh t h ave

do n e m u ch . For t h e l esso n w h ic h w e h ave had

i x THE COMPOSER AND H I S PUBLIC 2 6 3

m a n y oppor tu n i t i e s of lea r n i n g from t h em,b u t

w h ic h w e h a ve n ever ye t lea r n t , is t h e lesso n t h a teve ry n a t io n

,wh a teve r i t s ideal , mu s t i t se lf pa ss

t h rough t h e fire t o ach i eve t h a t idea l .We m ay sta n d by

,a s w e h a ve a lwa ys s tood by ,

pa ss ive ly sympa t h iz i n g w i t h t h e s uffe r i n gs , t h e d i sappo i n tm e n t s a n d the h ea r t bu r n i n gs of a n a t io ns t ruggl i n g towa rd s i t s de s t i n y

,bu t if t hey a re n o t

ou r ow n su ffer i n gs t h ey cou n t a s n ot h i n g . A n d le s st h a n n o t h i n g i s ou r c h eap a t tem p t to s t ep i n w h e nt he v i c tory i s wo n

,to t a ke from a n a t io n its m er e

i n te l lec tua l t roph i es,t he h a l l -m a rk

,a s i t w ere , a n d

n ot h i n g bu t th e h a l l-m a rk of i t s pa ssa ge t h rough th efire . Whe n o n c e s tr u ck

,t h i s i n te l l ectua l ha l l—m a rk

i s a t t h e d i spo sa l of t h e who l e wor ld . We m ay,

i n deed,take i t w e m ay a dopt i t fam i l i ar ly ; we m ay

p l ace i t o n ou r ow n wa r e s a s soo n a s i t h a s 110 mea ni n g ab road ; w e m ay s tudy a nd im i ta te a n d co n t r ivet i l l w e produ ce wa re s t h a t

,0 11 t h e su rface

,have t he

same or eve n a bet ter g loss t ha n t h a t of t h e fore ig na rt ic l e bu t wh e n we have do n e al l t h i s w e h a ve n o tye t begu n t o lea r n t h e l es so n w h i ch w e ough t toh a ve l ea r n t lo n g ago from Germ a n y . To l ea r n t h a twe m u s t l ea r n t o reve re a nd re spec t

,n o t t h e Germ a n

m u s i c,b u t t he s p i r i t w h ic h p rodu ced th a t m u s i c

,the

mov i n g sp i r i t w h ic h wa s i n t h e h e a r t s of al l t h e grea tGerma n compo se r s

,s t re n gthe n i n g th em i n t h e i r

de te rm i n a t io n to g ive t hem se lves w ho l ly i n serv i c eto t h e i r co u n t ry o r n o t a t a ll .To tread i n t h i s way—of—l ife i s n o t ea sy : e spec i a l ly

i s i t n ot ea sy for a profes s io n a l m a n i n t h i s cou n t ry .

There a re m a n y obs ta c le s i n t h e p a t h— t h e i n fl ue n cesof ea r ly ed u ca t io n

,t h e perso n a l a t ta chm e n t s to pa r t i

cula r works of a rt, t h e t i e s o f fr ie n dsh i p . A l l t h es ea re fo rce s wh i c h h i n der u s wh e n w e t ry to app roac h


n ea re r to t h e co n s c io u s n e s s of a n a t io n a l ex i s te n c e i na rt .

W i t h rega rd to t h e la s t i n g impre ss io n wh i c h ear lyed u ca t io n m a kes 0 11 a m u s i c i a n ’ s m i n d I n eed o n lys ay t h a t , if t h e educa t io n we re o n ly g ive n w i t h i tst ru e obj ec t —t h a t o f d rawi n g -o u t w h a t i s good i n t h epu p i l a n d n o t m ere ly of impos i n g 011 h im cer ta i na r t i s t i c co n c l u s io n s d raw n h a ph a za rd a s fa r a s lze know sfrom prem i ses w /z i c/z p oss ibly be nt ig/z t not a dmi t

—t h e ni t c ou ld o n ly b e of be n efit to h im a n d to thecomm u n i ty . To e n force t h i s idea l of ed u ca t io n i sd iffi c u l t

,a lmost imposs ib le

,a s every o n e wi l l agree

w ho ha s a n y k n owledge of t h e p re se n t sy stem,i n

wh i c h m a n y i n d iv idua l s,oft e n re p re se n t i n g th e h ighes t

execu t ive types of m a n y fore ig n co u n t r i e s,a re l e t

loose,somet imes i n a s i n g le i n s t i tu t io n

,a n d encour

aged to figh t ou t t h e i r m u tua l n a t io n a l a n t ipa t h i es .Thes e p erso n a l (a n d i n te r n a t io n a l ) co n fl i c t s a rege n era l ly w i t n es sed w i t h symp a t h e t i c e n cou rageme n tby t h e c rowd of s tud e n t s w h ic h su rr ou n d s t h e r i n g ;bu t i t i s p robab l e t h a t t h e i r pa re n t s

,be i n g fu r t h er

removed from th e smoke a nd h ea t of t he co n t e s t,

ta ke les s i n tere s t i n t h e spor t w h e n t h ey b eg i n t on o t i ce t h e me n ta l pa ra lys i s w h ic h grad ual ly se t s i n ,n o t 0 11 t h e comba ta n t s

,but 011 t h e bys ta n ders .

The wo rs t of i t i s t h a t,amo n g th ese comba ta n t s

,

t h ere a re m a n y a b le a nd devo ted fo re ig n a r t i s t s ; b u t ,if o n e m ay pu t i t wi t h o u t Offe n c e , t h e i r ab i l i ty i s,n a tu ra l ly

,a n a b i l i ty to i n t e rp re t t h e a r t o f t h e i r spec i a l

cou n t ry , a nd t he i r d evo t io n i s a d evo t i o n of t h emse lves t o t h a t o n e obj ec t . How s t ra n ge ly topsyt u rvy ou r ow n idea s a re 0 11 t h i s subj ec t m ay be see nby exam i n i n g t he c r i t i c i sm s pa s sed 0 11 t h e l ife -worko f som e res id e n t fo re ig n a r t i s t o r o t h er . Su c h a m a nm ay h ave bee n e n gaged i n a s t re n uo u s a n d l ife- lo n g

2 6 6 MUS IC AND NATIONAL I SM CHA P .

ofte n sp e n d s t h e res t of h i s l i fe i n a n ab su rd h es i tat io n betw ee n do i n g w h a t h e wa n t s t o do a n dw h a t h e t h i n ks h e ough t to do

,l ike a sc hoo lboy

s u r rep t i t iou s ly cra ck i n gb

n u t s a n d a t t he same t imekeep i n g a wa ry eye o n

b

the s c hoo lm a s ter . Whe n t h ecompose r i s i n th i s l ud i c rou s po s i t io n h e n a tu ral lyge t s ve ry l i t t le l igh t or l ead i n g f1om h i s perso n a lc i rc le o r from hi s c r i t i c s

,fo r

,so d iverge n t a re t h e i r

v i ewpo i n t s t h a t,i n t h e o n e ca s e

,t h ey rub t h e i r h a n d s

toge th e r a n d c h uck le,te l l i n g e a ch o t h e r th a t a t l a s t

t h ey h ave go t t he rea l E n g l i sh,o r S co tc h

,or I r i s h

(w h i c h p lea se s h im very m u c h) ; wh i l e , i n t h e o th erca se

,t h ey wh i spe r sage ly to eac h o t h er t h a t h e i s

ca rry i n g o n t h e g lo r iou s t ra d i t i o n s of Bra hm s,o r

Pale s tr i n a,or Okegh em (wh ic h , i n a way , a l so p lea s e s

h im very m u ch ) . Th i s so r t of composer i s pe rh a p si n ev i tab le u n der o u r p re se n t t ra n s i t io n a l co n d i t io n s

,

b u t i t i s o n ly fa i r to s ay t h a t i n t ho se mom e n t s w h e nh i s worsh ip o f t h e Fa t h er l a n d i s b rough t to a nawkwa rd s ta n d st i l l by t he i n t ru s io n ofhi s ow n per so na l i ty

,h e does a grea t dea l o f good . As a type h e

s ta n d s m idwa y be twee n t h e two ex t rem es . H e ha sn o t

,l ike Gor i n g Thom as

,w ho l ly g ive n i n h i s a l l eg i a n ce

to t h e fore ig n e r,n or

,l ike Sul l iva n

,ha s h e bee n ab le

to t h row o ff t h e fore ig n i n fl u e n c e com p l e te ly .

W i t h th e o t h er type of t ea c h er w hom I me n t io n eda bove

,t he E n g l i s hm a n w ho ha s p i c ked u p h i s a n t i

E n g l i s h ide a s i n Engla n d,I m u s t co n fe s s I h ave les s

pa t i e n c e . H e— oft e n size, by th e way— i s u sual ly a

pe rso n wh oha s t a ke n u p mu s i c e i t h e r a s a he r ed i ta ryway of m a k i n g a l iv i n g or a s a p l ea sa n t a ccompl i s hme n t . A m a n of t h i s sor t i s ge n era lly de s t i t u t e o f

a ny r ea l a r t i s t i c impul s e , a nd,i n mos t cas e s

,ha s a

m i n d wh i c h i s w id e n ed n e i t h er by rea d i n g n or t rave l .U n fo rt u n a te ly ,

t h i s i s exa c t ly the sor t of n a tu re w h i ch,

1x THE COMPOSER AND H I S PUBLIC 2 6 7

i n i t s s tude n t d a ys,i s wi l l i n g to accep t

,a n d i n deed

c raves mos t e age r ly for,a p u re ly i n te l lec tual p rove n der .

I n d eal i n g wi t h su c h a ca s e t h e a im of t h e tea ch ers h ou ld be d i rec t ed a lmost comp le te ly towa rd s a d eve lopmen t of c ha ra c t er

,bu t i t too ofte n h a ppe n s t h a t h e

adop t s t h e m u c h ea s ie r me t hod of mere ly sa t i sfy i n gt h e p up i l ’ s a ppe t i t e for m u s i c a l fa c ts .Th i s fo rm of n ut r ime n t i s swa l low ed

,t h ough n o t

d iges ted,i n a n a lmost m i ra c ulou s m a n n er by mos t

E n g l i s h s tud e n t s,a nd afte r a few yea r s t h e re su l t

s h ow s ve ry p la i n ly i n th e i r m u s i ca l co n s t i tu t io n s .Bo t h m e n a nd wome n soo n lea r n to a pp rec i a te t h eadva n tages wh ich come to t h em

,i n t e l lec t u a l ly

,soc i a l ly ,

a n d commerc ia l ly,w he n o n c e t h ey have bee n comfor t

ab ly p l a ced i n o n e o r o th er of t he l i t t le ho l low c i rc l e sw ho se s em i—for e ig n cul tu re i s so per n i c i ou s i n Lo n do n .

On t h e o t h er ha n d,t h ey fa i l to u n ders ta n d t he heavy

p r i ce wh i c h ha s to be p a id fo r t h e se adva n tages . I nt h e cas e of t h e wome n we see a hord e of eage r ,e n t h u s i a s t i c you n g g i r l s c rowd i n g i n to ou r m u s i csc hoo l s fu l l of l ife

t

a n d prom i s e . The m i l l h a n d l egoes ro u n d

,a nd t h e n

,som ehow o r o t h er

,t h ough a

gra i n o r two fit for th e ba ker m ay emerge h e re a n dt h ere

,t h e grea t e r p a r t com e s o u t

,perh a p s i n te l lec tua l ly

t he fi n e s t flou r of t h e fine,b u t n o t exa c t ly t h e sor t of

wh i c h brea d ca n b e m a de . I n t h e ca s e of t h e m e nt h e p roce ss i s m u c h th e same b u t t h e r e su l t i s d i ffe re n t ,fo r

,w h i l e t h e m a c h i n e ge n era l ly seem s t o p rodu ce o n

t h e fem i n i n e m i n d o n ly a l i s t les s d i sr ega rd a nd d i s t ru s tof a ll m u s i ca l exp re ss io n

,o n t h e m a scu l i n e m i n d i t

ca l l s i n to ex i s te n ce a n ex t r eme pug n ac i ty,eve n

fa n a t ic i sm,a lwa y s o n beh a lf of some sm al l ou t c rop

of for e ig n cu ltur

expres s i o n ge n era l ly lea ve s o n o n e ’s m i n d a su sp ic io na s to i t s gen u i n e n e s s . The effec t of bot h t hes e


de n a t io n a l ized types o n ou r pre se n t s ta t e of a r t i st i cd eve lopme n t i s

,of cou rse

,d i sa s t rou s

,a nd t h ey rep re

s e n t force s w i t h w h i c h w e sh al l h ave to recko ni n crea s i n g ly i n t h e fu tu re

,for wh i le t h e Am azo n

squadro n of t h i s fo re ig n leg io n br i n gs i n to t h e fie lda co n t i n u a l ly a sc e n d i n g degree of soc i a l pres t ige ,t h e Ce n ta u r b r iga de

,k n owi n g th a t t h e ba t t le m u s t e n d

w h e n o n c e i t s b a rba r i a n s ta n d ard i s pu l led dow n,

comes i n to t h e c o n fl ic t d e te rm i n ed to fi gh t,too t h a n d

h oof, i n d efe n c e of t ha t s ta n da rd a nd i ts cabal i s t i csymbo l s .W i t h rega rd to the seco n d of t h e t h ree obsta c les

w h i c h I i n s ta n ced a bove a s s ta n d i n g i n t he way of o u rcomp le te rea l iza t io n of a n a t io n a l a r t i s t i c co n sc iou sn ess—I mea n t h e a ffec t io n wh i c h we fee l i n d iv idua l lyfor cer ta i n a rt-wo rk s a nd ce r ta i n a rt- types a s a c tual lyoffe r i n g u s a n expre ss io n of ou r se lve s- I s h ould l iketo po i n t o u t t h a t t h i s i s a d iffi c u l ty w h i c h faces everyn a t io n w ho se a r t i s s t i l l i n m a k i n g

,a nd i t i s a d ifficu l ty

t h a t h a s b ee n fa c ed a nd overcome byev ery n a t io n wh i c hha s evo lved a n a t io n a l form of expre ss io n . We ca nsee t h i s i n t h e s t rugg le wh i c h th e Germ a n o pera t iccompose rs waged w i th

b

t h e I ta l i a n i n va ders,w ho

,com i n g

n o t o n c e bu t m a n y t imes,ofte n a ppea red to h ave

j u s t ified t h e i r r a id s by a pe rm a n e n t s e t t leme n t i nGerm a n te rr i to ry . Th i s w a s i n deed n o t to b e ; for , a st he I ta l ia n wa s co n t i n ua l ly we a ke n ed by h i s defea t s i na fore ig n co u n try, t h e Germ a n w a s s t re n gthe n ed togrea te r a nd more d ec i s ive v ic to r ie s . I t i s p rope r foru s i n re a d i n g t h e l e sso n of t h i s lo n g s t rugg l e to ta kecou ra ge from t h e Ge rm a n examp l e

,a n d to r emembe r

h ow do ub tfu l wa s t he t i l t of t h e sca le s for ge n era t io n s .I n deed

,i t wa s n o t t i l l we l l i n to \V agu e r ’ s m idd le l ife

t h a t t h e Germ a n a rm of t h e ba la n ce d ipped s lowly a n dfe l l i n to i t s pres e n t s t a b le po s i t io n .

2 7o MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH AP .

w i se ly orda i n s t h a t h er gu e s t s shal l fea st wi t h h ero n ly o n h er ow n s evere co n d i t io n s of respec t a n dprop r i e ty .

I n a wo rd,w e m u s t b eg i n to real i ze

,a s t he Fre n c h

,

t h e Germ a n s,a nd t h e I ta l i a n s h a ve a l ready real ized

,

t h a t al l fore ig n a rt—p rodu c t s c om e to a n a t io n,n o t

o n ly a s t h e pa re n t s of poss ib l e n ew idea s,bu t al so a s

t h e chi ld1 en of a n orga n i sm t ha t ha s bee n mo u ld edt o i t s p res e n t com p l ex i ty a nd perfec t io n o n ly a fte rce n tu r i es of i n t e l lec tu a l a nd emo t io n a l s t rugg le . In

t h i s s t rugg l e w e h a ve h ad a lmos t n o s h a re,a nd i t i s

t he refore m ere ly p rude n t ( if n o t h i n g e lse) t ha t w es h ou l d exam i n e i ts r e su l t s n a rrowly i n o rd er toa sc er ta i n h ow m uc h o r h ow l i t t l e ca n be of u se t ou s . To do t h i s we mu s t firs t r id o u r se lve s of ou rn a t io n a l h a b i t of m u s i ca l acq u iesce n ce : w e m u s tgua rd ou r s e lves aga i n s t t h e e r ro r of suppos i n g th a ta n a r t -wo rk ca n h a ve a n y a b so l u t e o r de ta c h edexi s t e n ce apa r t from t h e n a t io n w h i c h prod u ced i t '

we m u s t t h e refo re be qu i ck to w e igh a nd ca reful t oco n s ider from ou r ow n n a t i o n a l s t a n dpo i n t a n y s u c hwork t h a t come s to u s . I n do i n g t h i s i t wi ll bebe t t e r for u s i n t h e lo n g ru n if we i n c l i n e to a cer ta i nre se rve befo re w e offe r a ny s u c h work a comp l e tea c cep ta n c e . I n deed

,I do n o t h e s i ta te to s ay t h a t

every m a n,E n g l i sh o r o th e rw i s e

,if h e ful ly rea l izes

h i s n a t i o n a l i ty,s hou ld fi n d— m u s t find— in every

fore ig n a rt—wo rk somet h i n g i n some pa r t repe l le n t toh i s ow n i n d iv id u a l i ty . Nor should fea r o f t ra d i t io no r of a u t h or i ty p reve n t h im m a k i ng t h a t fee l i n g a nemph a t ic pa r t o f h i s n a tu r e . Th i s pers i s te n ce a nd

te n a c i ty of n a t io n a l id ea l ha s,a s a m a t ter of h i s to ry

,

bee n t h e fou n d a t io n 011 w h i c h a ll t h e Co n t i n e n ta ls c hoo ls h a ve bee n se t u p

,a n d i t wi l l o n ly be wh e n we

a ba n do n t h e s h ift i n g sa n d s o f a fore ig n cul tu re a nd

1x TH E COMPOSER AND H IS PUBLIC 2 7 1

beg i n to b u i ld o n t h e same s u re roc k t h a t we sh a l l bewe lcomed wi t h re spec t i n t o t h e ar t i s t i c commo n wea l t hof Eu rope .I n ow come to th e t h i rd of t h e t h ree ob stac les w h i c h

I i n s ta n c ed above a s p roba b le h i n dra n c e s to u s w h e nwe a re o n t h e wa y to ou r d es i red e n d , th e pe rso n a li n fl u e n ce of fore ig n ers . I n o rd er to remove th epos s ib i l i ty of eve n the sm a l les t m i sappre he n s io n

,I

s h ou ld say t h a t w h e n I spoke of t h e “ e n em i es ” of

E n gl i s h a r t I u s ed t h a t word so l e ly i n a n a r t i s t i c s e n s ea nd

3

wi t h ou t a n y i n ten t io n of a t ta c h i n g a perso n a l o roffe n s ive mea n i n g to i t . Eve n t h e a r t i s t i c u se of t h eword I s hou ld h ave avo ided if i t cou ld b e s how nh i s to r i cal ly t h a t we h ave eve r bee n ab le to a s s im i la t ea n d profit by t h e fore ig n cu l tu re w h ic h n ece s s i ta t est he s et t lem e n t i n ou r m id st of a la rge n umber of a l ie nm u s i c i a n s .I n o t h er field s of ac t iv i ty w e have s h ow n more

t ha n on ce a m a rk ed a b i l i ty t o gra sp t h e p r i n c ip le s a ndeve n to improve o n t h e tec h n iq ue of fore ig n craft sm e nwho h av e se t tled h e re . Su c h a n occa s io n o ccu rredi n t h e seve n tee n t h ce n t u ry w he n t h e Fre n c h Gover nme n t r evoked t h e Ed ic t ofNa n te s a n d so exi led someof i ts mos t i n du s t r iou s c i t ize n s . These Hugu e n ot scame to E n g la n d a s t he fore ig n m us ic i a n comes tosea rc h for a l ive l ihood . Bu t t h ere t h e pa ral le l e n d s

,

for wh i le t h e E n g l i s hm a n ha s n ever bee n ab le tose ize th e impor ted m u s i ca l met hod s a nd t u r n t h emto h i s ow n use

,t h e Lo n do n e r a nd the m a n of Ke n t

rap idly lear n t a n d perfec ted t h e impor ted pr i n c i p le sof s i lk a n d c lot h wea v i n g a nd m a n aged to c rea te fromt h em a bu lwa rk , a s i t were , of a h igh er leve l for t he i row n defe n ce aga i n s t fore ign i n du s tr i a l i n va s io n i n t h en ex t ge n era t io n .Th i s m a rk s a d i s t i n c t d iffere n c e i n t h e two so rt s

2 7 2 MUS IC AND NATIONAL I SM CH A P .

of n a t io n a l r ecep t iv i ty a n d a ss i st s u s i n ou r s tudy of

t h e a c tu al method by w h i c h t h e b lood i s k ep tc i rcul a t i n g 111 t h e ve i n s of ou r fore ig n cu l tu re . Weh a ve o n ly to w a lk t h rough a v i l lage c hu rc hya rd i nKe n t a nd n o t e t h e su dde n a ppea ra n ce ( o n t h e tombs to n es) of t h e Fre n c h n ames i n t h e s eve n tee n t hc e n tu ry a nd t he i r grad ua l A n g l i c iz i n g du r i n g t h esucceed i n g ce n tu r i e s to rea l ize how comp le te ly t h eHugue n o ts wer e a b so rbed by t he peop l e u n der who sel aw s t h ey h ad she l te red . B u t i n t h e ca s e of fore ignmu s ic i a n s w e fi n d n o su c h to ta l a bso rpt io n . I t i st ru e t ha t t h er e a re

,pr i n c ipa l ly i n Lo n do n

,a ce r tai n

( smal l ) n umber of E n g l i sh - bor n m u s ic i a n s wi t hs t ra n ge ly fore ig n n ames ; bu t i t i s n ot ewor t hy t ha t ,t ho ugh th ey a re oft e n t h e c h i ldre n of two pu re lyfo re ig n pa re n t s

,or a t most a s i n g le ge n era t io n

remo

b

v ed from a pu re l y fore ign s tock , yet t hey a re , a sa ru l e

,more c h a ra c ter i s t ica lly E n g l i s h i n t he i r a rt i s t i c

o u t look t h a n t h e i r ge n u i n e ly A n g lo- Saxo n co l leagu e s .Th i s s t r ik i n g fac t

,w h i c h i s

,I be l ieve

,a commo n

p l ac e of soc io log y to s tude n t s of imm igra t io n i nAmer ica

,s h ow s a t o n c e t h e E n g l i s hm a n ’ s n a t io n a l

v igou r a nd h i s a r t i s t i c wea k n es s , for w h i le l a rgen umber s of fore ig n m u s i c i a n s w ho v i s i t t h i s i s la n dre tu r n eve n t u a l ly to t h e i r ow n cou n t r i es , t h e c h i ld renof t h o se t h a t s ta y beh i n d a s se t t lers a re a t o n c ea b so rbed per so n a l ly— if I m ay so pu t i t—by t h e i rE n g l i s h su rrou n d i n gs

,b u t t h e cul tu re wh i ch t h ey

repre se n t rem a i n s u n ab sorb ed by th e n a t io n . Theco n sequ e n ce of t h e E n gl i s hm a n ’ s i n a b i l i ty to d o t h i si s t ha t i n t h e n ex t ge n era t io n h e ha s n o ba r r i e r of ah ighe r A n g l i c ized cul tu r e beh i n d wh i c h he ca n p roceedto d e v e lop h i s ow n a r t

,a n d t h a t t h e cyc le of for e ig n

i n va s i o n beg i n s a ll over aga i n .

These co n d i t io n s a re of i n t e res t a t t h e prese n t

2 74 MUS IC AND NAT IONALI SM CH AP .

w ea kes t p l a ce s . The a ssa u l t i s n o t u n p l ea sa n t to t h ei n d iv id u a l E n g l i s hm a n . H e i s eve n a l i tt le fl a t te redby t h e ea sy

bG ood fe l low s h i p w h i c h i s offer ed h im by

the d i s t i n gu i s hed fore ig n a r t i s t o r p ub l i s h er . I t is,

i n deed,

a lmost a r e l ig ion wi t h h im to prefer t h i sgood- fe l low s h i p to t h e h ighe s t i n t e l lec tu a l a nd morala t ta i n me n t s . We m u s t , t h e refore , n o t be su rpr i sedif w e find h im u n w i l l i n g e i t h er to app ly a too c lo selog i c to t h e sy s tem u n der w h ic h h e ha s to work

,or

to a t tem p t to ge t beh i n d i ts eph emeral co n d i t io n s a ndto a sc er ta i n t h e m01 e pe rm a n e n t p r i n c i p le s 011 w h ic hi t i s b a sed .

(4 ) MAT E R IA L NECE SS IT I E S .

Th e 1 eader m u s t a cc ept th e fo rego in org pa ragra phs a sa by n o m ea n s exh a u s t ive ac co u n t

b

o f t he d ifficu l t ieswh ic h have to be overcome if eve r w e m e to s t rugg leu p to t h e h e igh t s of a n a t io n a l a r t i s t i c l ife . I h a veo n ly i n d i ca t ed t h ree of t h ese d i fficul t i es

,becau s e I

w i s h ed to se lec t typ es of t h e fo rce s w h i c h a t p r e se n texer t a co n s ta n t a nd s tea dy pu l l a ga i n s t u s . Norwould i t b e po ss ib le

,ou t s id e t h e l im i t s of a vo l ume

,

to s how i n d eta i l how t h e s e force s a c t , a n d how , bypers i s t e n ce a nd te n a c i t y , we m ay tu r n t h em t o ou row n accou n t . Th a t t h i s ca n be d o n e a n d m u s t b edo n e I ha ve n o t t h e s l igh te s t doub t

,a n d s ig n s a r e

n o t wa n t i n g of a co n sc i e n ce s lowly awake n i n g ton ew po ss ib i l i t i e s . How lo n g th i s awa ke n i n g wi l l takeno o n e c a n say, bu t w e m a y ta ke cou rage from ou rk n owl edge th a t

,whe n o n ce t h e good seed i s sow n i n

t h e m a g ic ga rd e n of a r t,t h e flow e r oft e n a ppea r s

wi t h i n c red ib le swift n e s s . The yea rs t h a t s epa ra teH a yd n 5 fir s t sym ph o n y from t h e n i n t h of Beethove na re few er t h a n t h e t h ree sc01 e yea r s a nd te n a l lot ted

1x TH E COMPOSER AND H IS PUBLIC 2 7 5

by t h e Psa lm i s t a s t h e spa n o f m a n ’ s l ife . B u t i t i sn o t fo r t h o se wh o go afie ld , a s i t were

,wi t h t h e

p lough,to more t h a n d r eam of t h e g lory of t he

ha rves t .I n ot h e r word s

,t h e le sso n w h i c h we i n E n g l a n d

n eed to—day i s n o t t h e l e sso n of Bee t hove n b u t o f

Hayd n . The former wa s i n deed h a ppy i n h i s inher ita n ce a n d g lo r io u s i n t h e r i ch es w h i c h h e a dded tot ; b u t to t h e l a t te r i s t h e e ter n a l h a pp i n es s a ndg lory wh i c h come to th e m a n w h o fi n d s th e t rea su reho u se em pty , a nd s e t s h i s s t ea dfa s t h ea r t t o fill i twi t h t h e w ea l t h of h i s a rt . The pa ra l le l be tw ee n t h es ta t e of Germ a n mu s i c i n H a yd n ’ s yo u t h a nd t hes ta t e of m u s ic i n E n g la n d to—da y i s i n s t ru c t ive . Ba c hwa s n o t ac tu a l ly dea d w h e n H a yd n wa s bor n

,bu t

h e wa s n ea r i n g h i s e n d,a n d wa s r ecog n ized a s t h e

o n e grea t o r ig i n a l ge n i u s w h o had g ive n h imse lfso le ly to t h e serv ice of Germ a n a rt . We , too , ca nlook bac k a c ro s s th e ce n t u r ies to a n E n g l i s hm a nwho se ac h ieveme n t s ra i s e h im to a h e igh t a s exa l tedi n t h e seve n t ee n t h ce n tu ry a s Ba c h wa s i n t h ee igh tee n t h .

Nor does t h e pa ral le l e n d t here,for we find h er e

i n twe n t ie t h c e n tu ry E n g la n d t h e same co n fusedt u r n i n gs

,tw i s t i n gs

,a n d grop i n gs of t he n a t io n a l

m i n d towa rd s a ful ler expre s s io n of i t se lf a s w e findi n t he Germ a n s ta tes o f t h e e igh t ee n t h c e n tu ry . On

al l s ide s t h ere i s a n ea r n es t n e s s to h ea r a nd a qu i ckn es s to j udge ; a s t ra n ge m i x tu r e of h ope s a n dd i sa ppo i n tm e n t s wh i c h te l l s Of a d umb na t io ns eek i n g a n x iou s ly

,a lmos t fever i s h ly

,for som e m ea n s

Of s peec h . Th i s a n x ie ty a nd feve r i s Ofte n ca r e le ss lym i s i n te rpr e ted .

“ I n E n g la nd,

” i t i s sa id,

“ th ere i sa m a rke t fo r a n y t h i n g . Bu t if E n g l a n d 18 wa i t i n gfor someo n e wh o w i l l be to h e r w h a t

b

H aydn wa s to

2 7 6 MUS IC AND NATIONAL I SM CH AP .

Germ a n y she m u s t firs t p a s s t h rough,p erh aps i s now

pas s i n g t h ro ugh,a per iod of i n tel lec tual i ty s im i la r t o

t h a t w h i ch p repa red th e w ay for Hayd n . I n l i t e ratu re she passed u n sca t h ed a nd s t re n gt h e n ed t h roughh er e igh tee n t h ce n tu ry of pu r e rea so n a n d form a l i sm

,

a nd em erged from i t to c row n h erse lf wi t h th e l au re l sOf he r n i n etee n t h c e n tu ry poet ry .

I s n o t t h e same th i n g poss ib l e i n m u s i c ? If i t i s,

t h a t i s to s ay if t h e n a t io n a l h a b i t Of m i n d perm i t s i t ,t h e n a t io n i t s e lf m u s t ta ke i t s m u s i c i n ha n d . I t i sn o t e n ough tha t t h ere i s a “m a rk e t for everyth i n g i nE n gl a n d . Ther e wa s a m a rke t for every th i n g i nAu s t r i a wh e n H a yd n bega n h i s b r i ck-m a k i n g

,b u t h e

wou ld n ever h a ve l a i d t ho se b r ic k s i n to t h e t ru e a n de n d u r i n g fou n da t io n s of a n a t io n a l pa l ac e of a rt

,if

t h e rehad n o t bee n a n a t i o n wa i t i n g a n d d ream i n g of

t h e day w h e n i t cou ld e n te r i n to t h a t pala c e .H a yd n d i ed

,bu t M oza rt l ived Pu rce l l d i ed

,b u t

w ho l ived I n t ho se t e n word s i s t h e w h o le d iffere n c e i n n a t io n a l i sm be twee n t h e Germ a n s a nd t h eE n g l i sh . Fo r t h e re spo n s i b i l i ty i s n o t to th e ac tua lc raft sm a n i t i s t o th e n a t io n wh i c h emp loys th ec ra ft sm a n a nd e n j o i n s t h e co n d i t io n s u n de r w h i c h h em u s t work . I t i s u se l es s to comp i le l i s t s of composers

,good

,ba d

,a nd i n d i ffere n t , a nd t o pa lm th e i r

n ames Off 0 11 a peop le a s t h e i r m u s i cal h i s to ry . Wemu s t d ig d eepe r a nd c u t d ow n to t h e root of t h em a t te r . The n we sh a l l recog n ize th a t c om pose r s d on o t spr i n g u p h e re a nd t h er e wi t hou t cau s e ; we sh a l lse e t h a t t h ey a re o n ly th e expre s s io n a n d i n t e rpre tat io n Of t h e n a t i o n a l w i l l

,a nd t h a t

,w h e n t h ey group

th em se lves i n to a grad u a l ly d eve lop i n g “ sc h oo l,

” t h ed eve lopme n t i s n o t a mere ly pe rso n a l a nd m u s i ca ld eve lopme n t

,b u t a d evelopme n t i n c e r ta i n fixed

d i rec t io n s of t h e n a t io n i t se lf.


exper ie n ce s w h ic h i t p r e suppose s . I n o th e r word s,

s i n c e i t i s o n ly a s a mode of n a t io n a l expre ss io n t ha tm u s i c ca n ex i s t

,w e m u s t

,if w e wi s h fo r a Na t io n a l

Sc hoo l ofMu s ic,a l low t h e peo p le t h em se lves to pa s s

t h rough t h es e exper ie n c e s i n m u s ic of t h e i r ow nc ho ic e

,a n d

,m do i n g so

,perm i t t h em

,u n hampered

by a n y ex i s te n t a rt—produ c t s,t o fix t he i r ow n

pos tula t e s,d eve lop the i r ow n methods

,a nd a rr ive a t

t h e i r ow n ca n o n s of exp re s s io n .

Bu t i n t h e p rod u c t io n o f mu s i c t h er e a re twop a r t ies r e spo n s ib l e for i t s perfec t io n or imperfec t io n

,

t h e pub l ic w h i c h dem a n d s i t a nd t h e compose r w hosupp l ies t h e d em a n d . Ea c h of t h em ,

u se le ss wi t hou tt h e o ther

,m u s t b e i n a c e rta i n h a rmo n iou s re la t io n

s h i p before a ny good re sul t ca n be looked for. Thecomposer

,O11 h i s p a r t

,mu s t be suffic i e n t ly i n sym pa t h y

wi t h t h e n eed s a n d a sp i ra t io n s of t he peop le t o e n a b leh im to ge n u i n e ly expres s l/zem w h e n h e is e n dea vo u ri n g o n ly to exp re s s himself : t h e pu b l i c

,0 11 t h e o t h e r

h a n d,m u s t be n o t o n ly pa s s ive ly rec ep t ive Ofhis

m u s i c w h e n i t i s pre se n t ed to t h em,b u t a n x io u s t ha t

s uc h a n expre ss io n Of t h em se lve s sh ou ld ex i s t . Th i ss eem s to m e to be a n e sse n t i a l pa r t of t h e m u s i calco n t ra c t .We m u s t remember th a t n o l iv i n g sc hoo l of

m u s i c ha s eve r ex i s t ed i n wh i ch t h ere wa s n o t a nes se n t i a l u n i ty be tw ee n t h e pub l i c a nd i t s i n te rp re t e r,t h e composer . I n t h e pa s t i t ha s Oft e n bee n t h epra c t i c e

,a nd i s eve n n ow t h e p ra c t i c e

,Of E n g l i s h

com po ser s to wa s t e t he i r l ive s va i n ly bea t i n g t he i rwi n gs i n t h e vo id . The co n s equ e n c e of t h i s i s s ee nw h e n t h e i r compo s i t io n s a re t h row n dow n from t heh e igh t s to a n a ud i e n c e wh i c h i s w a i t i n g a nd c ra v i n gn o t fO1 t h e ra refied a nd i n tell ec tua l d i t t ie s of theu pper a i r

,b u t for som e so n g w h ic h is ra cy Of i ts

IX THE COMPOSER AND H I S PUBLIC 2 7 9

moth e r,t h e ea r t h .

1 I n su c h a ca se the re sul t i sexaspera t io n fo r t h e compose r a n d a fit of t h e sulksfor t h e pub l i c

,a nd t h e r ea so n i s t h e same i n bot h

ca se s—n e i t h e r u n der s ta n d s t h e o th erI t is

,howeve r

,whe n we com e to dea l w i t h t h e

p rac t i ca l s ide of t h e qu es t io n t h a t w e find i t co nv en ien t to v iew t h e p rodu c t i o n of m u s i c a s be i n gth e re su l t of two fo rce s

,t he pu b l i c a n d t h e com poser

,

for by look i n g a t i t i n t h i s l igh t w e ca n t race t he i rs epa ra te l i n es of a c t iv i ty a nd e n dea vou r t o sugges tm et hods of emp loy i n g t h i s fo rce to i t s grea te s tadva n ta ge . Let u s

,t h e n

,firs t of a ll

,a sk ou r se lves

t h e q u e s t io n,Wha t i s t he m i n imum dema n d t h a t

t h e op era t i c compose r m a kes of t h e pub l i c ? H ed ema n d s two t h i n gs , or ra t h e r o n ly o n e t h i n gsympa t hy

,t ha t i s to say, mo n ey . Let u s exp l a i n

t h i s appa re n t co n trad i c t io n . I t i s,of cou rse

,Obv iou s

t h a t,w h e n a compo se r i s w r i t i n g hi s opera

,i t i s 0 11

t h e hypo t h es i s th a t th ere a re a cer ta i n n umber of

peop l e a n x iou s to hea r i t —a n y o t her as sumpt ion is

pu r e affec ta t io n . As a m a t t e r of h i s to ry,w e ca n see

t ha t eve ry opera t i c composer ha s a lways m a de t h i sa s sumpt io n

,a nd w e m u s t n o t over look th e fac t th a t

,

w h a teve r s truggle s a n d tr i a l s t he grea t Germa nopera t i c composer s had t o fa ce

,a nd how eve r sm a l l

t h i s m i n im um of p ub l i c i n tere s t had a t t imes bee nfor t h em

,i tha s a c tua l ly b ee n t h ere . I n o t her word s

,

t hey w ere alwa ys a b le,t hough ofte n o n ly wi t h grea t

d iffi c u l ty , to s tudy a nd perfec t t h e i r tech n iqu e by t h e

1 The grea te s t wor k s wh i c h the wor l d ha s seen ha ve n o t bee nded i ca ted to a n u n known pos te r i ty , bu t h a ve been produced tos a t i s fy the d a i l y needs o f t he i r a ge, a nd h a ve

,t he refore , o f n eces

s i ty con fo rm ed to the t a s te s,a nd u su a l l y t o the fa sh i o n a nd

the prej u d i c e s , of the per i od wh i ch ga ve t hem b i r t h (Mr . A . J .Ba l fou r ’ s es sa y on H a n de l ) .

2 8o MUS IC AND NATIONAL ISM CH AP .

o n ly m et hod wh ic h cou ld g ive l ife a n d real i ty to t h e i ra rt

, t h a t i s to say,by i ts exerc i s e before th ea tr i cal

aud ie n ce s .There i s a ge n era l id ea amo n g l ayme n t ha t t h e ar t

of w r i t i n g Ope ra s— w h i ch,a s t h e h i s to ry of i ts m a n y

fa i l u res s h ow s,is a mos t d ifficu l t fo rm Of me n tal

ac t iv i ty—c a n be prac t i s ed a lmos t a t hap haza rd . I ti s forgo t te n t h a t t h e compo ser mu s t b e a s muchi n touc h w i t h t h e l iv i n g rea l i t i es of hi s a r t a s

t h e n ava l comm a n der i s wi t h h i s d iv i s io n s a tsea : i t i s forgo t t e n t h a t a n o pera i s n o t t h e bookof a n opera or eve n t h e m u s ic of a n Opera , b u ta d i s t i n c t somet h i n g m ade u p of t h e se two a n d o thert h i n gs , t ha t i t s exi s t e n c e i s j u s t ified o n ly by i ts suc ce s sin t/z e thea tre

,a nd t h a t i t s ed uca t io n a l value for t h e

com pose r a n d for t h e p ub l i c ca n n o t ex i s t exc ep tt h ro ugh t h e m ed i um of a ct ua l phys i ca l r epre se n ta t io n .We m ay t he n s ay t h a t t h e fir s t n eces s i ty of t he

composer i s t ha t h i s work s s h a l l h ave a c ha n ce of

ex i s te n c e acco rd ing to t h e co n d i t io n s w h ich h e ha sd es ig n ed for t hem . I t is i n t h i s s e n s e t ha t w e m ays ay t ha t t h e compose r

’ s d em a n d for sym pa t hy i s a l soa dem a n d for mo n ey . If h e p re suppo se s a pub l i cwi l l i n g to h ea rhi s work

,h e al so pre su ppose s a pub l ic

wi l l i n g to pa s s t h e b ox—office . I h a ve al ready sa ide n ough w i t h rega rd to t he n ecess i ty bo t h Of a

“ sp i r i tu a l u n i o n betwee n t h e composer a n d hi sa ud i e n c e a nd o f t h e a cce s s ib i l i ty a n d i n te l l ig ib i l i ty ”

i n t he a rt work i t se lf. I m u s t,how ever

,po i n t ou t

t ha t t h e m u ch—der id ed “ log i c o f t h e box- office ” prov ide s u s wi t h ou r o n ly po ss ib le me thod of m ak i n gprese n t ded u c t io n s a s to t h e re l a t ive s ta t e of t h ecom pose r a nd hi s p ub l i c

,a nd t h ough i n to t h i s

d i a le c t i c m a n y f al la c i es ca n be a nd a re i n t rod u ced,

fal la c i e s o f boom a nd a dvert i sem e n t,fa l l ac i e s of soc i a l

2 82 MUS IC AND NATIONALI SM CH AP

o u r n eg l ige n c e i n a low ered s ta n da rd a n d a decrea sedo u t pu t .As a m a t te r of fa c t

,t h e ge n era l to ta l wa n t of

op po rtu n i ty for m a k i n g mo n ey a nd t h e co rre spo n di n g ig n o ra n ce of t h e s ter n n ec e ss i ty of get t ing i t fort h e sa ke of h i s a r t ar e t h e two t h i n gs mo s t c h a racteri s t ic of t h e composer i n t h i s cou n t ry . Th ere i salmos t a humorou s s i de t o th i s

,fo r n o o n e ca n h ave

fa i l ed to h ea r tales to ld w i th ba ted b rea t h of som es u cces sful com po ser of ser iou s m u s i c

,w ho

,afte r

p erh aps m o n t h s o r eve n yea r s of s t re n uou s work ,fo l lowed by w eeks of a n x iou s cor respo n de n c e , ha sm ade a sum wh ic h a n y re spec tab le c i ty m a n wo u lds n ap u p

,a s a m a t ter of rou t i n e , a ny day b efo re l u n c h .

On t h e w ho l e,w e m ay say t h a t to t h e compo ser

mo n ey is not. B u t mo n ey i s t h e e sse n t i a l som eth i n g w h ic h h e n eed s before t h e p ub l i c ca n e n j oyt h e Oppor tu n i ty of pay i n g for hi s opera s a t t h ebox Offi c e . Som e fu r t h e r m ec ha n i sm i s t he refo ren ec e ssa ry .

The qu e s t io n i s as to wh a t form th a t m ec ha n i smi s to ta ke a n d how i t i s to be u t i l ized . We m ays a fe ly pu t ou t of ou r ca lc u la t io n s a ny idea of a re tu r nto t h e e igh tee n t h c e n t u ry sy s t em of p r iva t e pa tro n agea s Oppo sed to t h e sp i r i t of ou r t imes . I n t h e pa s t i tm ay ha ve produc ed be n efic i a l resul t s : i t ex i s t ed i nt h e ca se s of H a yd n

,Moza r t , Bee thoven ,

a ndWag n e r,

a nd i t eve n ex i s t s i n ce rta i n ca ses h e r e i n E n gl a n dto day. Bu t i t h a s gra ve d rawback s

,e spec i a l ly i n a

cou n t ry w h ere ca s te- fee l i n g 18 s t ro n g . I t p resuppo se si n o u r a r i s toc ra cy a h igher degree of cul tu re t ha nw e h a ve rea so n to suppose t h ey pos se s s ; i t a l sop res u ppo se s a pa t r io t ic d i rec t io n to t h i s cu l tu re .

NO o n e ca n do ub t t h a t som e su c h e n t hu s i asm for

n a t io n a l a rt d id flo u r i s h i n t h e a r i s toc ra t i c c i rc le s Of

IX THE COMPOSER AND H I S PUBLIC 2 83

e igh tee n t h c e n tu ry V i e n n a,a n d aga i n a t t h e n i n e

teen thc e n tu ry Roya l Co u r t of B a va r i a ; b u t ou row n a r i s toc ra cy i n ge n era l co n sec ra tes i t s p a t r iot i smto s t r i c t l y m a te r i a l e n d s co n n ec ted wi t h se lf-aggra ndi z em en t

,a nd

,i n deed

,i n m a t te r s of a rt

,ha s a lwa ys

p r ided i t s e lf o n a w eek k n eed a nd co n sumpt iveco smopo l i ta n i sm . O1I t h e o th e r ha n d

,ou r p l u tocra cy

—t h a t i s t o sa y, ou r a r i s tocracy Of to morrow— i s

m ad e u p of sem i- fore ig n elem e n t s a nd of t h a t typeof A n g lo- Sa xo n w ho se sp ec i a l deve lopme n t s of commerc ia l ac t iv i t y lea ve h im n e i t h e r t ime n o r i n c l i n a t io nto befr i e n d t h e a rt i s t .Bes ides t h e se ge n e ra l Obj ec t io n s to a sys t em of

pr iva t e pa t ro n age t he re i s a l so t h e exce s s ive diffi cu l tyof i ts per so n a l a pp l ic a t ion . The two per so n s wh oa re to b e n efit by i t—he w h o prov ide s t he mo n ey a nd

h e wh o u t i l ize s t h e mo n ey n a tu ral ly m ove i n c i rc l esth a t a re wide ly removed from ea c h o t h er

,a n d

requ i re s a grea t effor t a n d some per so n a l sa c r ificeo n t h e pa r t Of t h e pa t ro n if he i s to seek ou t t hea r t i s t a nd p u t h i s mea n s a t h i s d i sposa l . A n d t h i sh e m u s t do

,for i t i s very u n l ike ly th a t th e a r t i s t

,

espec ia l ly t h e E n g l i s h a r t i s t,wil l b e a b l e to fa c e t h e

co n t i n u a l m i su n ders ta n d i n gs to w h ic h h e wo u ld beexpo sed if h e had t o approa c h t h e pa tro n . Weca n n o t ve ry we l l b lame a m a n of sp i r i t fo r refu s i n gto go rou n d ca p i n ha nd, f0r the sa /ee ofhis a rt

,w he n

O n c e exper ie n c e ha s ta ugh t h im th a t h e wi l l beu n der s tood to be ho ld i n g i t o u t for himself. Eve nwhe n t h e re la t io n s h i p of pa t ro n a n d pa t ro n ized h a sb ee n es ta b l i s hed i t b espea ks o n t h e p a r t of bot ha n u n a t ta i n a b le degree of m u t ua l rega rd a nd se lfforgetfu l n es s . The pa t ro n m u s t b e e n dowed wi t ht h e u tmos t sympa t h y a nd de l i ca cy of m i n d

,a nd

m u s t b e a lways 0 11 h i s gua rd to keep t he i n dex -ha n d


of benefits- rece ived po i n t i n g,a s i t wer e

,i n his ow n

favou r,w h i le t h e a r t i s t m u s t b e ab l e t o savehi s s e lf

re spec t by look i n g o n ly tow a rd s t h e u l t im a te Obj ec t sw h ic h fu r n i s h t h e rea so n fo r t h e i r com pa c t .We have o n ly to reflec t O11 Bee thove n ’ s l ud ic ro u s

a n d fl amboya n t a t t i tude of defia n c e towa rd s hispa t ro n s to see how d i s tre ss i n g suc h re la t io n s h ipsa r e apt to become . I n d eed , t h e v e ry fac t t h a t p r iva t epa t ro n a ge of t h e e igh tee n t h - ce n tu ry typ e ha s almos tceased to ex i s t po i n t s t h e mora l t h a t

,wi t h t h e r i s e

Of t h e democracy a nd t h e al t e ra t io n i n t h e soc i a ls ta tu s of t h e composer

,

1 i t n o lo n ger p rov ide s awo rkab l e a n d be n efic i a l sc h eme .

We m u s t t h e n t u r n to o th er so u rc e s if w e a re tofind t h e mech a n i sm n e ce ssa ry fo r t h e p re se n ta t io nof opera t i c wo rks . I h a ve al rea dy o u t l i n ed some oft h e a rgume n t s fo r a nd a ga i n s t the exped i e n t of S ta t ea id . I n a l l t h e se a rgume n t s i t i s p re sumed th a t aNa t io n a l Opera Hou s e would

,by i ts co n s t i tu t io n ,

m a ke adeq ua te p rov i s io n for t h e regula r pe rform a n c eOf E n g l i s h Opera s

,n ew a nd o ld . W i t h regard to t he

n ew wo rks th i s i s,howeve r

,n o more t h a n a p iou s

h ope , n or i s t h e re a n y c lea r ev id e n ce to be d er ivedfrom o th e r examp les of S ta t e ac t iv i ty i n a r t i s t i c m a t te r st h a t t h i s hope wo u ld be fu lfil led . I n deed

,i n som e

o t her depa r tme n t s of S ta t e co n t ro l,O 11 wh ic h th e

ep i t h e t “ Na t io n a l i s bes towed,i t h a s bee n fo u n d

n ecessa ry to red ress t h e pa rs imo n y of t h e r i ch es tn a t io n i n t h e wo r ld by t he ge n e ro s i ty of i t s p r iva tec i t iz e n s . I t m u s t

,howeve r

,be c a n d id ly a dm i t ted

t h a t d i fficu l t i es of t h i s so r t t e n d to d i sa ppea r if wesup pose th e po ss ib i l i ty of a ge n u i n e p ub l ic d es i refo r a n a deq u a t e N a t io n a l Opera Ho u s e

,a nd o f a

su s ta i n ed p ub l i c i n te res t wh i c h wou ld focu s i t s e lf1 See W a l l a ce ’ s The Thi ef/10111 af i

’l l usi r,p . 1 6 6 .


have prod u ced t h e i r sch oo l s b eca u se t h ey happe n toh ave fou n ded n a t io n a l Opera hou s es o r w he th er t h eyfou n ded t h e opera ho u se s beca u s e t h ey h ap pe n ed tohave p rodu c ed Sc hoo l s of Opera .

Th i s qu e s t io n,w h i c h o n e ha s h ea rd grave ly

d eba ted mo re t ha n o n ce,ca n

,Of cou rse

,be ea s i ly

red u ced to th e leve l of t h a t o t h er i n ge n iou s qu es t io na s to w h i c h c ame firs t

,t h e h e n o r t h e egg .

1 Fo r,

t h ough i t i s t ru e t h a t we find sub s id ized ope raho u se s i n a l l t ho se cou n t r i e s ( su c h a s Fra n ce

,I ta ly

,

a nd Germ a n y ) w h i c h po s se s s Na t i o n a l Sc h oo l s of

Opera, y e t i t i s equ a l ly t ru e t h a t w e find su b s id ized

opera h o u se s i n m a n y p l ac e s ( su c h a s Por tuga l,

Serv i a,a n d Sw i tze r l a n d ) wh ic h do n o t pos s es s

Na t io n a l Schoo l s of Opera . We a re t h erefo rea sk ed to ta ke o n e of two v iews : e i t h e r t h a t t h esub s id iz i n g of Opera hou s e s i n Fra n ce , I ta ly , a nd

Germ a n y prod u ced t h e o pe ra s t h a t a r e p l ayedt h em ( i n wh i c h ca s e w e m ay s ho r t ly expec t Por t u

guese , Se rv i a n , a n d Sw i s s Sc hoo l s of Opera ) , o r th a tt h e w r i t i n g o f t h e opera s by Fre n c h

,Germ a n

,a nd

I ta l i a n compo ser s p rodu ced t h e n ec e ss i ty Of subs idiz ed ope ra ho u se s 111 w h i ch to p l a y th em ( i n wh i c hca se we m ay expec t t h a t a more m i n u t e exam i n a t i o nwo u ld r eve a l to u s t h e a c tu a l ex i s t e n c e of Po rtugu e se

,

Se rv i a n,a nd Sw i s s Sch oo l s o f Ope ra 9

Of co u r se t h i s G i lber t i a n log i c co n ta i n s wi t h i ni t se lf a t lea s t two fa ta l fa l l a c ies . If w e gra n t

,o n t h e

1 Or t h a t u n fa t h om a b l e m u s i co - n a t i o n a l my s te ry wh e t he r VV elshm en enga ge i n the m i l k t ra de bec a u se t hey h a ve fine vo i ces o rh a ve fi ne vo i ce s bec a u se t h ey enga ge i n the m i l k t ra de .

Q'

I‘he m u n i c i p a l i t y o f Sa i go n (Coc h i n—Ch i n a ) s u b s i d i z es a n

Ope ra hou se . The pe rform a n ce s a re s a i d t o be e x ce l l en t,

a nd

Ofte n a t tended by the n a t i \ e s , bu t i t i s u n l i ke l y t h a t w e s ha l leve r h ea r o f a Coch i n -Ch i ne se Sc hoo l Of Opera .

IX THE COMPOSER AND H I S PUBLIC 2 87

o n e ha n d,t h a t t h e me re sub s id iz i n g o f ope ra hou se s

i s a n eces sa ry pre l im i n a ry to t h e w r i t i n g of Opera s , i tis p la i n t h a t t her e mu s t be i n eve ry c a s e m a n y o t h ern eces sa ry pre l im i n a r i es

,su c h a s t h o s e of ra c e , c l ima t e ,

geograph i ca l a n d po l i t i ca l co n d i t io n wh i c h m ay b eabse n t i n t h e ca se s Of Por tuga l

,S erv i a

,o r Swi tzer

la n d . Aga i n,if w e gra n t t ha t t h e w r i t i n g Of opera s

p rodu ce s t h e n ecess i ty of su b s id ized hou s e s i n w h i c hto p la y t hem

,i t i s equ a l ly p l a i n t h a t t h i s a r t i s t ic

ac t iv i t y is no t t h e o n ly cau s e w h i c h ca n c a l l i n toex i s te n ce suc h hou se s

,fo r we k n ow

,a s a m a t te r Of

fac t,t ha t Po r tuga l

,Serv i a

,a nd Sw i tze r l a n d h ave 110

Sc hoo l s Of Opera a n d ye t po sse s s sub s id ized hou se s .W i t h t h i s qu e s t io n of t h e co n n ec t i o n t h a t ex i s t s

b e tw ee n t h e produ c t io n o f t h e ope ra a n d t he sub

s idi z ing Of t h e opera h ou se w e s h al l perh aps dea lfa i r ly if we q uo te i t a s a n examp l e of wh a t i s ca l ledi n log i c a n “ i n se parab l e a c c ide n t

,

”l i ke th e b lack n e s s

of c row s . U n fo r tu n a t e ly,a s w e ca n se e a t Sou t h

Ke n s i n gto n,c row s a re occa s iona l ly w h i te

,a n d i t i s

j u s t o n t h i s po i n t th a t som e d ifficu l ty a r i s e s w h e n w ecom e to app ly t h e Co n t i n e n ta l log i c t o ou r E n g l i s hco n d i t io n s . For

,a s a r efe re n c e to a ny m u s i cal

d i c t io n a ry wi l l show,E n g la n d ha s produ ced Opera

co n t i n u a l ly . On t h e o t h er h a n d,t h ough to a ny

wea l t h y n a t io n th e su bs id iz i n g of a Na t io n a l OperaHou se i s a m a t te r of comp a ra t ive ea s e

,s h e a lo n e

amo n g suc h n a t io n sha s n o t do n e so . I t i s w h e n w eco n s ider t h i s fa c t a n d t h e fa c t t h a t al l ou r ac t iv i t i essoc i a l , po l i t ica l , i n t e l lec tual , a nd emot io n a l—h a ved i ffe red wide ly from s im i la r Co n t i n e n ta l a c t iv i t i e st h a t we fee l t h e n eces s i ty of co n s ider i n g whet h e r w em ay n o t be t h e

“ wh i te c row ” i n t h i s i n t e r n a t io n a la rgume n t .On t h i s po i n t I Offer a n op i n io n o n ly wi t h th e

2 88 MU S IC AND NATIONAL I SM CHA P .

u tmo st diffidence a n d wi t h t h e very fu l l c o n sc iou sn es s t h a t

,i n t h e prese n t s ta te of u t te r s ta g n a t io n

,a n y

cha n ge w h ic h g ives ou r compo ser s a c ha n c e of do i n ggood Work i s a c ha n ge for t h e be t t e r . I n t h a t s e n s emy v iew i s t h a t t h e me a n e s t ho u s e of wood a n dwa t t les

,p rov ided i t w e re se t u p wi t h t h e co n sc iou s

d e te rm i n a t io n th a t i t s hou ld be n efit E n g l i s h a r t,

wou ld be a n adva n c e o n Cove n t Ga rd e n a n d a ll t h emo n ey t h a t su pport s i t .Th i s i s

,h oweve r

,a fi n a n c i a l m a t t er wh i c h m ay

ea s i ly be take n too deep . I n t he c h ap te r wh i c h S i rChar les S ta n ford 1 ha s d evo ted to th e s tudy of S ta t ea id,h e sa ys

,

“ The pr i n c ip le i s e i t he r good o r bad,

a n d if i t i s bad fo r o u r c ou n t ry i t i s eq ua l ly bad foro t h e r cou n t r i e s b u t l ay i n g a s id e t h e po ss ib i l i t yt h a t i n a n es t of b l ack crow s t h e re m ay be o n e wh i t ec row w ho wa n t s a d iffe re n t d i e t

,w e may fa i r ly a sk

,i s

i t a pr i n c ip le a t a l l ? Su re ly i t i s a mere m a t terof exped i e n cy

,a nd if t h e re i s a n y pr i n c ip le abou t

i t,t h e pr i n c i p l e i s t h a t money must he supp lied

somehow to support Opera . Th i s doe s n o t , of cou r se,

ge t u s v ery m u c h fu r t h er forwa rd,t hough w e m u s t

remembe r tha t almost 110 effor t s h ave bee n made toprocu re t h i s mo n ey from sou r ce s o t h e r t ha n t hose oft h e Sta te o r of t h e Mu n ic ipal i ty .

Ma n y o t h er sou rce s ex i s t,a nd t h e ge n e ro s i ty Of

t h e Br i t i s h pub l i c i n suppor t i n g a ll fo rm s of soc i a le n t e rpr i s e h a s come to be r ega rd ed a s a proverb . Tode sc r ibe o n e—t e n t h of t h e obj ec ts good , bad , a nd

i n d iffere n t t o w h i c h w eal th y peop l e d ed i ca t e t h e i rwea l t h by sub sc r i pt io n or beque s t wo uld take al a rger vo l ume t h a n 1 am n ow w r i t i n g . E i t h e r a si n d iv idual s o r a s soc ie t i es t h ey m a i n ta i n ou r h osp i ta l sa n d o u r m i s s io n s

,a n d i n grea t p a rt ou r chu rc h ; t h ey

1 In h i s Studies a nd Memoz irs,p . 10 .


Opera . We m igh t,i n deed

,i n our c hagr i n a t t h i s

to ta l i n d iffer e n ce,h a ve a lmos t w e lcom ed a soc i e ty

for i t s “ p reve n t io n ,” su ppress io n

,o r “ to ta l abo l i

t io n .

” Bu t w e a re d e n ied eve n t h i s tep id p leasu r e,

a n d we h ave to fa ce t h e so l id fac t t h a t,i n sp i t e of

t h e talk a n d su rfac e e n t h u s i a sm of yea r s,n o s i n g l e

l iv i n g so u l of a ll t h e m a n y r i c h a nd su per- r i c h produced by o u r soc i a l sys tem i s n ow r eady to p u tdow n a s h i l l i n g—p iec e for n a t io n a l E n g l i s h Opera .

I d o n o t doub t for a mome n t t h a t if a n y of t her i c h am a t e u rs w h o se p l ea su re i t i s t o co n t ro l t h ed e s t i n i e s of m u s ic i n Lo n do n w ere to devo te a n hou rt o th e subj ec t t h ey wou ld see i t s u rge n t n eces s i t i es .Let t h em a t tem pt to r eco n s t i tu t e in their own

businesses t h e cond i t io n s w h i c h t h e E n g l i s h opera t i ccompo ser ha s t o face i n hi s . Let th em co n s iderb efor e t h ey b l ame th e E n g l i s h compo se r—a s I haveh ea rd h im b l amed—w h a t t h e i r own pro sper i ty wou ldb e if t h ey a t t em pt ed to s ta r t a n ew a n d haza rdou sc ommerc i a l e n t erpr i s e wi t ho u t ca p i ta l

,wi tho u t c r ed i t

,

wi t hou t eve n a n office . Wh a t wou ld t h ey th i n k ifth ey we re requ i red to co n c e ive a n d execu t e grea tp la n s w h e n t h e o n ly grea t p la n poss ib l e wa s t h e p l a nto keep al ive . App roac h a n y o n e of t h es e ge n t leme n

,w hose d i le t ta n t e v i ew s a s to t h e s evera n ce

b e twee n ca p i ta l a n d e n ergy o n ly beg i n t o asser t t h emse lves a fte r fou r O’c lock

,wi t h a propos i t io n

,b e i t

o i l i n Ca l ifor n i a,t imber i n Orego n

,or fishi n Br i t i s h

Co l umb i a . Does h e n o t k n ow a t o n c e t ha t t h ere a retwo q ues t io n s t o b e a n swe red— firs t

,i s t h e propos i

t i o n a good o n e a n d,s eco n d

,w h ere is t h e mo n ey

to come from ?

A n d th es e a re exac t ly t he two qu e s t io n s wh ic h a reco n ta i n ed i n th e E n g l i s h opera t ic prob l em

,for t h e

a n swe r to t h e q u e ry a s to w h ic h came first,t he he n

IX THE COMPOSER AND H I S PUBLIC 2 9 1

o r t h e egg,i s

,i n th i s ca se

,Bo th . Tha t i t i s u s e les s

t o pu t u p so m a n y t hou sa n d pou n d s ’ wor t h o f b r icksa n d morta r t h e m u s i c—h a l l perform a n c e to- n igh t i nCambr idge Ci r cu s te s t ifie s t h a t i t i s j u s t a s u se les s toexp ec t Eng l i s h compo se rs to fou n d a Schoo l ofOperaby wa n der i n g a bo u t t h e s l ums of Cove n t Ga rd e n w i t ht he i r sco re s u n der t h e i r a rm s t h e “ Gra n d sea so nbea r s u n de n i a b le w i t n ess .I n s tudy i n g t h i s ques t io n w e m u s t m ake u p ou r

m i n d to d i s rega r d a ll t h os e fa tuou s p rop h ec i e s wh i c har e r egu lar ly c roa ked o u t a s soo n a s t h e wo rd sE n g l i s h Opera ” a re me n t io n ed

,a n d for t h i s ve ry

s imp l e rea so n,t h a t t h e m a t ter h a s n ever bee n p u t

fa i r ly to th e t e s t . No o n e ha s ever ye t com e forwa rd equ ipped wi t h bo t h t h e m o n ey a nd t h e s i n gl eeyed d eterm i n at io n to offer t h e E n gl i s hma n am a t e r i a l ba s i s 011 w h ic h h e ca n e rec t h i s a r t i s t i cs t ru c t u re s . I t i s t ru e t h a t

,a t lo n g i n te rva l s

,i n d i

v id ua l composer s have secu red i so la ted pe rform a n ce sof t he i r op era s i t i s t rue t h a t pub l i s h ers h ave occas iona lly

—a nd,be i t sa id

,wi t h the grea te s t ge n eros i ty

offered sums of mo n ey a nd perform a n ce s a s p r ize sto E n g l i s h composer s

,i t i s t ru e tha t S i n ge rs

,im

p resa rios , co n d u c tors , a nd o t h er s h ave from t ime tot ime mou n t ed E n gl i s h ope ra s a nd opera s i n E n gl i s h

,

e i t he r from a ge n u i n e de s i re to fu r t h er t h e cau se of

E n g l i s h m u s i c o r from m ere mo t ive s of per so n a lga i n a n d amb i t io n ; b u t i n a ll t h e va s t m a s s of

pr iva te beneficence to wh ic h I have a l l uded a bove,

a nd i n a ll t h e i n fi n i te sea rc h i n gs a fte r good e n d sw h ic h t h i s beneficenee presupposes

,t h er e i s n o t o n e

i n s ta n c e of mo n ey devo ted wi t h a s i n gle eye to t h i sobj ec t .From th i s

,i n deed

,w e m a y

,i n a m a n n e r , ta ke

co u rage , fo r t h e ba t t l e ca n n o t b e sa id to be lo s t


before i t i s b egu n . I n o t her d epa r tm e n t s of mu s i ct h e ba t t le ha s begu n , a n d we ca n n o te v e ry ev ide n ts ig n s t ha t t ho se w ho a re ab le to h e lp t h e compose ra re n o t ig n o ra n t of h i s wa n t s . The i n s t i tu t io n of

t h e Pa tro n ’ s F u n d by M r . Er n e s t Palmer i s a la n dm ar k i n pr iva te m u s i ca l ph i la n t h ro py . By th e t e rm sof t h i s fu n d h e p l a ced a t t h e d i spo sal of t h e p a t ro nH i s Maj e s ty t h e K i n g—a l arge sum of mo n ey to b ed evo ted i n va r iou s wa ys t o t h e e n cou rageme n t ofyou n g Br i t i s h m u s i c i a n s

,a n d i t i s sa t i sfac to ry to n o te

a ge n e ral agreeme n t a s to t h e fa r- see i n g wi sdom a n dn ob i l i t y of pu rpose wh ic h i n sp i red th e fo u n der ’ sge n e ro s i ty .

Of M r . Josep h Beec h am ’ s l a rger (bu t more cosmopo l i ta n ) e n terpr i s es I h ave l i t t l e to s ay h e re , a s t h ee n erg i es of h i s weal t h a re n o t p r im a r i ly d evot ed tot h e obj ec t w h i c h I am d i sc u s s i n g . The me thodw h ich h e h a s adopted of p l ac i n g h i s resou rc e s a t t h ed i s posa l of o n e m a n— in t h i s ca se his son— s eem s tom e to b e pecu l i a r ly sou n d a n d a dm i rab l e . I t recogn iz es t h e ca rd i n a l t r u t h t ha t , i n t h i s cou n t ry a t a n yra te

,a Boa rd Of Ma n ageme n t d epe n d s i n t h e lo n g

ru n 0 11 o n e m a n for i t s mome n tum,a n d

,by do i n g

away w i t h t h e o t h er m embers of t h e Boa rd,i t u t i l ize s

t o t h e fu l l t h e i n i t i at ive,t h e r e sou rce

,a n d t h e bus i n es s

capac i ty of t h i s o n e m a n , a nd,a t t h e same t ime , gets

r id of t h e u n c er ta i n ty of pu rpo s e w h i c h is u sual lyi n s epa rab le from a r t i s t ic comm i t t ee s . Th u s t h eobj ec t s of h i s e n te rpr i s e—wh a t eve r t h ey m ay bea re p roba b ly a t ta i n ed w i t h a m i n im um of co n fu s io n .

I n deed,I ca n imag i n e 110 sc h em e bet te r fit ted t o

cop e w i t h t h e s t r i n ge n t n ecess i t ies of E n gl i s h Operat h a n t he o n e—m a n -a n d -o n e-fina nc ier sc h eme of M r .Jo sep h Beech am

,a nd i t i s to be h oped t ha t som e o n e

of o u r very r ic h m e n m ay be i n s p i red byhis examp l e

2 94 MU S IC AND NATIONAL I SM CHA P .

prese n t t h ey a re e n gaged i n do i n g very d iffe re n t a n dle s s impor ta n t t h i n gs

,a n d th e sum of m o n ey wh ic h

,

wi s e ly a n d sympa t he t ica l ly expe n ded,wou ld pu t a n

e n d to t h i s s ta t e of affa i rs wou ld be a very sm al l o n e ,for com poser s

,u n l ike j oc keys

,pub l i ca n s

,a n d some

o t he r rea l ly u sefu l members of t h e comm u n i ty , h a ven o wid e s t re tc h ed i dea s 011 t he s ubj ec t of perso n a lga i n . I n deed

,t h e amou n t of mo n ey t h a t i s pa id

away i n s ix nion ths,n o t to th e s inge i s , bu t t o th e

s tage -h a n d s of a l a rge Opera house,wou ld

,if app l i ed

i n t h e way tha t I have sugges ted,do more good to

E n g l i s h Opera t h a n a l l t h e ca su a l perform a n ce s of

t he l a s t twe n ty-fiv e yea rs .The pre l im i n ary expe n d i t u re of mo n ey m ay

,of

cou r se,b e m ad e i n m a n y ways

,b u t i n n o way more

profitab ly t h a n i n t h e prov i s io n Of “ book s,

” w ho sel eve l Of dram a t ic a n d poet ic a l i n t e res t wi l l be h ighe n ough to a t t ra c t t h e a t te n t io n of t h e mos t p rom i s i n gcom pose r s . Ther e a r e a doze n s u c h me n i n Lo n do na lo n e , w h o a re 0 11 t h e loo k- o u t for a good book ,

”

w h i c h,n eed les s to say, w i l l n o t , excep t by t h e meres t

acc ide n t,d rop from t h e c loud s i n to t h e i r fie ld Ofv i s ion .

Th i s u n iversa l d iffi cu l ty i n fi n d i n g a subj ec t tow r i t e 0 11 i s a commo n p la ce 111 t he lame n ta t io n s of t h em u s ica l J erem i a h

,a n d 0 11 t h i s top i c t h e com poser s

th em se lve s a re ge n era l ly d iv ided u p i n t o t h ree group s .We ha ve

,firs t

,t h e la rge m aj o r i t y o f composers w ho ,

co n ce n t ra t i n g t h e i r a t t e n t io n so le ly 0 11 t h e m u s i ca ls ide of t h e i r a r t

,a l low t he i r eagern e s s fo r m u s ica l

exp re ss io n to t r i p u p t he i r d ram a t ic j udgme n t . Th i sc ulpa b le n egl ec t o f o n e h a lf of th e i r a r t pa r t ly exp l a i n st h e ex i s te n ce of t h a t v a s t w reck age whose fragm e n t sa re s t rew n f ar a nd w id e a lo n g th e s h o re s o f Opera t i ch i s to ry . A composer Of t h i s type i s ge n era l ly g ifte dwi t h a ge n u i n e bu t i n d i sc r im i n a t e c rav i n g for t h ea


triéa l expre s s io n , a nd t h i s wa n t of d i sc r im i n a t io n h a sr esu l ted

,abroad

,i n t h e p rod uc t io n o f su c h work s of

m i n g led ge n i u s a n d id iocy a s t h e Za uberflOte a n dEu rya n t h e .”

A seco n d type i s fou n d i n t h o se few compo ser sw hose i n fl ex ib i l i t y of m i n d preve n t s t h em see i n g t ha tt h e e n d of p lay i n g i s to h o ld th e m i rro r u p to n a t u re .

Th i s aloofn es s Of m i n d,per h aps caus ed i n par t by a n

over- s e n s ib i l i ty to t h e ac tu a l ph ys ica l a s soc i a t io n s of

the s tage,i n va r i ab ly produ ce s a n ob l iqu i t y of ar t i s t i c

v i s io n . The composer fo rget s t ha t t hese a s soc i a t io n sa r e n e i t h er i n tegral n or pec u l i a r t o t h e s t age

,a n d he

i s l i ab le to be forc ed i n to a n a t t i tude w h i c h,a s a c lo se

exam i n a t io n w i l l Sh ow,i t se lf co n t r ib u te s to a degrad a

t io n wor s e t h a n t h e o n e aga i n s t wh i c h i t p ro te s ts .

For the ar t i s t,refu s i n g to t he s tage wh a t h e gra n t s t o

l i t e ra tu re a n d pa i n t i n g,degrade s i t from th e h igh p l ac e

w h i c h i t s h ould occupy a s t h e u n ive rsa l exp re ss io n ofh um a n n a tu re t o t h e l evel of a tub 0 11 wh i c h h e ca ns ta n d to preac h w ha tever moral doc t r i n e h e wi s h es .Of t h i s d i abo l i cal ly we l l—i n te n t ion ed perver s i t y

,110

be t t e r examp le s ca n be g ive n t h a n Bee t h ove n a n dM e n de l s soh n

,of whom th e form er cou ld o n ly pe r

suade hi s ge n i u s t o i l l u s t ra t e o n e top i c 0 11 t h e s tage—tha t of w ife ly devo t io n—w h i l e t he la t te r

,t ho ugh

ful l of ea r n es t i n te n t io n s,wa s pr eve n ted by the u l t ra

refinemen t of h i s n a tu r e from ever galva n iz i n g t h emi n to l ife .

1

Of t h e t h i rd type o f compose r— h im w h o wi sh e s,

l ike Wag n e r,to take up t h e bu rd e n a s i t wa s l a id

1 For the ex t ra ord i n a ry pe r s i s ten ce w i t h wh i c h M ende l s soh nc l u ng to the i dea of “ ge t t i n g a n Ope ra boo k , a nd the a ecompa ny i ng fa s t i d i ou s n es s of m i n d t h a t a lwa ys m a dehim rej ec t wh a tw a s offered , see G rove

’ s a r t i c le M ende l s so h n i n the D i ctiona ry .

Sc hum a nn had m u ch the same d iffi cu l ty .


dow n i n a n c ie n t Greec e,a n d to b e h imse lf t h e m aker

of t h e w h o le a r t i s t i c s t ruc tu re—d ram a,word s

,a n d

m u s i c—I n eed say l i t t le . I n h i s h a n d s i s u n do ub ted lyt he mu s i c-d rama of t h e fu tu re

,b u t t h e acc ide n tal

co n j u n c t i o n Of so m a n y ab i l i t i es i n o n e m i n d ca n

occu r b u t rare ly,a n d t he proces se s of su c h a m i n d

ca n n o t r ec e ive m u c h he lp from a n y ex te r n a l organIz a t i on .

I t is ra t h e r to t h e firs t of t h ese c la s s e s of operat iccomposers t ha t I w i s h to draw a t t e n t io n , for i t is j u s tt h i s c l a s s of i n te l lec t t h a t ca n be b e n efit ed a n d savedfrom d i sappo i n tm e n t by sym pa t h e t i c d i r ec t io n . Wem u s t remember t ha t

,t h ough the d ifficul ty of s ec u r i n g

a good Opera-book ha s become a h a c k n eyed byeword

,a lmos t n o a t t emp tha s bee n m ade to so lve t h i s

d ifficu l t y i n t h e c omposer ’s i n t eres t . I n t h e seve nteen tha nd e igh t ee n t h ce n tu r i e s

,composer s i n he r i t ed

Opera -book s i n exa c t ly t h e same way a s t h e i r forefa t h er s

,in t h e s i x t ee n th , i n h e r i ted Ca n t i Ferm i , a n d

i n co n s equ e n c e t h e d ram a i t se lf— t h a t i s t o say, t h epr i n c ipal pa r t of t h e opera—ra n 011 l i n e s a s s te reotyped a s t ha t of a c h es s- boa rd . From th i s

,amo n g

o th er ca u se s,came th e te n de n cy t o de n y t he “ d ram a

i ts p rope r shar e i n t h e Opera , a nd o n e of i ts wor s teffec t s i s see n i n t h e u n j u s t ly low s ta tu s w h i c h t he“ l i bre t t i s t ” ha s come to occupy i n com par i so n w i t ht h a t of t he composer .The resul t of t h i s ca n be s ee n i n a l l ou r ea r ly n i n e

teen thce n tu ry Opera . At t ha t t ime i t wa s t h e cu s tomfo r a compose r of d i s t i n c t io n to a pproac h a l i t te ra teu ro f n o d i s t i n c t io n a n d to i n v i te him to su pp ly abook .

” 1 The term s Offered ge n eral ly left h im i n1 Even a t the pre sen t day Ve rd i ’s co l la bo ra t i o n w i t h Bo i to ( la tei n the n i ne teen t h cen t u ry ) i s a lways re fe r red t o a s a n a lmos td i v i n e l y o rda i ned i n sp i ra t i o n on the pa r t o f the com poser .

2 98 MU S IC AND NATIONAL I SM CH A P .

a re se l ec t ed a n d t h e s i n c e r i ty of th e effor ts t h a ta r e m ade to p rov ide t h em wi t h i n sp i r i n g ma ter i al .The qual i t i es of tac t , pa t ie n c e , a n d per severa n c e a repu t i n to p la y a s a m a t t e r of ro u t i n e i n e n gag i n gs i n gers

,i n fit t i n g t h em w i t h co n ge n i a l pa r t s

,a n d i n

t h e e la bo ra t io n of a ll t h e orch est ra l a n d sce n ic d e ta i l sof a n ope i a ho u se . There ca n b e n o reaso n w hy t h eySho u ld n o t h ave t h e same good effec t w h e n th ey a reapp l i ed to t h e so l u t io n of a

t i‘

p i oblem of a t l ea s t equalimpor ta n c e .I t i s imposs i b l e for me to more t h a n h i n t a t t h e

m a n y qu e s t io n s of deta i l w h i c h a r i s e,w h e n w e

imag i n e o u r o pera s comp l eted . On t h i s po i n t Ip res uppo se t h a t a compo se r who had bee n se l ec tedto fu r n i s h a n opera wo u ld be re l i eved from

,a t a n y

ra te,a port io n ofhi s n orm a l— it s h ould be ab n orm a l

m u s ica l ac t iv i t i e s,so t ha t h e c ould br i n g to hi s

work a m i n d u n h ampered by d a i ly fi n a n c i a l worr ies .W i t ho u t su c h r e l iefhi s wo rk wi l l o n ly sh ow

,a s i t

i n va r i ab ly n ow s h ow s,t h a t i t i s a mere n ervou s

i n t e r l ude hu r r ied ly i n t e rpo l a t ed i n to h i s more p res s i n ge n gageme n t s a s execu ta n t

,co n d u c to r

,t eac h er

,o r

a r ra n ger . A compo se r who i s t h u s freed fromme n ta l a n x i e ty a nd h ea r te n ed by th e pro spec t of apub l i c perform a n ce wo u ld g ive of h i s be s t . Weshou ld

,i n de ed

,h ave to be pa t i e n t i n wa i t i n g for

re su l t s,per haps for a yea r o r two , b u t t h e good

resu l t s wou ld come i n t ime to j u s t ify o u r pa t i e n c e .The q u e s t io n of t h e se lec t io n of composer s a n d

operas offe rs grea t d iffic u l ty,espec i a l ly 111 Vi ew of t h e

l ame n ta b le re su l t s s how n i n t h e se lec t io n of som epr ize ope ra s . I t h i n k w e m ay ta ke i t for gra n t edt ha t t h e m a n to j udge t h e m er i t s of a mu s i c d ramais n o t t h e m a n wh o i s so l e ly a m u s ic i a n . Mo reespec i a l ly he sh ou ld n o t be a m a n wh os e ac t iv i t ie s

i x TH E COMPOSER AND H IS PUBLIC 2 99

r emove h im,howeve r S l igh t ly

,from popu lar sym

pa thies . Aft e r a ll i t i s th e p ub l i c w ho h a s to sayYes ” o r “ No to a n opera i n t h e lo n g r u n .

A n d,t h erefore

,i t i s b e tt e r to lea ve t h e se lec t io n to

som e spec i a l i s t w ho— if he ca n n o t i n eve ry cas es ay The pub l i c wa n t s t h i s —ca n i n most case s saywi t h co n fide n ce “ The pub l i c doe s n o t wa n t t ha t .I suppose t h a t n i n e per so n s o u t of every t e n w i l l

s ay t ha t t h i s i n vo lves a d i sa s trou s“ lower i n g of t h e

s ta n da rd . B u t,apa r t from t h e fa c t t ha t 110 s ta n da rd

ca n ex i s t exc ept t h a t set by pop u la r a p prec i a t io n,I

m u s t po i n t ou t t h a t w e h ave a t pr e se n t no sta nda rd a t

a ll,a n d t ha t

,t h erefore

,eve n t h e sm a l le s t po s s ib le

s ta n dard i s,for u s

,a n a dv a n c e . A nd i t i s n o t o n ly

a n adva n ce,i t i s a fou n d a t io n for u s to b u i ld o n i n

t h e fu tu re , a n d , pro v ided t h e fou n d a t io n i s l a id , n o tw i t h e n vy a n d m a l ic e

,bu t wi t h hope a n d s tre n gth , i t

do e s n o t m a t te r o n e j o t o r t i t t l ehow i t i s l a id . Wem ay be for t h e mom e n t lower i n g ou r s ta n da rd i ncompar i so n w i t h t h e s ta n da rd s of fore ig n a rc h i tec tu re ,b u t w e a r e ra i s i n g a ctua l bui ldings by wh i c h w e ca n

fo rm a nd perfec t ou r s ta n d ard s i n t h e fu tu re .Before c los i n g t h i s very h a s ty a nd imperfec t ske tc hI m u s t say a few word s 0 11 t h e m u ch deba t ed q u es t io nof “ t h e ru n . I n t h i s m a t ter Lo n do n , owi n g toi ts s ize

,i s sca rc e ly compa rab l e to a n y Co n t i n e n tal

c i ty,a nd i t i s t h erefore imposs ib l e to d ed u ce from

Co n t i n e n tal prac t ic e a n y ru le s w h i ch would be o f

serv i ce h ere . The q u es t io n ha s b ee n a sked , 1 “Whowo u ld wa n t t o h ea r eve n Don Giov a nni every n igh tfor t h ree mo n t h s ? ” Of cou r se n o indi v idua l p ersonwould wa n t to do so

,b u t a r i thme t ic te l l s u s t h a t t h ree

mo n t h s of “ D011 G iova n n i b ea r s m u c h t h e samere l a t io n sh i p to Lo n do n ’ s popul a t io n a s h a lf a doze n

1 Studies a nd Al emoi ies, S ir Cha r le s V . S t a n ford .

3OO MUS IC AND NATIONALISM CHA P .

perform a n ce s does to t h a t of a l i t t le Germ a n tow n of

half a m i l l io n i n hab i ta n t s . I n deed,if Lo n do n ever

wa n t s to h ea r a n opera,i n t he way tha t i t wa n t ed

to hea r Ha n s e l a nd Grete l 0 11 i ts firs t p rod u c t io n,

I do n o t see h ow the “ fa ta l pr i n c i p le of t h e ru n i s

t o be avo id ed,u n les s o n e i s pr epared to d raw a n

a r t ific i a l l i n e a n d to res tr i c t t h e r igh t Of s ee i n g t h eo pera t o a m i n or i ty . At pres e n t

,however

,t h i s ha s

o n ly a n academ i c i n t e re s t .Ther e a re m a n y o t h er po i n t s of s e lec t io n

,fi n a n ce

,

a n d p rod uc t io n w h i c h offer th em se lves a s t em p t i n gsubj ec t s for s t udy . I h a ve

,howeve r

,r ig id ly exc l uded

from t hese pa ragra ph s a ll q ue s t io n s of de ta i l beca u sea l l suc h qu es t io n s ca n be a n swe red by a n a pp l ica t io nof t h e ord i n a ry m et hod s of o rga n iza t io n . Thedes idera ta t h a t l i e b eh i n d a n d m u s t p recede t hem a re ,fir s t

,t h e co n sc iou s n es s of ou r fa i l u r e i n t h e pas t , a nd

s eco n d,t h e s t u rdy be l i ef th a t i t i s o n ly by aba n do n i n g

o u r o ld st er i l e me t hod s a nd by sea rc h i n g ou t some“ sp i r i tual u n io n ” wi t h ou r cou n t rym e n t ha t we ca nhope to fou n d a t ru e Sc hoo l of Na t io n a l Opera .

These two co n v ic t io n s m u s t b e fixed i n o u r m i n d sa n d hear t s b efore we ca n proceed to pu t i n to fru i tfulse rv ice a n y m ec h a n i sm wh i c h m ay be d ev i sed to he lpu s towa rd s ou r goa l .Th e m ech a n i sm i t se lf ca l ls , fir s t , fo r pa t r io t i sm a n d

ge n e ro s i t y i n supp ly i n g th e n ece ssa ry mo n ey,a n d

seco n d,for t he k n owledge a nd sym pa t h y wi t hou t

w h i c h i ts proper a pp l ica t io n i s impo s s ib l e . Ne i t h ert h e mo n ey n or t h e good—w i l l t o a pp ly i t ca n be of th el eas t use wi t h ou t t h e o th e r . The be n efit to ou r ar tOf a w i se p rev i s io n i n t h e a pp l ic a t io n of su c h fu n d swou ld be i n ca lcu la b l e

,a nd i n a cou n t ry wh e re every

f orm o f good a nd hopefu l work a nd n o t a few formsOf t h e mos t ex t ravaga n t fadd i sm mee t wi t h s uppor t

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLI SH OPERA

NOTE—A s fa r a s I am a w a re t h e re is n o comp lete Engl i shb i b l i ogra p hy o f Eu r o pea n Ope ra , nor is t he re a ny Eng l i shb i b l i og ra p hy of the mo re res t r i c ted t op ic

,Eng l i s h O pera .

The tw o subjec ts n a t u ra l ly i n te rsec t,a nd the fo rm e r is to

be s t u d i ed,firs t

,i n the p u b l i shed w r i t i ngs of com pose rs su c h

a s G l u ck, Be r l i o z , Wa gn e r , a nd so o n ; secon d,i n the

c r i t ic i sms on t hese c om pose rs ’ m u s i c a l w o rks a nd 011 t h e i rt h e o r ies . Of t h ese c r i t ic i sm s I m ay i n s ta n ce Mr. Ernes tNewm a n ’s ela bo ra t e s tud i es of “G l u ck ” a nd “Wa gn e r

”

;

t h i rd,in the b i og ra p h ies o f pa r t ic u l a r c om posers ; a nd fo u r t h

,

i n the ge n e ra l h i s t o r ies a nd d ic t i o n a r i es of m us i c a nd of

the s t a ge . For “Mu s ic i a n s a s W r i te rs o n M u s i c ” see

“The Oxfor d H i s t o ry of Mu s ic,V o l . V I .

,C h a p . XV .

,by

Ed w a r d Da n n re u t h e r,

a nd for ge n e ra l l i te ra t ure C . F .

Becke r ’s ca ta l ogue a nd J . E. Ma t t h ew ’

s“The L i te ra ture

of M u s ic .

”

The m o re pa r t ic u l a r t o p i c o f Eng l i s h Ope ra a nd Eng l ishOpe ra t i c co n d i t i o n sha s , o f c o u rse , a m u c h l ess ex ten s i v e l i te rat u re

,a nd the fo l low i ng i s, I be l i e ve , a firs t a t tem p t to fu rn i s h a

b i b l i og ra p hy . Eng l is h Ope ra t i c h i s t o ry a nd the ge n e ra l l i te rat u re of the Eng l i s h s ta ge a re

,espec i a l ly in the e igh teen t h

ce n t u ry,m i x ed u p w i t h on e a n o t h e r

,a nd i n m a ny ca ses the

da tes a nd de ta i l s o f Ope ra t i c p rod uc t i o n s h a v e t o be so ugh t i nco n tem po ra ry n ew spa pe r a d ve r t i sem e n t s a nd c r i t ic i sms

,i n

p layh o u se gu i des , a nd i n c o l lec t i o n s o f p l a y- b i l ls, s u c h a s t h a tof the Hon . S i d n ey Ca r r G lyn i n the Br i t i sh Muse um .

I h a v e o n ly i n d i c a ted on e or t w o Of the bes t-k n o w n so u rcesof i n fo rm a t i o n 011 the s u bj ec t o f o u r ea r ly m a sq u es .

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH OPERA 303

A DD I SON, JOSEPH i n The Specta tor .

(H i s we l l—known hum orou s refe rence s t o I t a l i a n Ope ra i nh i s t ime . )

A LGAROTT I , COU NT : A n essay on the Ope ra . Lon do n,

1 7 6 7 .

(On su c h su bj ec t s a s the Com pos i t i o n o f Opera,S i n g i ng ,

a nd The S t ru c t u re of T h ea t res . )A PTHORP

,W . F . The Oper a , P a st a nd P resen t . Lo n don

1 90 1 . W i t h po r t ra i ts .

(A gen era l H i s to ry o f Ope ra . Ch a p te r I . (“Beg i n n i n gs

Cha p te r IX . (“The Deve l opmen t o f the a rt of the Opera

a nd Ch a p ter X . (“ The P resen t a re o f u n i ve r s a l

a ppl i ca t i o n . Per i ’ s Prefa ce t o Eu r i d i ce a nd G l u c k ’ sPrefa ce t o A l ces te a re pr i n ted a t the end of the boo k . )

A RD IT I,LUIG I My R emin i scences . Ed i t ed a nd com p i l ed by

the Ba r o n ess v on Zed l i t z . Lo n don,1 896 .

(Recol lec t i on s o f Frenc h , I ta l i a n , a nd En gl i s h Opera a nd

A r t i s t s m os t l y i n Engl a nd . )

BAK ER , D . E. The Compa n ion to the P l ay-H ouse. Lo n don,

1 7 6 4 .

(A b r i ef v iew of the r i se a nd progre s s of the Engl i s h S ta ge .

Two cop i e s of t h i s wor k w i t h MSS . no te s a nd a dd i t i o n s a rei n the Br i t i s h Mu se um Li b ra ry . )

BA LFE,M . W. : Eng li shOpera H ouse. Lo n don

,184 1 .

(Ba l fe’ s a ccou n t o f h i s qu a r re l w i t h the s i n ge r P h i l l i p s . )

BALFOUR,RIGHT HON . A . J . : Essays a nd Addresses. grd

Ed. Ed i n b u rgh , 1 905.

(NO. 3 on H a n de l

BARKER , J . See Ou l ton,W . C .

BARK ER,JOH N E. The new Opera g la ss, con ta i n i ng the P lots

of the P opula r Opera s a nd a shor t biog raphy of the composers .

Le i p z ig, 1887 .

BAUGHAN,E. A . M usi c a nd Mus ici a ns . Lon don

,1 906 .

(Ch a p ter X IX .

“ I s Ope ra Doomed P

304 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLI SH OPERA

BENN ETT,JOSEPH : For ty Yea rs of Mus ic

,186 5- 1905.

Lo n d o n,1 908.

(Ch a pt e r X IV .

“ Ope ra a nd Ope ra t i c Peopl e Cha pterXV I I I . Li b re t t i

BLACKBURN,V ERNON : Bay reutha nd Mun ich

,a tra v elling

record of Germa n Opera t i c A r t . Lo n do n,1899 .

(Con t a i n s some pa ge s o n Ope r a t i c S i n g i ng a nd a c om

pa r i so n of ope ra t i c co nd i t i o ns i n Engla nd a nd Germa ny . )

BOURDON, GEORGE S : Les The’ci tres d ng la i s . Pa r i s

,1 903.

(An i n tere s t i n g a pprec i a t i o n o f the “ m a te r i e l ” of theLondo n t hea t re s . T he re i s a prefa ce by M r . E. O . Sa c h s . )

BROTA NEK,R. : D i e eng li schen M a shensp i ele. V ien na a nd

Le i p z ig, 1 902 .

BROW N,JOH N : Letters on the I ta li a n Opera a ddressed to the

H on . LordM onhoddo. z ud Ed. Lon don,1 7 9 1 .

(An e s sa y on the t a s te a nd m e t h ods of 1 8thcen tu ry Opera . )

BU N N,A LFRED : The ca se of Bunn v ersus Li nd . . w i tha

ser i es of let ter s to whi cha re a dded Notes Exp la na torya nd Cr i t i ca l. Lo n d o n

,1 848.

(Bu n n’ s a c t i o n t o force J en ny Li n d t o fu lfi l her co n t ra c t

w i t h him . She l os t her ca se,a nd the j u ry a sse s sed Bu n n ’ s

dam a ge s a t £ 2 500 . The A t t o r ney-Gene ra l a fterwa rd s movedfo r a n ew t r i a l o n the grou nd of exce s s i ve dama ges

,bu t the

Benc h re fu sed the a pp l i ca t i o n , the C h i e f- J u s t i ce i n t ima t i n gt ha t the ve r d i c t of the j u ry w a s a very prope r one . )

BUN N,A LFRED The S ta ge,hot/1 before a nd behi nd the cur ta in .

3 v o ls . Lo n d o n,1840.

(Con t a i n s, a pa r t from i t s fr i vo l i t i e s,a good d ea l o f sou nd

sen se w i t h rega rd to ope ra t i c co n d i t i o n s h e re a nd on theCon t i nen t . )

BURN EY , C H A RLEs : fl g enera l H i s tory of M usic,from the

ea r li est ag es to the presen t per i od. T o w h ic h is p refixed ad isse r ta t i o n o n the Mu s ic o f the A n c ien ts . Lo n d on

,

1 7 7 6- 1 789 (a nd l a te r ed i t i o n s) .

30 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH OPERA

a nd “ Robe r t le D i a b l e, bu t a good dea l co n fu sed i n l og i c byh i s a n t i—Po pe ry lea n i ngs . )

CLER ICUS,M.A . Rema rhs on the I ta li a n Oper a in Edinburgh

w i threference to Dr . Guthr ie’ s proposed “p la ca rd.

Ed in bu rgh , 1854 .

(An i n te re s t i n g pamph l e t a s s h ow i n g the oppos i t i o n t oI t a l i a n Ope ra i n the Sco t t i s h ca p i ta l s i x ty yea r s a go . Dr.

Gu t h r i e had p roposed pl a ca rd i n g the “ A ppren t i ce I n s t itut ion t he re , w i t h a no t i ce t h a t i t w a s c l osed beca u se thepeopl e o f Ed i n bu rgh prefe r red spend i n g t he i r mon ey i nh ea r i ng a n I t a l i a n s i n g a nd see i n g a Fren c hm a n da n ce .

”

The a u t ho r (C lericus M .A . ,i .e. the Rev . R i c h a rd H i bb s)

come s t o h i s a id w i t h a v i o len t a t t a c k on “ t h a t po l l u teda nd pol l u t i ng t h i n g—the I ta l i a n Opera .

”H e exam i ne s

Lepo re l l o ’ s C a ta l ogue Song i n the o r i g i n a l,prefer r i ng t ha t

h i s a rgume n t s h ou l d “ a ppea r t o l o se s ome t h i n g in we i g h t ”

ra t he r t h a n t h a t he s h ou l d “ i n cu r the r i s k o f ex c i t i ngimpu re des i re s by exh i b i t i n g a ugh t so v i c i o u s a nd cor r u p t i n gi n i t s n a t u ra l deform i ty .

”H e draws the dedu c t i o n from

t h i s so ng t h a t h i s b ro t her Sco t s,see i n g t h a t t he se a re

“the

t rop h i e s o f a single r a ke , w i l l i n fe r t h a t fem a le v i r t ue i s a n ame,

a n u l l i t y,

”a nd, a fter d i sc u s s i ng the d a n ce r s a nd the frequ en ters

o f the Opera H ou se , Ed i n bu rgh ,he conc l u des t ha t “ plea su re ,ay gui lty plea s u re i s the obj ect of the frequen ter s o f the Operafor the m os t

Compa n ion to the P lay-H ouse,The. Lon don

,1 7 6 4 .

(A z—vo l . D i c t i o n a ry of the S ta ge . Vo l . I . c o n ta i n s thet i t l es a s we l l a s a c r i t i c a l a nd h i s t o r i ca l a ccou n t (w i t h da tea nd pl a ce o f prod u c t i o n a nd pu b l i ca t i o n ) o f m a ny S ta geP l a y s a nd Ope ra s i n the Engl i s h l a ngu a ge . Vo l . I I . g i ve sl i s t s o f Drama t i c A u t h or s a nd t he i r l i ve s

,t oge t he r w i t h

n ames a nd a n ecdo tes o f A c tor s . M en t i o n i s m a de o f ma nyea r l y 1 8thcen tu ry Ope ra s wh i ch we re produced i n the“a t tem p t s m a d e a t t h a t t ime fo r the rev i va l of EnglishOpera s a fte r the m a n ne r o f the I ta li a n ”

)

Compa n ion to the Thea tr e,17 . z ud Ed. Lon don

,1 740.

(G i ve s de ta i l s o f 45 s ta ge-p i ece s . Pp .

Compa n ion to the Thea tre,17 . Dub l i n

,1 751 .

(G i ve s p l o t s o f 6 1 s ta ge—p iece s i n d e t a i l . Pp .

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH OPERA 307

Considera tions on the P a st a nd P resen t S ta te of the S tage, w i threy

‘Z’rence to the la te contests a t Cov ent Ga rden . Lo n do n

,

1809 .

(Con ta i n s amon g o t he r t h i n gs a v i go rou s defen ce o f Engl i s hDram a a nd a plea for i t s c u l t i va t i o n i n oppos i t i o n to I ta l i a nOpe ra . The a u t hor ca l l s the former “ a mora l rec rea t i o na nd the l a t ter a “ mere qu a c k e ry of sou nd .

”H e a ppea l s

t o h i s cou n t rymen to b a n i s h “the hos t of s p i e s

,i n cend i a r i es

,

a nd pa ra s i te s,who floc k from the con t i n en t , t o m a k e a

m a r ke t of ou r

Cov ent-Ga rden Thea tre,A na rra ti v e of the r i se a nd progress of

the di sputes subs i sti ng betw een the pa tentees of. Lo n do n ,1 7 6 8.

(An 1 8t h cen tu ry t h ea t r i ca l s qua bb l e i n wh i c h GeorgeColm a n w a s the lea d i n g fi gu re . The cor respo ndence i sg i ven . )

COX, J . E. : Musica l Recollections of the la st H a lf-Century.

2 v o ls . Lo n don,187 2 .

( I n c l u des ma ny rem i n i scen ces of bo t h Engl i s h a nd fore i gnOpera . )

CROUCH,MRS . See Yo u ng, M . J .

CROWEST,F . J . V e

rdi M a n a ndM usi ci a n . H is b i ogra phy,w i t h espe c i a l refe re n ce to his Eng l is h e x pe r ie n ces .

Lo n do n,1 897 .

(Cha p ter s X . a nd X I . of spec i a l i n te re s t from the Engl i s hpo i n t of v iew . )

DASSORI,CARLO : Opere e Oper i st i . D i z io n a r i o L i r ico

( 1 54 1 - 1 902 ) (3enoa,1 903.

(A gen era l Eu ropea n d i c t i ona ry of se r i ou s , sem i - ser i ou sa nd buffa Opera s

,w i t h i n d i ca t i o n of da te a nd pl a ce of fi r s t

pr odu c t i o n,wi thspec i a l rega rd t o the I ta l i a n Reper to ry .

The n ames o f 36 2 8 Opera t i c Compose r s a nd ofOpe ra s a re g i ven . P a r t I . con ta i n s a n a l p ha be t i ca l i n de x of

Composer s ’ Name s w i t h a comp le te c h rono l og i ca l l i s t of theOpe ra s a ga i n s t t h em . Pa r t I I . con ta i n s a s im i l a r a l pha be t i ca ll i s t of the Ope ra s w i t h t he i r Composer s ’ n ame s a nd the d a te sof prod u c t i on oppos i te . N.B .

—The Eng l i s h por t i o n i s i ncomp le te a nd i na ccu ra te . The t i t le s a re, wherever poss i b le ,

308 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLI SH OPERA

t ra n sl a ted (e.g . ST REGONE for “The S or cerer a nd

P IET RA DELLA BELLEZZA ” for “ The Bea u ty S t o ne a nd

eve n the Com poser s’ n ames a ppea r i n a ra t he r un—En gl i s hform (e.g . A RTU RO Su l l i va n a nd “CARLO

DEN l z d n Essay on the Opera ’

s after the I ta li a n M a nner

t icha re about tohe Establi sh’d on the Eng li shS ta gew i thsome Reflect ions on the D a ma ge whi chthey may br ingto the P ubli ch. Lo n do n

,1 706 .

(A ve ry i n te re s t i n g a nd v i gorou s a t ta c k on I t a l i a n Operaa s u n su i t a b l e for use i n t h i s cou n t ry . The pr i n c i pa l a rgum en t s a re d rawn fr om a compa r i s on be tween the P l ea s u reof Sen se ” a nd the De l i gh t of Rea so n .

” M a ny s t ron g a ndsen s i b le a rgum e n t s o n n a t i o na l c ha ra c te r i s t i c s . )

DIBD IN,T H OMA s : R emin i scences . 2 v o l s . Lon do n

,182 7 .

(T hea t r i ca l a nd Opera t i c Rem i n i s cen ce s from the t ime

of Dibdin ’

s b i r t h pr i n c i pa l l y i n con ne c t i o n w i t hCoven t Ga rden

,Dr u ry La n e

,The S u r rey , a nd Sa d ler ’s We l l s

Th ea t res . )

EBERS,JOH N : S ev en Yea r s of the King ’

s Thea tre. Lon do n,

182 8.

EDWARD S,H . SUTH ER LAN D : H i story of the Opera from i ts

Or ig i n in I ta ly to the pres en t t ime. W i t h A necdo tes of

the m os t c e leb ra te d C om pose rs a nd V oca l i s ts of Eu rope .

2 v o ls . Lon do n,186 2 .

(Ch a p . I I I . i s “On the Na t u re of the Ope ra , a nd i t s M er i t sa s compa red w i t h o t he r form s o f the Dram a .

”Ch a p . V .

dea l s w i t h the “ I n t rodu c t i o n o f the I t a l i a n Opera i n t oEngl a n d ” ; a nd C h a p . XV . w i t h “ M a n ne r s a nd Cu s tom sa t the London Opera h a l f a cen t u ry s i n ce .

”The re a re

m a ny sca t te red refe ren ce s t o Engl i s h ope ra t i c con d i t i o n s . )

EDWARD S, H . SUTH ERLAND : The Lyr i ca l D ra ma . Essayso n S u bj ec ts

,Com pose rs

,a nd Ex ec u t a n t s o f Mo de rn

O pera . 2 vo ls . Lo n d o n,1881 .

(Ge n e ra l s ke t c h of Ope ra a nd o f m a ny m a t ter s con nec tedt he rew i t h , e.g .

“ Sha kesp eri a n Ope ra s ,” “ Ope ra t i c M a n a gem en t ,

” “ Li b re t t i,

” “Ope ra t i c a nd Th ea t r i ca l A nom a l i es,

”

“The Rea so n a b le ne s s of Ope ra,

” “The l i te ra ry M a l t rea tmen to f

3 10 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLI SH OPERA

FULLER-MA ITLAND, J . A .

“H enry P urcell i n the “Riv i staM usi ca le I ta li a na . V ol . II .

,Pa r t i . 1895.

(An a pprec i a t i on a nd cr i t i c i sm of Pu rce l l . )GALLOWAY

,M.P.

,W . J . The Opera tic P roblem. Lo n don ,

1902 .

(Co n ta i n s a s ta temen t o f the prob lem a nd s t u d ies of i t sso l u t i o n i n I ta l y

,Fra nce

, a nd Germ a ny . T here a re twoimpor t a n t c h a p ter s

,one on “The Engl i s h Na t i o na l Ope ra

Hou se ” a nd the o t he r o n “ Opera for the P eop le .

”The

boo k i s l a rge l y co n ce r ned w i t h the commerc i a l a nd fi n a n c i a ls i de s o f the ques t i on . )

GAL LOWAY , LORD See S tew a r t,Jo h n .

ILLILAND H OMA s : ; ow oom. am e con a in inG,T Ell R A P phl t t g

rem a rks on the s h am efu l i n c rea se of the p r i va te boxes ofCov e n t Ga r den w i t h a v a rie t o f ori i n a l observ a t ion sY gre la t ing to the Ma nagem e n t of t h a t T hea t re . A lso a

c om pa ra t i v e V iew of the Tw o H o u ses,s h ew i n g the

p uer i l i ty o f a grea t ma n’

s Prop hecy,w h o w a s to h a ve

t u rned D r u ry La n e T h ea t re i n to a“ Splen d i d Deser t

,

”

&c .

, &C . Lo n don,1804 .

(A pro tes t a ga i n s t Kemble ’ s re s t r i c t i on of the sea t i nga ccommoda t i on i n the c h ea pe r pa r t s o f the hou se a nd h i si n t rodu c t i on o f a n ex t ra t i er of pr i va te boxes . )

G 1LMA N,LAWRENCE ; dspects of M odern Op era . Lo n don

a nd New Y o rk,1 909 .

(A d i sc u ss i o n o f Opera t i c H i s to ry a nd P r i n c i p le s groupedrou n d the name s o f Wa gne r , P u cc i n i , S t ra u ss , a nd Debu ssy .P a r t ly n ew ,

pa r t ly repr i n ted from H a rpe r ’ s,

” “The Nor t hAm e r i ca n Rev i ew

,

”a nd The

GREG,W . W . : 17 li st of Eng li shP lays w r i tten before 1 6 43

a nd pr in ted before 1 700 . Lon d o n,1 900 for 1 909 .

(G i ve s l i s t s of ea r l y M a squ es , e tc . )

GREG, W . W . A li st of M a sques , P a gea n ts , etc. Lon don ,1 902 .

GREV ILLE,H . E. : 1 letter to the S ubscr ibers to the Opera .

Lo n don,181 1 .

(A sq ua bb le w i t h T a y l o r,the m a na ger

,w i t h rega rd to

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH OPERA 31 1

Opera t i c Monopol y a nd fi na n ce, e.g . the r i se of pr i ce s t o

su b sc r i be r s,a t a t ime when i t w a s genera l ly known t here

w a s t o be a n ew Engl i s h Opera -H ou se bu i l t u n de r myl i cen ce .

GREV ILLE,H . E. : M r . Grev i lle

’

s Sta tement of M r . Na ldi’

s

Ca se. Lon don , 1 81 1 .

(Na l d i , a fte r be i n g refu sed a n enga gemen t a t the Ope raby T a y lo r , had gone t o G rev i l le a nd w i t h h i s a id se t u p a

“ Bu r le t ta T hea t re ” wh i c h w a s a d i sa s t r ou s fa i l u re . T h i sg i ves the h i s tory of the qu a rre l t ha t re s u l ted . For theo t h er s i de o f the ques t i o n see Na l d i , The A l ien St e . )

GROVE ’S D i cti ona ry of M us ic a nd M usi c ia ns. z ud Ed.

Ed i ted by J . A . F u l ler-Ma i t la n d . Lo n do n,1904

- 1 9 10.

(See s u b Opera a nd En gl i s h

GRUNEI SEN,

C . L. : The Opera a nd the P ress .

Lo n don,186 9.

(On Opera m a n a gemen t,a nd espec i a l ly o n the a u t hor’s

qu a r re l s w i t h Gye . The correspondence i s g i ven . )GUERBER

,HELEN E A DELIN E : S tor i es of Fa mous Oper a s.

Wi t h i llus t ra t i ons . New Yo rk,1897 .

(S ke t c hes of 1 5 I ta l i a n , Fren ch , a nd Germ a n opera -p lo t s . )

HALL IWELL,JAME S O. 1 ? D i ctiona ry of old Eng li shP lays

ex i sting ei ther i n pr i nt or i n ma nuscr ip t from the ea r liest

t imes to the close of the sev en teen thcen tury. Lon don,

186 0.

H a ndel et son Temps . Pu b l ished by “La F ra n ce mus ica le .

Pa r is , 186 2 .

(Cha p s . I .- IV . a nd the beg i n n i n g of Ch a p . V . on ly

pub l i s hed . See

HASLEWOOD,JOSEPH Of P lays, P layers, a nd P layhouses, w i th

other i nciden ta l ma tter .

(The we l l - k nown u npub l i s hed col lec t i on of cu t t i n g s fromnewsp a pe r s a nd m a ga z i ne s , w i t h p la te s, MS S . no te s a nd

t ra nsc r i p t i on s m a de by J . H . Co n t i n ued from 1 82 0 t i l lthe end of 1837 by J . R . Sm i t h . The ea r l ie s t en t ry refer st o 1 52 1 . I n 9 vol s . Br i t i s h M u seum

,1 1 7 9 1 , dd .

3 1 2 B IBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH OPERA

HAWK IN S, SIR JOH N : d g enera l H i story of the Science a nd

P ra ct i ce of M usi c.

(Boo k X I I . , Cha p te r CV I I I . a nd onwa rd s . )H AWK IN S AND BURN EY d genera l H i s tory of M usi c

a con t i nua tion by Thoma s Busby. Lo n do n,181 9 .

H EATH,CHARLE S Bea uti es of the Opera a nd Ba llet . Lo n don .

(An a ccou n t of n i ne we l l—known wor k s w i t h t he i r p l o t s .Em be l l i s hed w i t h s tee l en gra v i n gs of da nce r s a nd s i n ge r s inc os t ume a nd w i t h m a ny wood- c u t s . )

H ENDERSON,W . J . : H ow M usic dev eloped. New Yo rk

,

1 898.

(C ha p te r XV I I I . o nwa rd s g i ve s a ge ne ra l des c r i p t i on ofthe deve l opm en t o f Ope ra . )

H IBBS,REV . R ICHARD See C lericus

,M .A .

HOGARTH,GEORGE : M emoi rs of the M us i ca l D ra ma . 2

v o l s . Lo n d o n,1 838.

( S ee“M em o i r s o f the Opera by the same a u t hor . )

H OGARTH,G EORGE M emoi rs of the Opera in I ta ly, Fra nce,

Germa ny, a nd Eng la nd. 2 vo l s . Lo n don,1 851 .

(A rev i sed ve r s i o n o f the sam e a u t h or ’ s Memo i r s o f theMus i ca l Dram a .

”C h a p ter s I . ,

I I .,IX .

,X . a nd X I . i n Vo l .

I I . dea l s pec i a l l y w i t h Engl i s h Ope ra a nd w i t h Opera i nEngl a nd . )

KE LLY,M ICH AEL : Remin i scen ces of , o f the K i ng ’s T h ea t re

a nd T h ea t re Roya l,Dr u ry L a n e

,i n c l u d i ng a pe r i o d of

n e a r ly h a l f a ce n t u ry,e tc . Lo n don

,1 82 6 .

(G en e ra l o pe ra t i c rem i n i s cen ces of m a ny pa r t s of Eu rope,wi t h a n ecdo te s po l i t i ca l

,l i te ra ry a nd m u s i ca l .” Wr i t ten by

T h eod ore H oo k from m a te r i a l s fu rn i s hed by Ke l l y . )KREHBIEL , H . E. : Chapters of Opera . 2 nd Ed. New

Y o rk,1 909 .

(A n i l l u s t ra ted a ccou n t o f the New Yor k ope ra t i c s ta gefrom the e a r l i e s t d ays d own to the presen t t ime .

” Ma nyope ra t i c q ue s t i o n s of gen e ra l a ppl i ca t ion a re d i sc u ssed i n t he i rre l a t i o n sh i p to the Ame r i ca n s t a ge . The wor k s dea l t w i t ha re a l l Eu ropea n . )

3 14 B IBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH OPERA

LOCKMAN,JOH N : d n Enqui ry into the R i se a nd P rogress

of Opera s a nd Ora tor ios,w i thsome Reflect ions on Lyr i c

P oetry a nd Musi c. Lon do n,1 740.

(Prefixed t o “ Rodel inde, a Mu s i ca l Drama , A s i t i s

per formed a t H ickford’

s Grea t Room,in Brewer ’s S t ree t .

Set t o M us i c by M r . John C h r i s t opher Sm i t h .” A n a b lea nd im por ta n t d i s c u s s i o n of the H i s to ry o f Opera a nd i t sP sy c ho l ogy a s a ffec t i ng the 1 8t h cen t ury Engl i s hma n . )

LOU IS,A LEXANDER

, (i .e. FAGAN ) The Opera Gla ss. Lo n do n ,1881

(Con ta i n s a n in t r od u c tory s ke t c h of Opera a nd Ba l le t a nda n a l p ha be t i ca l l i s t of 1 00 Opera s w i t h t he i r p l o t s . A t theend s a re a s ho r t l i s t of s i n ger s ’ fi rs t a ppea ra n ce s (pl a ce a nd

da te) a nd a n i n dex of 32 9 Opera s (Fren ch , Ge rma n , I t a l i a n ,a nd Engl i s h ) , w i t h composer s

’ n ames a nd da te a nd pla ce o ffi r s t p rodu c t i o n . )

LUML EY,BENJAM IN : Remin i scences of the Opera . Lo n don

,

186 4 .

(G i ve s a n a ccou n t o f m id—V i c t or i a n opera t i c co nd i t i on si n Lon don . )

LUMLEY,BEN JAM IN : The Ea r l of Dudley, M r . Lumley a nd

H i s Maj esty’

s Thea tre. A Na r ra t i ve of Fa c t s a ddressedt o the Pa t ro n s of the Ope ra

,H is fr ie n ds

,a nd the Pub l i c

gen e ra l ly by t he i r fa i t h fu l Se r v a n t . 2 nd Ed. Lo n don,

186 3.

(Lum ley’

s a cco u n t of h i s q ua r re l w i t h h i s former pa tron ,Lord Wa rd

,

”a fterwa rd s Ea r l of Du d ley . )

Lyr i c M use rev i v ed i n Europe, The, or a cr i t ica l di splay of theOpera in a ll i ts rev olutions . Lo n do n

,1 7 6 8.

(“ An h i s t or i ca l a nd c r i t i ca l e l u c i da t i o n o f the Opera

wr i t te n a s a s u ppl em en t t o Cou n t A lga ro tt i’s e s sa y

, q .v .

Ch a p te r s X I I . a nd X I I I . a re devo ted to a compa r i son be tweenopera t i c cond i t i o n s i n I t a l y a nd En g la n d a nd t o a des c r i p t i ono f the “ i n t rod u c t i o n a nd progre s s o f I ta l i a n Opera s i nEn gla n d .

M aga z i ne d r ticles . For a l is t of the m os t impo r ta n t m a ga z inea r t ic les o n Ope ra

,see sub“Ope ra

,

”Pea body I n s t i tu te

L i b ra ry Ca t a logue , pa ge 32 43.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLI SH OPERA 3 1 5

M a n of H onour,But not ofhi s w ord

,The I n sc r i bed to Mr.

Sh e r i da n . Dub l i n,1 750.

(See be l ow, “ S ta te o f the ca se i n rega rd t o the Po i n tof D i spu te

,A .

MA PLESON, J . H . : The LMapleson M emoi rs

,1848- 1 888.

Lo n do n,1888.

(Vo l . I . C h a p . X I I . “ The N a t i on a l Opera H ou se, a n

a ccou n t o f Ma p leson’

s u ns u cce ssfu l a t temp t t o fou n d a n

Opera -house on the V i c t or i a Emba n kmen t i n

MATH IAS,T . J . See S tew a r t

,Jo h n

, 7 thEa r l of Ga llow a y.

MATTH EW,JAME S E. : A ha ndboohof M usi ca l H i story a nd

Bibliography. Lon do n , 1898.

(A fur t h e r e n l a rged a nd rev i sed ve r s i o n of the same

a u t hor ’ s “ Pop u la r H i s t ory of Mus i c ” a nd “ M a n ua l ofMu s i ca l H i s t ory .

”Ch a p ter V I . “The or i g i n of the Opera

a nd Ora t or i o ” ; Ch a p ter X .

“The r i se of Opera a nd Ora

t or i o in Engla nd ”

)

MATTH EW,JAME S E. A popula r H i story of M usi c

,M usi ca l

instruments,Ba llet a nd Opera , from S t . Ambrose to

M oz a r t . Lon don,1888.

MATTH EW,JAM E S E. : M a nua i of Mus i ca l H i story.

Lon don,189 2 .

(A rev i sed a nd en l a rge d ve rs i o n of the same a u t hor’ sPopu la r H i s to ry of Mus i c

, q . v . )

MOUNT EDGCUMBE,R ICHARD

,SECOND EARL OF : M usi ca i

R emi n i scences of a n Old Ama teur chi ey‘ly respect ing theI ta li a n Opera cu Eng la nd for fifty yea r s from 1 7 73 to

1 82 3. Lo n do n,182 7 . (grd Ed.

(Sec t i on V I I I . Ob ser va t i o n s o n Engl i s h Mus i c etc .

NALD I, GIU SEPPE : The A li en,

or,An a nsw er to M r .

Grev i lle’

s sta temen t w i threspect toM r . Na ldi’

s a ction fora rrea rs of sa la ry i ncludi ng a shor t hi s tory of the Argyle

Thea tre. Lon don,1 81 1 .

(Na ldi’

s a ccou n t of h i s q u a r re l w i t h G rev i l le . Wr i t tenu nde r the d i sa greea b l e nece s s i ty o f s hewi n g the P ub l i c t h a ti t i s n o t boa sted bi rth fami ly

3 1 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLI SH OPERA

a l wa ys con s t i t u te s the gen t l ema n a nd m a n o f honou r,—bu t

a beauty a nd p erfi ction of p rinczple, fam i l i a r t o u n der thecommon n ame o fhonesty.

”See G rev i l l e

,H . F . )

NAGEL , WILIBA LD : Geschichte der M a sihin Eng la nd. I nt w o pa r t s . S t ra ssb u rg , 1 894 a nd 1 897 .

(No t h i n g la te r t h a n P u rce l l . )NEEDHAM

,MRS . See CLAYTON

,M iss E. C .

O’

Keefe, R ecollect ions of The l ife of. 2 v o ls . Londo n,182 6 .

(Co n ta i n s m a ny s ca t tered refe ren ce s t o pe r form a nce s ofEn gl i s h Ope ra i n En gl a nd a nd I re la nd . )

Opera-Rumpus, The

,or

,The La di es i n the w rong box .

Lon don,1 783.

(A bu r le sq ue poem o n a sq u a bb l e be tween Mr. B—d—da nd La dy J e r sey fo r a n opera box . G i ve s a h i gh lyco l ou redp i c t u re o f the I ta l i a n Ope ra i n the d ay s o f A l legra n t i a ndPa echiero tt i . )

OU LTON , W . C . Ahi story of the Thea tres of London Eff e. fif e.

A c o n t i n u a t ion of V i c to r a nd Oulton’

s h i s tor ies from1 795 t o 1 81 7 i n c lus i ve . Lon do n

,1 818.

OULTON,W . C . : Ba rher ’s Comp lete l i st of

1803. Lon do n,1803.

OULTON ,W. C . Ba rher ’s con t i nua tion on er ton’

s Thea tr i ca cRemembra ncer

,Ba rher ’s B iographi a D ra ma tica EfJ

’

c . con

ta i n i n g a c om p l e te l i s t of a ll the d ram a t ic pe rfo rm a n ces .

from 1 788 t o 180 1 a lso a c o n t i n u a t i on of the No t i t i aDram a t ic a T o w h i c h is a dded

,a C om p le te L i s t of

Pl ays,the ea r l i es t da te, s i z e

,a nd a u t h o r ’s n am e

,the

w h o l e a r ra nged See . by W . C . O . Lo n do n,1801 .

OU LTON , W . C . H i story of the Eng li shThea tres i n London

c o n ta i n i ng a n a n n u a l reg i s te r o f a ll the new a nd rev i sedT ra ged ies , C om ed i es

,Ope ra s, Fa rces , Pa n tom imes e tc .

t h a t h a v e bee n pe rfo rm ed a t the T h ea t res-Roya l inLon do n from the yea r s 1 7 7 1

- 1 795. W i t h occa s iona ln o t es a nd a n ec d o tes . Lon do n , 1 796 .

OU LTON , W . C . The Dra ma recorded or, Ba rber

’

s Li st ofP lays . .from the ea r li est per iod to 1814 , to whi cha re

31 8 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLI SH OPERA

Rema rhable Tr i a l of the Q ueen of Q ua v ers,The. Lo n don ,

1 7 7 7- 1 7 78.

(A sa t i re on the Ope ra . )

R IEMAN N,H UGO : Oper a -H a ndbuch. Le i p z ig, 1887 .

(A d i c t i ona ry o f Eu ropea n Opera u n der bo t h t i t le s a ndcomposer s ’ n ame s . Da tes a nd pla ces o f fi r s t p rodu c t i on s a ndof s om e rev i va l s a re g i ven . Pp . 7 43. N.B.

—Pa ge s 7 4786 2 a re devo ted t o a

“ Reper to r i um der dram a t i s c h-m u s ika l i schen Li ttera tur (Ope rn , Opere t ten , Ba l e t te , M e l od ramen

,

Pa n tom imen , Ora t or i en , drama t i s c he Ka n ta ten,

byR iem a n n i n co l la bora t i on w i t h F ra n z S t i eger .)

Roscius Ang lica na s , or,

a n H i stori ca l rev i ew of the S tage

after i t ha d been suppress’

d by mea ns of the la te UnhappyCi v i l Wa r

,beg un i n 1 6 4 1 ,

’

t i ll the time of Cha r les I Id’

s

Restora t ion i n M ay 1 6 6 0 . W i t h a dd i t ions by the la teMr. T h om a s Da v i es

,Au t h o r o f the l i fe of Ga rr ick .

Lon don,1 7 89 .

(Co n ta i n s a few refe ren ces t o En g l i s h Opera s , e spec i a l l y t oCou r t—produ c t i on s of P u rce l l ’s wor k s

,s u c h a s “Ki n g A r t h u r ,

”

Dioc les ia n,

” “ The Fa i ry

SACH S, E. O .

,a ndWOODROW ,

A . E. Il/I odern Opera H ouses

a nd Thea tres . 3 vo l s. London , 1896 - 1898.

(Ex ampl es se lec ted from pl a yhou se s recen t ly erec ted i nEu rope

,w i t h de sc r i p t i ve te x t

,a t rea t i se on t hea t re pl a nn i n g

a nd con s t r u c t i on , a nd s u pplemen t s o n s ta ge m a ch i n e ry,t hea t re

fi res,a nd pro tec t i ve leg i s l a t i on , e tc . )

SCH CELCHER : Collection .

(A co l l ec t i o n of boo k s , MSS . ,e tc . ,

ma de by Schoelcherw i t h spec i a l re feren ce t o H a nde l a nd 1 8thcen t u ry mu s i c i nEn gl a nd . H a s been i n the l i b ra ry of the Con serva to i re a t

Pa r i s s i n ce

S IMCOE , H . A UGUST 1NE : Sulli v a n v . Cr i t ic. Lo n do n,1 906 .

SQ U IRE , W . BARCLAY P urcell’

s D ra ma t ic Musi c.

( I n Vo l . V . of Sammelbltnde der I n te r n a t i o n a len Mu s i k

B IBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH OPERA 3 1 9

STAFFORD,W . C . A H i story of M usi c. Ed i n b u rgh , 1830.

(Ch a p ter s XX . t o XX I I I . a re devo ted t o Eng la nd , a nd

Ch a p ter s XX I . a nd XX I I . dea l w i t h the e s ta b l i s hmen t a ndprogres s o f Opera i n En gl a nd . )

STANFORD,SIR CHARLE S V ILLIERs z S tudi es a nd M emor ies .

Lon don,1 908.

(C ha p ter I . i s devo ted to The ca se for N a t i on a l Opera .

The tex t of the M emor i a l t o the Lon don Cou n ty Cou nc i lo n t h i s to p i c i s repr i n ted a t the end of the vo l ume . )

Sta te of the ca se i n rega rd to the P oi n t in D i spute betw een M r .

M osse a ndM r . Sher ida n,A . W i t h A ppend ix . Dub l in

,

1 750.

(T h i s pamph le t a nd the pamph le t The Ma n of H onou r ,bu t no t o f h i s word ” (see a bove ) m a ke u p 6 1 pa ge s ofpr i n ted squ a bb le a s t o whe t h e r a t hea t re ba nd s h ou ld bel en t t o perform a t

“ The New Ga rden,G rea t Br i ta i n S t ree t

for the ben efi t of the Ly i ng- in Hosp i ta l ” The She r i da ni s Thoma s She r i da n . )

STEWART, JOH N , 7TH EARL OF GALLOWAY . P a nda/faAtton i to l or Lord Ga llow ay

’

s P oet ica l La men ta t ion on

the Remov a l of the Arm-Cha i rs from the P i t a t the OperaH ouse. W i t h a p refa c e a nd som e rema rks by theEd i to r . Lo n don , 1800.

(By T . J . M a t h i a s . P r i n ted or i g i na l l y i n the MorningHera ld o fMay 1

,1 800 . A bu r l esq u e poem a ccom pa n i ed a nd

i l l u s t ra ted by a good dea l of fa ded “18thCen t u ry ” t op i ca l

h umou r i n Engl i s h a nd I t a l i a n . The A rgumen t i s a s fol l owsA mo n t h or two a go , Lord Ga l l owa y came t o the Opera

,

a nd o n the P i t -door n ea r the Orc hes t ra be i n g opened,he p er

ce ived, t o h i s co n fu s i o n a nd a s t on i s hmen t , t ha t a l o ng Ben c hw a s s ub s t i t u ted i n the p l a ce o f the Row of A RM-cHA IRs a t thebo t t om of the P i t , the pr i n c i pa l o r cen t ra l of wh i ch hehadfi l led for so ma ny n i g h t s w i t h d i s ce r nm en t a nd d i gn i ty

,a nd

t o the gen era l sa t i sfa c t i o n o f every per so n presen t . H IS

Lordsh i p , con ce i v i n g , ra t h e r ha s t i l y , t h a t t h i s mea su re w a s

i n tended a s a pe r so na l s l i gh t t o h im se l f,re t i red d i s c on ce r ted

,

w i t hou t ta k i n g h i s sea t a nd,a she i s a vo ta ry of the Mu se s

,

pen ned the fo l l ow i n g Lamen t a t i o n wh i c h he sen t t o LordSa l i sbu ry the ne x t day, a nd recovered h i s won t ed goodh umou r , c heerfu l nes s a nd,


ST IEGER,FRANZ See R i em a n n

,H ugo .

STREATF I E LD,R . A . : M odern M usic a nd M usici a ns .

Lo n do n,1 906 .

(Ch a p . I I I . “ The Secu l a r i sa t i o n o f Mus i c Ch a p . IV .

P u rce l l a nd s ca t te red referen ces t h roug hou t . )STREATF IE LD

,R . A . The Oper a . A ske t c h of the Develop

m e n t of Ope ra . W i t h fu l l desc r i p t i o n s of a ll w o rks i nthe Mode r n Re pe r to ry . New Ed i t i o n . Lo n do n a nd

Ph i l a de lp h ia,1 902 .

(Co n ta i n s a l so a va l u a b l e i n t rodu c t i o n by J . A . Fu l lerM a i t l a n d a nd a n i ndex o f 400 Opera s , of wh i c h 4 2 a re

Engl i sh . )

SU LL IVAN S eeWy n d h am,H e n ry Sa xe La w re n ce

,A r t hu r

F i n don,B. W

T AYLOR,W . A conci se sta tement of tra nsa ctions a nd ci rcum

sta nces respecting The Ki ng ’

s Thea tre i n the H ayma rhet byM r . Taylor the prop r i etor together w i ththe qfli ci a lcor respondence upon the sa me subj ect betw een the R t . H on .

The Lord Cha mber la i n a nd Ea r l Cholmondeley fifl’

c.

Lon don,1 79 1 .

TOWERS,JOH N D i ct iona ry-Ca ta logue of Oper a s a nd

Operetta s whi chha v e been performed on the P ublic S tage.

Mo rga n t o w n , W . V a . C opy r igh ted 1 9 10.

(Co n t a i n s for the fi r s t t ime name s ofAmeri ca n com poser sa nd l i s t s of t he i r Opera s . )

UPTON , GEORGE P. : The S ta nda rd Opera s , Thei r P lots,

Thei r Ill us i c,a nd Thei r Composers . Lon don

,1 907 .

(G i ve s p l o t s a nd c r i t i c i sm s o f 1 37 Ope ra s of a ll c ou n t r i e si n a l p h a be t i c a l o rde r . T h e re i s a n a ppend i x wh i c h men t i o n so n e or two l i t t l e- k nown 1 8thcen t u ry Ame r i ca n Opera s a ndwh i c h g i ves the n am es of 135 Am e r i ca n Ope ra s of a ll pe r i odsdown t o the pre sen t day. )

V ICTOR,BENJ AM IN : The hi story of the thea tres of London

a nd Dublin f rom the yea r 1 7 30 to the present t ime.

T o w h i c h is a dded a n a n n u a l reg i s t e r of a ll the Pl a ysp e r fo rm ed a t the T h ea t res Roya l i n Lo ndo n fromthe ye a r 1 7 1 2 , w i t h oc c a s i o n a l n o t e s a nd a n ecd o tes .

3 v o ls . Lon do n,1 7 6 1—1 7 7 1 .


WOODROW,A . E. See Sa c h s

,E. O .

YOUNG, M . J . : M emoi rs of M rs . Crouch. I n c l u d i ng a

Re t rospec t of the s t a ge d u r i ng the yea rs she pe rfo rmed .

Lon don,1 806 .

(T h ea t r i c a l a nd opera t i c rem i n i scen ces o f the l a te 1 8thcen t u ry . )

Z EDL ITZ,BA RONEss VON See A rd i t i

,Lu ig i .

I N D EX

NOTE .—In t h i s i n dex opera t i c t i t les wh i c h beg i n w i ththe word

the a ppea r u n de r T .

A byss i n i a n e x ped i t i o n,2 9 (n o te) Amer i ca

A cce s s i b i l i ty (of Opera ) , 1 04 , d i scovery o f,2 4 , 38, 70 , 7 8

105, 1 2 0,2 1 2

,2 2 1

,2 80 . im por ta n ce a nd effec t o f d i s

[See I n te l l i g i b i l i ty . P u b l i c] cov ery, 7 6-

7 9 , 84 , 86 , 87Add i s o n , 2 7 Ame r i ca , U n i ted S ta te s o fAdmetus , 108 com pa r i so n o f mode r n mu s iA dr i a t i c sea

,a bou nda ry o f the c a l con d i t i o n s i n the

,w i t h

P a pa l S ta te s,6 2 (no te) t h ose i n m ed i aeva l Rome

,

fi fties, 108 7 4 , 7 5A fr i ca compa r i s o n w i t h Engla nd ,

ex ten s i on o f ter r i t o ry i n,2 8 2 2 5

- 2 2 7n or t he rn , a bou nda ry of the fore i g n cu l t u re i n the

, 7 4 , 2 7 2

Va nda l movem en t s, 54 i n the n i ne teen t h cen t u ry

,1 5

( n o te) l a ngua ge i n the , depe nden t onRom a n Em p i re i n , 48 n a t u ra l fa c t o r s

,2 2 6

,2 2 7

Sa ra cen s move t h rough A Midsummer-Night ’s Dream,

n or t he r n, 54 (no te) 186

t ra de i n n or t her n , 2 7 Amm i a nu s , 51 ( no te) , 59 (no te)Aggenus Urbicus

, 51 (no te) A na c h ron i sm s i n Spa i n a nd

Ag i n cou r t , 6 7 En gla n d,84

-86

A la r i c,

-

54 ( no te) A ngle s a nd Sa x on s , wa nde r i ngsA lceste, prefa ce t o , quo ted , 1 1 3. of the

, 54 (no te)[See G l u c k] A ngl o-Con t i nen ta l

A l fred , Ki n g , 6 5, 108 composer s,10 2

, 2 52

A l g ier s , bomba r ded , 2 8 a nd 2 9 compose r s o f the e i gh teen t h(n o te) cen t u ry

,t he i r p o s i t i on

,

ex ped i t i on a ga i n s t,84 (no te) 10 2

,1 03

Almeri a,10 1 (n o te) ope ra

,a t Coven t Ga rden

,1 32

Ambro se,S t.

, 52 , 53 ( no te) opera,exc u se s for

,103

32 4

A ngl o-Con t i n en ta lope ra , i n the e i gh tee n t h cent ury a nd now

,1 1 7 .

opera,i t s wor t h le ss n es s

,103,

1 1 7A nso n

,2 7 (n o te)

A n t i ph on s,Engl i s h

,1 6 a nd 1 7

(n o te)Ap t horp , W . F .

,qu o ted

,1 9 6

( no t e)A ra b i a

,Sa ra cen s m ove from

, 54

(no te)A r i a

,the I ta l i a n

,1 1 5

A r i os t o,2 3

A rm a da,the

,2 7 , 85 ( no te)

A r ne , 5, 6 (n o te) , 2 6 , 1 0 1 (n o te) ,1 0 2 ( n o te) , 1 59 , 1 6 0

,1 6 1

( no te) , 2 7 7A r n ol d

,S . J . , qu o ted , 1 6 4 ,

1 6 5A rr Poetica

,re fe ren ce t o

, 53

( no te)A rtaxerxes , 1 59 , 2 7 7q uo ted

,1 6 0

A rt—wor k s , t he i r im por t a n cewh en n a t i o n a l

,1 9

fore i gn,va l u e o f

,2 70

A rya n s,m i gra t i o n s o f

, 55A s i a

,ba rba r i a n i n roa d s from

,

i n t o Eu rope , 53 a nd 54

(no t e )bou nd a r ie s o f Rom a n Emp i rei n

, 48 ( n o t e)A s i a M i no r , i r r u p t i o n of Os t rogo t h s i n to

, 53 ( no te)Sa ra cen s move t h roughsou t h ern

, 54 (n o te)A ssa ye , 2 8 (n o te)A Summer

’

s Night, 2 9 7 ( no te)produ ced , 1 4 1

A t h en s,s c u l p t u re a t

, 40

A t l a n t i c Ocea n , 48A t t i la

, 53 ( no te)

INDEX

A ugu s t a n a nd Po st-A ugu s t a nw r i te r s compa red

, 51 a nd

52 ( no te)A u gu s t i ne , S t . , 51 ( no te)A u son i u s

, 51 (no te)A u s t r i a . [See Eu rope , cen t ra l .V i en na ]cu l t i va t i o n of m u s i c i n , 18

,

2 5, 44 , 87m ed i aeva l wa r s of, 6 8

Av e l in g , C l a ude , 2 1 9 a nd 2 2 0

( n o te)A V i llage Romeo a nd J uliet

a pop u l a r s u c c ess i n G erm a ny ,14 1

c r i t i c i sm o f,1 4 2 , 143

prod u ced i n Engl a n d , 14 1

pub l i c i na t ten t i o n t o , 14 2t ra n s l a t i o n o f

,2 35

Ba ch, J . C . ,

a r i s toc ra t i c apprec iat i o n o f

, 9 2 (n o te)

Wa gn e r o n,88 ( no te)

Ba lbu s, 51 (no te)

Ba l fe,2 6

, 4 2 , 1 53 (n o te) , 1 6 2,

1 6 5 ( no te) , 1 6 7 ( no te) ,1 6 8 (n o te)

Ba l fou r,A . J .

,1 14 ( n o te)

quo ted,2 7 9 (n o te)

Ba l l a d Ope ra . [See Engl i s hOpe ra . The Begga r ’ sOpe ra]

e i gh teen t h cen tu ry V 1ew s on ,

fea t u re s o f,1 57

-1 59i n ven t ed i n oppos i t i o n t oI t a l i a n Ope ra , 103, 109 ,1 1 0

,1 1 5, 1 56

i t s fl im sy n a t u re , 1 1 5m e thodofcom p i l ing , 1 1 5, 1 56rea son s for su cces s of

,1 08

,

109

3M

Bocca cc i o,2 3

Boc k i n g, 4 8 (n o te )

Boer w a r a nd Br i t i s h n a va lsu p rema cy , 87 ( no te)

Bohem i acu l t o f Mus i c i n

,87

med i ae va l wa r s of, 6 8Bo l ogn aEngl i s h MSS . a t

, 1 7 ( n o te)m u s i c produ ced a t

,1 7

Bon o nc i n i,1 00 (no te)

Bo swe l l ’ s Life, 1 1 1 ( n o te)Bo t t i ce l l i

,2 3

Bra hm s, 2 5, 2 6 6

Browne,Len n o x

,qu o ted

,2 08

Br own i ng,2 9

Bru n e l les c h i , 2 3Bu n n , the poe t , 2 6

, 1 52 , 1 80,181

qu o ted,1 53, 1 6 5, 1 6 6

,1 6 7 ,

l 70 , 1 7 3, 1 74 a 1 7 57 1 7 7Bu rgu n d i a n s (Bu rgu nd i ) , 7 2med i aev a l wa r s o f the , 6 8wa nde r i n gs o f the , 54 ( no te)

Bu rm a, c onqu es t o f, 2 8

Bu r ne-Jone s,2 9

Bu r n s , 1 6 1

Byron , 2 9 , 1 6 1

By z a n t i ne Emp i re , i n va s i o n o f,53 (n o te)

By z a n t i uma t t a c k ed by Os t rogo t h s

, 53

( n o te )Con s ta n t i n opl e fou n ded ons i te of, 58 a nd 59 (n o te)

Ca c c i n i,2 3

Cami /la,quo ted

,1 00

Ca n a da,conque s t o f

,2 7 , 2 8

( no te)Ca pe o f Good H ope

, 2 8 (n o te )Ca ra cta cus , 1 0 2 ( n ot e)C a r l ov i ng i a n Em p i re

,6 0

INDEX

Ca r l Rosa , 1 2 7 , 2 39Ca r ol i n a

,Sou t h

,2 7 ( no te)

C a r t h a ge (Roma n) , 54 ( no te)Ca s t i l l o n , 6 7Ca tea u Cam b res i s , 80 (n o te)C a t he r i n e ofBra ga n z a , 2 7 ( n o te)Ca e a l leri a Rusti ca na , i t s tra n slat i on

,2 31

- 2 33Ca va l l i , 2 3C awnpore , 57Ce l l i n i

,2 3

C e l s u s, 51 ( no te)

C e s t i,2 3

Chi lon s , ba t t le of, 53 ( n o te) ,87 ( n o te)

C ha ndos , Du ke o f, 1 2 , 97Ch a ppe l l

, Old Engl i shPopula rMus ic

,qu o ted

,1 56 , 1 57

Ch a r lem a gne, 54 (n o te)

Ch a r l es IL, 2 , 1 2 , 2 7 , 9 2 ( no te) ,6

Cha rlges V . , 80 ( no te)

Ch a u ce r 1 7 ( n o te)Ch a u cer , qu o ted , 1 53C hor l ey , quo ted , 1 6 4 , 1 6 8, 1 6 9 ,

C hron ol og i ca l c ha r t , 2 1 -2 6 , 30 ,4 S

Ch ron o l ogy o f Mu s i ca l H i s t ory,1 6 - 18

C hu rc h S t a tes .C i ty—S t a tes

a s po i n t s of ex ter i o r i z a t i on ,56 , 57

eme rgence o f the , 55i n med i ae va l Eu rope

,80

C l a ss i ca l t op i c s ( i n Opera )congen i a l t o the Greek a nd

l a t i n m i n d,109

fam i l i a r i ty o f,t o I t a l i a n a u d i

en ceg 108

repugn a n ce of Engl i s h a ud iences t o , 108, 109

[See Pa pa cy]

INDEX

C l a ud i a n , 51 (no t e)C lemen t i

,popu l a r c u l t of

, 9 2

( note)C l i ve , 2 7 ( n o te ) , 4 2Clutsam ,

George,

14 1 , 2 9 7

( no te)Coch i n -Ch i nese Oper a , 2 86

(no te)Co lem a n

,George , the You n ge r ,

1 80 ,1 81

quo ted , 1 6 2Col l i ngwood , 2 8 (n ote )Colomba , q uo ted , 180

Col on ia l Ex pa ns i on . [See Exteriori z a t ion . Sea -Power .Wor l d-Powe r]o f Be l g i um ,

2 6

of En gl a nd , 2 5—2 9 , 39

-

4 2 ,

44 , 7 7 , 87 , 88

ofFra n ce , 2 5, 2 6 , 88

of Germ a ny , 2 5, 88

of Ho l l a n d,88 ( no te )

of Po r t uga l,88 (no te)

o f Spa i n , 88 ( no te)Col umbu s

, 59 , 7 6

Com i c—Opera . [See Mu s i ca lComedy]

a nd Son g-speec h , 1 9 1 , 1 9 2

a nd the t ra ve l l i n g ope racompa n i es

,2 39 , 2 40

a poss i b le ba s i s fo r a dva n ce,

2 4 37 2 44Eng l i s h a t temp t s to deve l op ,

2 44- 2 4 6

En gl i s h s c hool of, 2 4 3pub l i c a pp rec i a t i o n of, 2 40,

2 4 3wea l t h a nd en ergy devo tedto

,1 1 7 , 2 4 3

Comm u ne s,r i se of the

, 7 3Compose r , the . [See Pu b l i c .Recep t i v i t y]compa red w i t h the pa i n te r

,

32 7

the sc u l p t o r a nd the poe t ,31

-

36

co nd i t i o n s fa vou r a b l e a nd

a dve r se t o, 4 1

depen den t on the n a t i on,

104 ) 1051 2 7n a t i o n a l a nd den a t i o n a l i z ed

1 05 (n o t e )on l y pa r t ly re spon s i b l e fo rMu s i c a l—prod u c t i v i ty

,2 7

2 7 9pro tec ted a b roa d

,1 39 , 140

‘ sp i r i t u a l u n i o n o f,w i t h the

n a t i o n ,

[SeeAcces s i b i l i ty .

I n te l l i g i b i l i ty]Compose r

,the Eng l i s h . [See

A n gl o -con t i nen ta l . Engl i s hOpera . P u b l i c]

a nd En gl i s h Ope ra,2 9 3, 2 94

a nd env i ro nmen t, 9 2 (n ot e ) ,

a nd fo re i g n m ode l s,

1 1 9 ,2 52 , 2 6 1 , 2 6 2 . [SeeFore i g n]

a nd the fo re i gn ,1 2 4 , 1 2 5

fore i gn -t ra i n ed a b roa d,

2 6 5,2 6 6

fo re i g n - t ra i n ed a t h ome,2 6 6 ,

2 6 7h i s a t t i t u de t owa rd s there s i den t fore i gn e r

,2 7 3,

2 7 4h i s de ta c hmen t

,2 53, 2 6 0 .

[SeeDi scon n ec tedn ess . Na

t ion a l occa s i o n s]Composer

,the Engl i s h Opera t i c .

[See N a t i on a l Ope ra H ou se .

P ub l i c . Recep t i v i ty . S t a t ea id]

a nd fi n a n ce,2 80- 2 82

,2 98,

300

a nd h i s i n he r i ta n ce, 30 1

32 8

C ompo se r,the Engl i s h Ope ra t i c

a nd ‘ i n te r n a t i o n a l ’ ope ra,

I 38, 1 39a nd song - s peec h

,1 94 , 2 04 ,

a nd s ta te-a id, 1 35, 1 36

a nd the Impre s a r i o , 1 40 , 1 4 1

a nd the p a i n t e r com pa red,

a nd the pu b l i c, 2 4 7 , 2 57

- 2 6 0 ,

a nd t ra ns la ted ope ra,2 2 2 - 2 2 4

d i s a dva n t a geou s pos i t i o n o f,

1 39 2 1 40 12 53

- 2 57dou b le a t t i t u de of

,1 1 8.

a l so 9 7 et see]h i s c ha n ce s of pu b l i c p erforma nc e

, 1 2 7h i s wa n t of op portun i t ies, 1 2 7

[See

n a t i o n a l i n d i ffe ren ce t o,

2 56—2 6 0

n ece ss i t y o f s t u dy i n g Eng l i s h ,

sm a l l dem a n d for h i s wor k,

Compose r,the Ope ra t i c

a nd p r i va te pa t ron a ge , 2 82

2 84a nd the con ce r t com pose rc om pa red

,1 2 5, 1 2 6

,2 54 ,

2 55cond i t i on s o f

,com pa red w i t h

the Pa i n te r,2 55, 2 56 . [See

Mus i c]h i s dependen ce o n the pub l i c

,

1 2 5h i s d i ffic u l t i es i n the e i ghteen thcen t u ry

,1 1 6

,1 1 7

h i s re l a t i o n s h i ps w i t h l ibre tt i s ts

,1 82 - 1 84 ,

2 94—2 98

h i s v a ry i n g cond i t i o n s , 1 2 6

n ece s s i ty of pu b l i c pe rform a nces

,1 2 5, 1 2 6 ,

INDEX

pr ima r i l y respon s i b le for songspeec h

,1 9 3, 194

se lec t i o n o f,2 98, 2 99

the t h ree t ype s , 2 94- 2 98Con ce r t -goe r s

, the Engl i s h a s ,

Con nec tedne ss . [See D i s co nn ec tedness]o f Engl i s h Ch u rc h m u s i c

,

2 7 7o f G erm a n m u s i c

, 4 1 , 98,

of n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t ie s com

pa red w i t h d i s co n n ec tedn e s s of En gl i s h Ope ra , 5of the co n t i ne n ta l sc hoo l s ,

Co n n ec t i n g l i n k s i n Opera[See Emo t i on a l s i t ua t i o n s .Du a l i ty . Rec i ta t i ve], 94 ,

189Con son a n t s . [See S i n ger s . S i n gi n g M a s ter s]i n En gl i s h a nd I ta l ia n , 19 6

I 99i n te l l i g i b i l i ty o f

, a nd vowe l sc om pa red , 2 03pron u n c i a t i o n o f

,by s i nger s

,

1 88, 1 90 ,2 02 - 2 04

Con s ta b le,2 8

Con s t a n ce , l a k e , a bou n d a ry o fthe Roma n Emp i re

, 48

(n o te)Con s ta n t i n ople

a t ta c k ed by Os t rogo t h s, 53

( n o te)ba r ba r i a n i n roa d s i n to

, 53-

55fou n d i n g o f

,i t s effec t

, 58 a nd

59 (n o te)Coo k , 2 8 ( n o te)Corde r , H . a nd F.

,2 19 ( n o te)

Coriola nus,108

$330

Dua l i ty (of Opera ) , 94 , 1 1 4

2 1 3,2 1 4 , 2 1 6 - 2 1 8. [See Co nn ec t ing l i n k s . Emo t i o n a ls i t u a t i o n s]

Ducrow,A n drew

,a t ype o f the

Engl i s h Ope ra t i c voca l i s t,

2 0 1 ( no te)Du n s t a b l e

,h i s l a c k of i n flu en ce

,

9 2 (no te)s choo l of

, 1 2 (n o te)voca l wor k s of

,1 7 (n o te)

Dusse k,pop u l a r c u l t of, 9 2

(no te)Dussek Co . ,

1 6 2

Du t ch [See Be l g i um . Fl a nde r s .F lem i n gs . Ho l l a nd . Ne

therla nds], 1 7 , 2 3—2 5, 44

geogra p h i ca l con d i t i o n s o fthe

, 7 1 , 7 2

sea -powe r of the,84 (n o te)

so c i a l a nd po l i t i ca l c o nd i t i o n sof the

, 7 2 , 7 3

Ea s t I nd i a Com pa n i es,2 7 (n ot e)

Ea s t I nd i a Se r v i ce, 4 2

Ea s t I nd i e s,over sea s a c t i v i t y i n

the,2 7

Edm u nd,

1 6 6—1 7 1Edu c a t i o n , m u s i c a l

a nd adduc a t io n ,2 4 7

a nd fore i g n t ea ch e rs i n Engla nd

,2 6 4 , 2 6 5

fore i gn,of Engl i s h composer s

a b roa d,2 6 5, 2 6 6

fo re i gn,o f En gl i s h compose r s

a t hom e,2 6 6 , 2 6 7

i t s t r u e e nd,2 6 4

re s u l t o f ou r p re se n t , 2 6 7Edwa rd V I I . , Ki ng , h i s recog

n i t ion o f EnghshOpe ra ,1 4 4

the fi r s t pa t ron,

’

2 9 2

IPJ IDEDK

Egypt,Sa ra cen s move t h ro ugh ,

54 (me te)Elbe

,a bou nd a ry of the Va nd a lmovemen ts

, 54 (n o te)Elehtra , 2 48prod u c t i o n o f

,i n Lon don ,

El i z a be t h a nbu cca n eer s a s a t ype o f exter ior i z a t ion , 38

dram a, 2 7 , 40

En gl a n d a ndAu gu s ta n Rome

52 (no te)poe t ry a nd the c l a s s i c i s t s, 93( no te)

El i z a be t h,Q ueen , 1 3, 2 7 , 9 3

(no te )El l a

,

”1 7 2

- 1 7 6

El l i s,qu o ted

,2 0 2

,2 03, 2 04

Emo t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s i n Ope ra ,94 ,

Emo t i on a l t op i c s i n Ope ra , 109 ,1 10

En v i ronm en t9 2 (n o te)d i ffe re n ce o f, a nd o f l a ngua ge ,

2 2 5- 2 2 8

Engl a nd . [SeeEngl i s h . N a t i o n a l .N a t i o n a l i sm]

a bou nda ry of the No rm a nwa nde r i ng s

, 54 (n o te )a n a rt i st i ca l lydi sun i ted n a t i o n ,3, 95,

- 1 18,2 51 .

[See D i s con nec tedne s s]a nd I t a l y

, 7 8, 80 , 93, 98, 99 ,1 0 6 - 1 08

a nd re l i g i ou s co nfl i c t , 84a s a co l on i z i n g power , 88

( n o te )a s a ty pe of ex ter i o r i z a t i o n ,38, 39

a s a Wo rl d -power , 2,

2 5.

[See Col on i a l Ex pa n s i on]

a nd com po ser s ,

INDEX 33 1

En gla n dc i v i l w a r i n

,6 8

com pa r i son o f,wi t h Ge rm a ny ,

4 1 , 1 1 9 , 2 6 1 , 2 6 2,2 7 5

2 7 7compa r i s o n of

,w i t h the

Rom a n Emp i re, 50

compa r i s on of,w i t h the

US A ,2 2 5

- 2 2 7compa r i so n of m u s i ca l condi t ions i n m oder n , w i t ht hose i n m ed i aeva l Rome

,

7 4 , 7 5deve l opm en t o fWor l d pou er

i n,com pa red w i t h her

me n t a l a nd a r t i s t i c deve l opmen t

,2 7

-2 9d i scove ry o f Ame r i ca c ha ngesn a t i o n a l a nd m u s i ca l co ndi t ion s o f

, 44 , 7 6-

7 9ea r l y soc i a l a nd mu s i ca l de

v elopm en ts m, 6 4 6 6

fore i gn c ra ft smen i n,

2 7 1 ,2 7 2

fore i g n e x pl o i ta t i o n o f, 7 4 ,

7 s, 2 6 5, 2 7 1 , 2 7 3,2 7 4fore i gn he l pe r s i n

,2 6 5

fore i gn m u s i c i a n s i n, 40 , 7 4 ,

7 5, 2 6 4 , 2 6 5, 2 7 2 2 7 4i n the seven teen t h a nd e i ghteen thcen tu r i e s , 1 5i so la t i o n o f

,before the d i s

covery of Am e r i c a , 7 6J a c k Ca de ’ s Rebe l l i o n i n , 6 7l im i t s of

,6 6

m a te r i a l cond i t i on s i n, 40

med i aeva l wa r s o f,6 6 -6 9

m u s i ca l deve l o pmen t i n,84

m u s i ca l s ter i l i ty of,10

,87

mu s i c p rodu ced i n, 1 7

na t i o n a l awa ken i ng i n,2 7 4

2 7 6

n a t i on a l v i t a l i t y o f, 2,2 8

pa r t i a l i t y of, for fore i gnm u s i ca l t ra d i t i o n s a nd la ngu a ge s

, 9 2 (n o te) , 1 1 6

pa r t i a l l y n a t i o n a l s c hoo l ofm u s i c i n

,82

, 84—86

poss i b i l i ty o ffurther exter ior iz a t ion ,

88

pr i va te pa t r on a ge i n, 2 82 -2 84

pu b l i c c h a r i t y i n,2 88—2 90

tempora ry impen e t ra b i l i t y of,t o n ew i d ea s of VV orldpower

, 86

the P i o n eer ofhl us ic , 6 4t rea t ie s of

, 7 3 (no te)u nm u s i ca l c on d i t i o n s i n

, 4 1

wa r s o f Rose s i n,6 7

Engl i s h . [SceEngla nd N a t i o n a l .N a t i on a l i sm]

a b i l i ty t o a b sorb fore i gn i ndustri a l tec h n i q ue , 2 7 1 ,

2 7 2

a n ta gon i sm to I ta l i a n m e t h ods10 7

a pprova l o f Opera,1 2 1

a r i s t o cra t i c c u l t of fo re i g nOpe ra

, 9 6 98, 1 1 6 1 18,

a r i s t oc ra cy,c h a ra c te r i s t i c s of

the, 9 6 , 1 1 6 , 2 1 3 (no te )

a s con ce r t -goe rs,

2 0 1,

2 0 2 ,

a s l i n gu i s t s,2 13, 2 14

a s t hea t re-goe r s,8, 9 7 , 2 4 6 ,

2 4 7a t t i t u de t owa rd s m u s i c

, 53

( no te)a t t i t u d e t owa r d s the opera t i cform , 1 89 , 2 1 6

—2 1 9 , 2 2 2

C h u rc h -m u s i c,i t s co n nec ted

n e s s,2 7 7

defi a n ce of I ta l i a n Ope ra ,106

1”

Engl i s hd i s l i ke o f fore i gn Ope r a

,2 18

,

d i s l i ke o f re c i ta t i ve, 1 1 2 ,

1 1 5d i sl i ke o f t hea t r i ca l g l oom ,

109 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 2

ex pu l s i on o f the,from Spa i n ,

7 0

ex te r i o r i z i n g tendenc ies o fthe

, 2 1 3 (n o te )i n a b i l i t y t o a b sorb fo re i g nm u s i ca l c u l t u re , 2 7 2 , 2 7 3,2 7 7

m u s i ca l pos i t i o n o f the , i n theea r ly e i g h tee n t h cen tu ry ,106

n a t i o n a l a nd opera t i c a c tiv i

t i e s com pa red, 5

refu sa l of I ta l i a n m e t hods,

10 7sec u la r m u s i c

,i t s d i s con

n ec tedn ess,1 04 . [See Di s

con n ec tedne s s]wa n t o f i n t e re s t i n c la s s i ca lope ra t i c t op i c s

,1 08

Engl i s h l a ngu a ge . [See S i n ge r s .Son g- speec h]

a nd Mr . Beec h am ’ s o pe ra t i cprod uc t i o n s

, 1 4 7 , 1 48

a nd seven teen t h ce n t u rymu s i ca l expre s s i on

,1 54

a nd s i n g i n g m a s t e r s, 1 59 , 1 6 0 ,

a nd vowe l—com b i n a t i o n s, 2 05

a s a s u i ta b le m ed i um fo rOpe ra

, 1 1 6 , 186

a s u nd e r s tood by s i n ge r s,1 59 ,

1 6 0

Ba l l a d -Ope ra w r i t te n a nd pe rformed i n the

, 1 1 6

c h o i ce o f,i n wr i t i n g Opera

,

182

INDEX

com pa red w i t h I ta l i a n a nd

Fre n c h,2 0 6

,2 0 7

com pos i te c ha ra c te r of the,

democra t i c prefe rence for the,i n Ope ra

, 1 1 6

depe nden t o n n a t u ra l fa c t or s ,

d i s t or t i on s a nd i n ver s i o n s o fthe

,i n Opera

, 1 54 , 1 55,1 6 5, 1 7 3, 1 7 5

—1 78, 1 80 ,2 30

d rama

2 0 7ge ne ra l l y i l l - c h osen a nd i l ls u ng

, 1 87- 1 89

i n e i gh tee n t h ce n t u ry Opera,

1 1 6

i n n i ne tee n t h cen t u ry Opera ,1 7 5—180

i n seven teen t h cen t u ry Ope ra,

1 54i t s gen e ra l c ompos i t i o n a nd

c h a ra c ter , 1 9 7- 199 , 2 1 0

M i l k-pu nc h o r Wh i s ky ? ”1 2 0 a nd 1 2 1 a nd 1 2 2

(n o te )obj ec t i o n s a dva nced to use of

the,i n Ope ra

, 2 1 6 - 2 18

r hy t hm s o f the, 199, 2 04 ,

spec i a l l y a da p ted fo r Opera,

1 85, 2 04- 2 1 0

u n im por ta n ce o f the,u nde r

e i gh teen t h ce n t u ry cond it i o n s

,1 59 , 1 6 0

va r i e ty o f the, 1 86

Wa rdou r-S tree t i sm , 1 81 , 1 82

Engl i s h M us i ca l Rena i s sa nce ,180

Engl i shMus i c from the e leven t ht o the fi fteen t h cen t u r ie s ,1 6

of the,1 99 , 2 04 ,

334 INDEX

Euridice, 1 08

Eu ropea nd the c i ty- s t a t es

, 55-

57 , 80

a scenda n cy o f i n te r i o r i z i n gove r ex te r i o r i z i n g forcedu r i n g the M ed i aeva lP er i od

, 59ba l a n ce o f i n te r i or i z a t i on a nd

exterioriz a t ion i n medimv a l,

6 7ba rba r i a n i n c u r s i on s i n to

, 53a nd 54 ( note ) , 55 (n o te)du a l c ha ra c te r of e x te r i o r i z at i o n i n m ed i ae va l

,6 2 - 6 4

edu ca t i o n of secu la r,83

e x te r i o r i z a t i o n a c h a ra c te ri st ic o f

,du r i ng the Rom a n

P e r i od a nd the Pe r i o d o fthe Da r k Ages

, 4 7-59

gene r a l cu l t i va t i o n o f m u s i ci n

, 89 , 90

gra d u a l p 1 essure o f n ew ex

teriori z ing forces in ,

n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n i n,89 , 90

rea r ra n gem en t of n a t i on a lre l a t i on sh i p s i n

, 7 6—7 9s i x teen t h cen t u ry i n ter iori zi n g a nd ex te r i or i z i n g tenden c ies i n

,82

, 83s t a t i c c on d i t i o n w i t h i n

,86

u sel e s s type o f n a t io ria l exterio 1 i 2 a t ion i n med i aeva l

,

6 6 6 9Eu rope , cen t ra l , segrega t i o n o f,

88

Eurya nthe, 2 95Ex ter i o r i z a t i on

, 37 .

ter ior i z a t ion .

Wo r l d-Powe r]a b sen ce of

,doe s no t en su re

m u s i ca l—prod u c t i v i ty, 4 3

a b se n ce o f,i n m ed i aeva l

F l a nder s, 73

[See I nSea—Powe r .

a b sen ce of, n ece ssa ry for

m u s i ca l deve l opmen t , 6 9a b se nce of, w i t h i n Eu rope m

the Moder n Pe r i od,86

a nd the En gl i s h Chu rch, 2 7 7

a n e xpl a n a t i o n o f m u s i ca lh i s to ry , 4 2

A s i a t i c a nd We s te r n , 87

( no te)a u n i form l y nega t i ve con d it i on in theMode r n Per i od

,

c ha n ged ch a ra c ter of, i n theMode r n Pe r i od , 7 6com pa red w i thi n ter i or i z at i o n

, 39 , 4 1 , 90

comp l e te a b sence o f, no tn ecessa ry for m u s i ca l dev elopmen t

,6 9

Da r k Ages , the grea t i l l u s t rat i ve era o f, 54 , 55dec rea se o f

,tenden c ies i n the

s i x teen t h cen t u ry , 82 , 83devo t i o n o f Med i aeva l Rome

a nd Mode r n En gla nd to ,7 4 s 7 5d i s t i n c t i o n be tween the twotypes o f, 6 3dou b le proces s o f, i n theRom a n Em p i re , 51du a l c ha r a c ter of, i n Med i a:

v a l Eu rope , 6 2 - 6 4Engl a n d a nd, 9 2 , 98, 2 1 3

(n o te )gen e ra l a spec t o f med i aeva l ,6 8

gra du a l a s cen da n cy of i nter10r1z 1ng ove r exter i or1zi n g fo rceduring theMed i aev a l Pe r i od , 59 , 6 0i den t i ty o f moder n a nd

a nc i en t , 56 , 57i n mus ica l c rea t i o n , 31 et seq.

INDEX 335

Ex ter i or i z a t i o nmen t a l

,i n Fra n ce

, 88

m o t i ve s for,6 6

n ew a rea for , i n the Mode r nPe r i od

, 7 6 , 87n ew forces o f

,ex er t o n l y a

gra du a l p res s u re, 78, 82

n ew form of,i t s difi

’

eren ce o feffec t i n v a r i ou s n a t i o n s

,

78, 7 9opposed t o m u s i ca l deve l opmen t

, 30, 90, 9 2

ove r t h row of fa cu l ty fo r,

86

pa r t i a l , i n the s i x teen t h cen

t u ry,83

phys i ca l,ten ds t o dec rea se i n

se c u la r medix va l Eu rope ,6 7po i n t s o f, m u l t i p l i ed i n theDa r k Ages

, 55, 56

pos s i b i l i ty of fu r t h er,i n Eng

l a n d , 88pre ssu re of, on compose r s , 4 2re l i g i o n a s a ba s i s fo r

,82 ,

83r i go rou s a pp l i ca t i o n of

, 44 , 6 2

Rome a nd Engl a nd a s type sof

, 38, 39soc i a l a nd m u s i ca l efl

'

ec ts o f,

i n I ta l y, 80 , 81

soc i a l re s u l t s o f med i aeva l,6 7

the ba s i s o f the Rom a n Emp i re

, 51

the de ter ren t fa c to r i n m u s i ca ldeve l opmen t , 40, 4 1

the medix va l t ype of,6 6 - 6 9

the t h ree m omen t s o f n a t i o n a lpa u se from

,6 9

-

7 6

u se les sn e s s ofmedi aev a l, 6 8, 6 9

Fa irRommofld, qu o ted , 1 6 4 , 1 6 8,I 73»1 7 5, 1 7 6

Federa ted M a l a y S t a tes , 2 8Fe s t i va l s

,the

, 2 54Fidf /i a , 1 7 1 ( no te) , 2 7 7

“ Le i se l l e i se l ” i n,

1 2 1

( n o te)F i n c k , H . T . ,

qu o ted,

1 99

( no te)F i n l a n d

,c u l t i va t i o n o f mu s i c

i n , 1 8, 87 , 88

Fi tzba l l, E.

,1 81

quo ted,1 6 9 , 1 7 5, 1 7 6 , 1 7 7 ,

1 78

Fl a n der s . [Sfe Belg iunL Fl a nde r s . F lem i n gs . H o l la nd .

Ne t he r l a nd s]a bsence of ex te r n a l h i s t oryi n

, 7 3ea r l i e s t m u s i ca l deve l opmen t si n

,6 4

F lem i n gs,

2 6 . [See Fl a n de r s .Flem i s h S c hoo l]geogra ph i ca l con d i t i on s o f t h e

,

7 1 , 7 2

se rv i ces of the,t o mu s i c

, 7 5,

7 6

soc i a l a nd pol i t i ca l co n d i t i on so f the

, 7 2 , 7 3the

,a nd d i sca n t

,6 1

Flem i s h Sc hool, 39 . [SN

Fl a nde r s]deve l opm en t a nd i nfl uence o fthe

,1 7

i n Rom e,

10, 7 4 , 7 5, 7 9

(no te) , 84Flora

’

r Op era , 1 58

Fl ore n ce,i n the fi fteen t h cen

t u ry, 7 9

m u s i c prod u ced a t , 1 7 , 18,

Fl oren t i ne Sch oo l, 39

Fly Soft i dmx,1 59

Fol k—s o ng, 1 3, 1 4

Fo l k-wa n de r i ng,c h ron o l ogy of

,

53 a nd 54 (no te)

336 INDEX

Fore i g n . [See Composer]a nd Engl i shs ta ndpo i n t s i n

res i den t i n En gla nd , 40 , 74 ,

7 5, 2 6 4 , 2 6 5, z 7 l- 2 74

Ope ra, 99 res i de n t i n Rom e

,10 , 74 , 7 5,

a r t i s t i c en em i es,

2 6 0,

2 6 1, 7 9 ( no te) , 84

2 7 1 Fo rm i gny,6 7

com poser s a ndpro tec t i on,1 39 , Fou r t h d imen s i on

, the m u s i1 40 c a l

,89

c ra ft sm en i n En gl a nd,2 7 1 , Fra A n ge l i co , 2 3

2 7 2 Fra n ce . [See Fren ch]cu l t o f

,m u s i c a nd a r t i s t s

,

2 1 3Engl i s h d i sl i ke o f

,ope ra t i c

i dea l s , 2 18, 2 1 9En gl i s h i n a b i l i t y t o a b so rb

,

m u s i ca l c u l t u re , 2 7 2 , 2 7 3,2 7 7

Engl i s h pa r t i a l i t y fo r,m u s i ca l

t ra d i t i o n s, 9 2 (n o te )

e x pl o i t a t i o n ofEngla nd, 2 6 4 ,

he l pe r s i n Eng l a nd,2 6 5

i dea l s i n Opera,

2 1 6

mode l s i n m u s i c,1 19 , 2 52 ,

m u s i ca l edu ca t i o n a t home

a nd a b roa d,2 6 5

- 2 6 7Opera

,c u l t of

,i n Engl a nd

,

a n a r t i s t i ca l l y u n i ted n a t i o n ,

a nd N a t i o na l i sm,2 6 9 , 2 70

a s a co l o n i z i n g power , 2 5, 2 6 ,88

com b i n a t i o n of a c t i v i t i e s i n ,30 (no te)cu l t i va t i o n o f m u s i c i n , 1 7 ,87Ho ly Lea gu e a ga i n s t

, 7 9 (no te)I t a l i a n wa r s of

, 7 9 , 80

les s on s from, 144 , 2 6 9 ,

2 7 0

med i aeva l wa r s o f,6 6 -6 8

pro tec t i o n ofn a t ive com poser si n

,1 39

S a ra cen s e n ter sou t h o f, 54( no te)

The J a cq u er i e i n,6 7

Fra n k s,wa n der i ngs o f the , 54

( no te)Free—t ra de i n mu s i c , 1 39 , 140

Frf ircbii tz,2 7 7

so ng—s peec h,Fren c h

[SM Engl i s h c ra ft smen i n Engla nd , 2 7 1 ,Song - s peec h . 2 7 2

ex te r i o r i z a t i o n a nd i n te r i o r iz a t io n o f the , 88

9 6- 1 2 8

,2 1 2

,

Ope ra sea son a t Coven t Ga r

den,1 2 8- 1 32

s t a nd a r ds i n2 09 , 2 1 0 .

La ngu a ge .

T ra n s l a t i o n]the , composera nd the Engl i s h ,

1 2 4 , 1 2 5 m u s i c a nd m u s i c i a n s i n EngFore i g ne r s l a nd

,1 2

, 7 5, 9 2 (no te) ,c u l t o f

,a n ob s ta c l e t o En gl i sh 96

Ope ra,1 1 9 , 2 6 0 a t my. the , exc l u ded from I ta l y , 80

re s i den t i n Amer i ca, 7 4 , 7 5, (n ote)

2 7 2 the , i n I ta l y , 7 9 , 80

338

Gou n od , t ra n s l a t i o n s o f, 2 30G ra y , 2 7G reececon d i t i o n s i n

, 4 3d ram a i n a n c ien t

,2 9 6

m u s i ca l sy s tem i n a n c ien t , 46(Ereek

m ode r n (Rom a i c) , 197 ( n o te )my t h ol ogy a nd h i s t ory a s thes u bj ec t ofIta l i a n Ope ra

,108

Ope ra a n a t temp ted rev i v a lof

,dr am a

, 93, 94 , 10 7 ,

Greer/w i ck Pa rk,1 56 , 1 57

G r ieg,a n a t i o n a l com pose r

,1 05

G rove ’ s D i ctiona ry, 6 (n o te) , 9(n o te) , 1 2 (no te) , 10 2

(n ote) , 14 7 (no te) , 19 1

(no te)Guada lqu iv er, a bou nd a ry of

the Va n da l movemen t s, 54

(n o te)Guy Ma nna / i ng , quo ted , 1 6 7 ,

H a a’

don Ha ll , 2 4 4H a i n a u l t , 7 3H amp sh i re

, 7H a nde l

,2 5, 30 (no te) , 36 ( no te) ,

1 00 (n o te)a nd b i l i n gu a l per form a n ces

,

I 4 7c u l t o f

,1 2

, 9 2 ( no te) , 2 6 1fa l l a cy con n ec ted w i t h

,6

( no te)powe rfu l pe r son a l i t y o f

,

6 (note)H a nover i a n Dyn a s ty

, 1 2 (no te)Ha

’

ma l am! Greta],i n London

,

300

H a r l e i a n M i sce l la ny . [St e V i ndex A ngl i c u s]

l i a slewoodcol lec t i on , 100 ( no te)

INDEX

H a s t i n gs,Wa r ren

, 2 8 (n o te) , 4 2H aw k i n s

,2 7 (no te)

H a ydn, 2 2

,2 5, 30 ( no te) , 2 6 2

a nd Bee t hoven , 2 7 4 , 2 7 5a nd p r i va te pa t ron a ge , 2 82im i t a t i o n s of, i n Engl a nd , 1 1 9l es s on from

,2 7 5, 2 7 6

H e i degge r, J . J . ,

1 00 ( no te)H en ry I I . (o f En gl a nd ) , 6 5H en ry I I . (of Fra n ce) , 80 ( no te)H are fa ke my lifi , 1 7 1 ( n o te)“H i g h l i gh t s ” i n speec h

,2 08

(no te)H i s M aj e s ty’ s T hea t re, 1 44 , 1 881106 i n too Country Wa ke. [See

F/ora’

r Opera ]H o l la nd . [SaeDu t c h . Be l g i um .

Fl a n de r s . F lem i ng s . Ne t he r la n ds]

a nd re l i g i o u s confl i c t , 84a s a co l o n i z i n g powe r

,88

( no t e)d i scove ry of Am er i ca ch a nge s

the n a t i o n a l a nd m u s i ca lco n d i t i o n s of

, 7 6-

7 9geogra p h i ca l co n d i t i o n s of

,

7 1 ; 7 2

m u s i ca l s te r i l i ty of,87

n a t i o n a l p rod uc t i v i t y o f,2 9

pol i t i ca l co nd i t i o n s i n, 7 3

proba b i l i ty ofmusica l deve l op~m en t i n

,84

ra c e i n ha b i t i n g , 7 2H o ly Lea gu e

, 7 9 ( n o te)Ho ly Rom a n Em p i re

,6 0

m ed i ae va l wa r s of the , 6 8H ood

,Ca p t . Ba s i l , 2 45

H oo k,6 (no te) , 1 6 0

H ora ce, 51 ( n o te) , 53 (n o te) , 2 30

H ucba ld,d e s c r i be s the s c i ence

o f D i s ca n t,6 1 ( not e)

h i s poe t i ca l effu s i o n ,(no t e)

2 30

INDEX

H ueffer,Fra n c i s

,qu oted

,180

H ugu eno t s,i n Engl a nd

, 2 7 1 ,2 7 2

H um frey,Pe l h am

, 9 6

H u ndred Yea r s Wa r,The

, 6 5,6 6

H u nga r i a n s , medi a v a l wa r s o fthe

,6 8

H u nga ry,confl i c t o f H u n s a nd

Os t rogo t h s w i t h V i s i go t h si n Ea s ter n , 54 (n o te)cu l t i va t i o n of m u s i c i n

,87

H u ns (Mongol s) , ove r ru n Nor t hern I nd i a

, 55 ( no te)wa n der i ng s of the

,

Eu rope, 53 (no te)

Hyda rper, 108

Hyg i n u s, 51 (no te)

i n to

16 a nd li ttle C/zr irti a a , 2 45, 2 4 6

I I Trot/ a tom,t ra n s l a t i on of

,2 30

Impre sa r i o,the . [See Beec h am]

a nd oper a t i c co nd i t i o n s,1 33,

I 34a nd the composer

,140

a nd the pu b l i c, 1 36 , 14 3,

2 4 7a s a m i dd lem a n

,14 1

h i s t r ue ta sk , 1 51

wa n t o f sympa t hy of,wi t h

the compose r , 1 36I nd i aco n so l i da t i o n o f, 2 8i r r u p t i o n o f Scy t h i a ns i n t o

,

55nor t her n , over ru n by H u ns ,55 (no te)t ra de i n

,2 7

Wa rren H a s t i ngs i n,2 8 (n ote)

I ndu lgen ces , sa l e o f. [See Re

form a t i on]I n noc en t I I I .

, 58 ( note ) , 6 3(no te)

.339

I n te l l i g i b i l i ty,i n Com i c Opera ,

1 9 1

o f Ope ra,

104 , 1 05, 1 2 0,

187 , 189 , 2 1 2 - 2 1 5, 2 2 1,

2 2 9 (no te) , 2 80 . [SatA ccess i b i l i ty . Pu b l i c]of s i nge rs , 187 , 1 88, 1 9 1 ,

1 9 3—1 9 6 , 2 0 1 - 2 04

I n ter i o r i z a t i o n, 37 . [Sat Ex

terior i z a t ion . Sea -Power .Wo r l d - Powe r]

a ba s i s fo r pa r t i a l ex ter i or i z at i o n

,83

a c h a ra c ter i s t i c o f the s i xteen thcen t u ry , 82 , 83

a s a n a t i on a l h a b i t o f m i n d ,7 5, 90

a u n i form l y pos i t i ve con d it i o n i n the Moder n Pe r i od ,89 , 90

com pa red w i thex te r i or i z a

G erma ny a s a type Of, 37 ,

38

gra du a l a s cend a ncy of sec u l a r,

i n the med i aeva l Pe r i od,

59 , 6 o , 6 2 , 6 4i n m u s i ca l c rea t i o n

, 33men t a l

,i t s tenden cy t o i n

c rea se i n Rome,6 7

over t h row o f fa cu l ty for,

86

p hys i ca l,i n Fra n ce , 88

progres s o f, i n En gl a n d , 6 46 6

I nwa rd nes s , 37 .

terio ri z a t ion]I on i a n I s l a nds

,2 8 (no te)

I s l e o fW i gh t , 7I sol i n e

,1 7 1 ( no te)

I t a l i a n l a ngu a gea nd En gl i s h for ope ra t i c pu rposes

, 188,189 , 2 04

[See In

34 0

I ta l i a n la n gu a gea s t ra i n i ng for Engl i s h s i n ge r s

,

i t s compos i t i o n a nd c h a ra c te r,

k n owledge of t h e,i n En gl a n d

,

2 14so u nd of the s po ken

,com

pa red w i t h Engl i sh,

2 07

( n o te)s pec ia l i z a t i o n o f

,t o Opera t i c

p u rpose s,2 09

word—r hy t hm s of the,2 2 3

I t a l i a n Ope ra [Sea Lyr i ca lDrama . Mu s i c Dram a .

Opera], 1 6 ( no te) , 30

( no te)a n e xo t i c i n Engl a n d

, 9 6 , 9 7a r i s t ocra t i c c u l t of

, 9 6-

98,

a s t ra nge a rt- form t o thee i gh tee n t h cen t u ry Engl i s hm a n

,1 06

,1 07

a t tem p ted t ra n sp la n ta t i o n o f,

t o Engl a n d, 98—1 00

En gl i s h a n t a gon i sm t o,1 07

Engl i s h d i s sa t i sfa c t i o n w i t h,

h e ro i cs a nd gl oom,

1 09me t h ods op pula r oppos i t i o nt o , 98—1 1 6s ubj ec t s a nd t rea tmen t o f

,

I ta l i a n Sch oo l , 2 6, 39

I ta l i a n S ty le,1 1 5. [S at Con

nec t i ng- l i n k s . R ec i ta t i ve]

I t a l i a n s,2 4

i n Engla nd, 7 5, 9 6

I ta ly . [Sea P a pa cy . Rom e]a n a r t i s t i ca l l y u n i ted n a t i on

,

a nd Engl a nd , 7 8, 80 , 93, 98,

99 , 106 - 108

INDEX

a nd P a le s t r i n a , 81 , 82 .

Pa les t r i n a]a rc h i tec t u re i n

, 40

a r t i s t i c awa ken i n g i n, 40

cu l t i va t i o n of m u s i c i n , 87d i sc ove ry o f Am e r i ca c ha nges

the m u s i ca l co nd i t i o n s o f,7 9dom i n a t i o n o f

,by Spa i n , 7 9 ,

80

Fren c h ex c l u ded from ,80

( n o te)her grea t pe r i od , 2 3h i s t o ry of

, 7 9-81

i n the fou r teen t h a nd fif

teen thcen t u r ies,1 5

i n ve n t i o n of Ope ra i n, 93

l e s son from,144

Lom ba rd s en ter, 54 (n o te)

med i ae va l wa r s i n , 6 8op era t i c s c hoo l o f, 2 5O s t rogo t h s m a rc h i n t o a nd

a re expel l ed from , 53 (n o te)polyphon i c s ch oo l o f

,1 6

(no te) , 85, 86p ro tec t i o n of n a t i ve com

pose r s i n,1 39

soc 1a l a nd m u s i ca l effec t o fn ew ex te r i or i z i n g forces i n ,80

,81

Va nda l s a nd V i s i go t h s en ter ,5+ (n ow)

I r a n/zoo, com pa red w i t h [b a nd

l i tf/o Cbr im/1a,2 45

produ c t i o n of,2 4 4

rev i ved, 1 4 1 , 1 43 (no te)

s ugges ted by Q ueen V i c t or i a ,2 4 4 ( n o te )

J a c k Ca de ’ s R ebe l l i o n , 6 7J a cobea n a c t i v i t i es

,2 7

J a cqu er i e , the , 6 7J ama i ca

,2 7 (note)

[See

34 2

Ludw ig of Ba va r i a , 1 3, 2 83Lu l l i

,18 (no te) , 2 3

Lu lwor t h Cove , 7Lum l ey

,1 6 6 ( n o te)

Lyceum T h ea t re , Engl i s h Ope raa t the , 2 45 ( no te)

Lyc i da s,1 86

,2 03

Lyon s,t rea ty o f

, 80 ( note)Lyr i ca l Drama . [See I ta l i a n

Ope ra . Mu s i c Dram a .

Ope r a]a n a t tem p t t o rev i ve G reekDram a

, 93, 94, 1 07 , 1 08,

” 4 , 2 37a nd Debu s sy

,1 1 3, 1 2 3

a nd Pu rce l l , 95, 1 1 3. [SeeP u rce l l]

a nd Wa gn er,

1 1 3. [SeeWa gne r]du a l i ty of, - 1 1 6

,1 2 1 ,

2 1 3, 2 1 4 , 2 1 6

2 18. [See C on n ec t ingl i n k s . Emo t iona l s i tua t ion s]i n ven t i on of

, 94the p la ce o f Mus i c i n , 1 1 2

1 14 , 1 2 1 - 1 2 3Lyr i c s . [See Eng l i s h l a ngu a ge .

Li b re t t i s t s . Ope ra Boo k s]fea t u re s of e i g h teen t h cen t u ryBa l l ad

, 1 57 , 1 58

i n the l a te seven teen t hcen t u ry

,1 55

l ow qu a l i ty of,i n the l a te

e i gh teen t h cen t u ry, 1 53,

1 6 0- 1 6 2

prob lem o f c ompos i ng Opera t i c

, 1 54t he i r d i s t or ted , s l oven ly c h a r

a c te r , 1 54 , 1 55. [SeeEn gl i s h La ngu a ge]u n im po r ta nce o f

,u n de r

e i g h t een t h cen t u rydi t io n s , 1 59 , 1 6 0

COI’

I

INDEX

wr i t ten to m u s i c i n Ba l la dOpera , 1 56 , 1 57

Lys a gh t,E.

,1 7 6 ( no te)

M a cfa rren , 1 6 2

M a c h ea t h,Ca p ta i n , 1 08.

The Begga r ’s Opera]M a c h i a ve l l i , 2 3M a c ken z i e , S ir A .

,1 80

M a c n a l l y,L. ,qu o ted

, 1 7 6

M a crob i u s, 51 (note)

M a de i ra t a ken,2 8 ( n o te)

M a g na C a r ta,6 5 (no te)

Ma idMa r i a n, quo ted , 1 6 5ba l l a d i n

,1 7 1 a nd 1 7 2 (no te)

Ma i n z,Roma n m i l i ta ry hea d

qua r te r s a t, 48 ( no te)

Ma j u ba, 57

M i l l a i s,2 9

M i l t o n,qu o ted

,1 40, 2 03

M i r e rkoren,

”19 2

M a l t a t a ken,2 8 (no te)

Ma n from M a r s,

”2 2 - 2 6 , 30

M a n n s,S ir A . ,

2 54M a n tu a

,1 8

M a rga re t u n i te sNorw ay,Sweden

a nd Denma r k, 70

Ill a rt'

ta na,2,2 5, 2 48

M a r l borough,wa r s of

,87 (n o te)

M a r te l, Ch a r les , 54 ( no te)

Ma r t i a l, 51 ( no te)

M a sq ue s, 94 , 1 1 5

M a t t hew, J . E. , 302

lVI a t thi son,q uo ted

,1 6 8

,1 7 8

M ed i c i, 80

IVI edi terra nea n , the , 2 4 , 7 7M ende l s soh n

,2 5, 30 ( no te) , 36

( no te) , 2 6 2

a nd Ope ra,2 95

im i ta t i o n s of,

1 1 9 , 2 52

popu l a r c u l t o f, 9 2 (n o te) ,

2 6 1

[See

i n Eng l a nd ,

INDEX

Me ta s t a s i o,1 6 0 (n o te)

Meye rbeer,18 (no te)

M i c h a e l A nge l o,2 3

M i la n, 1 1 7

i n the fi fteen t h cen t u ry , 7 9M i l k-pu nc h or Wh i s ky ? ”

1 2 0 a nd 1 2 1 a nd 1 2 2 ( no te)Mongol s . [See H u n s]Monod i c School , 8, 85, 93l‘vI on tev erde, 2 3Moody-M a n n e r s , 1 2 7 , 2 39Moor s

,the

,i n Spa i n

, 70

Morb u s opera t icus, 1 10Moscheles , popu l a r cu l t of, 9 2

(no te)Moz a r t , 2 5, 2 57

a nd Bee t hove n, 98, 2 6 2

a nd H a yd n,2 7 6

a nd pr i va te pa t ro na ge, 2 82

l e s son from,2 6 1 , 2 6 2

Mu s i c . [SeeNa t ion aL N a t i o n a li sm . Mus i c a l deve l opm en t .Mus i ca l prod uc t i v i ty]

a n a rt,t he refore non—mora l

,

1 1 1 (no te)a nd n a t i o na l i sm , 1 et reg.

a s a hum a n fa cu l ty,1 9

a ssoc i a t i o n s i n, 33, 35

a t t i t u de of a n c ien t Roma n sa nd Engl i s h towa rd s

, 53

(n o te )compa r i son of, wi t h the o th e r

a r t s, 31

-

36 . [SeeCom pose r ,the Opera t i c]crea t i o n o f

,fu n damen t a l l y

s impl e, 34

c rea t i o n o f, m a ter i a l ly in expens i ve, 1 4 a nd 1 5 ( note) ,34 (no te) . [See Pa i n t i ng]c rea t i ve a c t i n , 32 , 33d i fference be tween

,a nd the

o t he r men ta l a c t i v i t i es , 1 9 ,2 0

34 3

emo t i o na l obj ec t of, 109 , 1 10 ,

1 1 2

emo t i o n s i n, 34 , 35

e x h i b i t i o n o f,e x pen s i ve

, 34

( note )fu n c t i o n of

,i n Lyr i c Dram a

,

1 1 2 - 1 1 4 , 1 2 1 - 1 2 3gen e ra l c u l t i va t i o n o f

,i n

Eu rope,87

i n sepa ra b l e from n a t i o n a l i sm,

104 , 105, 2 7 0,2 7 6

- 2 7 8.

[See Mus i ca l Deve l opmen t .N a t i o n a l fou n da t i o n s . Na

t ion a l i sm]n o t a n i s ol a ted men t a l a c t i vi ty

,1

ques t i o n s of,compa red w i t h

ques t i o n s o f i n d u s t ry a nd

n a t u re , 7sepa ra ted from t rend ofn a t i o n a l t hough t

, 35 a nd

36 ( no te ) , 36se r v i ces o f the F l em i ngs t o

,

7 5, 7 6

t en den cy o f m u s i ca l ly unp roduc t ive n a t i on s to s u ppor t

,

7 1 (no te)Mus i ca l Com edy . [See Com i c

Opera ]a nd son g- s peec h ,a nd the t ra ve l l i n g ope racom pa n i es

, 2 39 , 2 40

i n te l l i g i b i l i ty of s i nger s i n,

2 2 1 . [See I n te l l ig i b i l i ty .

S i n ge r s . Song - speec h]i t s popu l a r i ty i n London , 1 2 7t ra n s l a t i on s i n , 2 2 1wea l t h a nd ene rgy de vo ted

t0, 1 1 7 , 2 4 3

Mus i ca l Deve l opmen t . [SeeN a t i o n a l . N a t i o n a l i sm .

Mus i c . Mus i ca l P rod u ct iv i ty]

3414 INDEX

Mu s i ca l Deve l opmen t m a te r i a l p rosper i t y a s a n ex

a b sen ce ofexter iori z a t ion doe sn o t en su re , 43

a nd G erm a ny, 30 ( no te) , 98,

2 6 1 , 2 6 2 . [See Ge rma n,

Ge rm a n s,Germ a ny]

a nd non—deve l opm en t, 9

- 1 5.

[See Ex te r i or i z a t i o n . I nteriori z a t ion]

a nd re l i g i o n , 83, 84a ppa re n t l y fa vou ra b l e con d it i o n s u nde r the Rom a nEmp i re for

, 48, 49 , 51

com b i n a t i o n of, w i t h o t he rdeve l opm en t s i n F ra ncea nd G erma n y

, 30 ( no te) ,

compa red w i t h n a t i o n a l dev e lopmen t

, 2 1 , 2 2

cond i t i o n s fa vou ra b le a nd

a d ve r se for , 4 1de te r red byWor l d-Powe r , 40 ,

4 2!

4~l a 2 7 7d i s cove ry o f D i s ca n t , 6 0,

6 1 .

[See D i s c a n t]ea r l y soc i a l a nd, i n Eng l a nd ,6 4—6 6

effec t of d i s cove ry of Am e r i caon

, 7 7 . [See Ame r i ca]fa l l a cy o f c i r c um s ta n ce s produc i ng, 1 1

grea t a r t i s t i c awa ken i ng a s

a n e x pl a n a t i on o f, 1 0,1 1

im pos s i b i l i ty o f,u nde r the

Rom a n Em p i re, 51

-

53im poss i b l e w i t hou t fa vou ra b l e

n a tura l condi t ions,4 3,44 ,90

i n Engl a nd,Fl a n de r s a nd

Rom e , 6 2

i t s d i ffe rence from m u s i c a l i ty,

I Sl a te i n compa r i so n w i t h o t her

a c t i v i t i e s , 2 1

pl a n a t i o n of, 14 , 1 5, 40 ,

7 0 , 7 1 , 87m u s i ca l i ty a s a n ex p la n a t i o nof

,1 3, 14

Na t i o n a l fou nda t i o n s a neces

s iry for , 1 04 , 105, 2 70 ,

2 7 6 -2 7 8

n ece ss i t ies fo r n a t i o na l , 6 9n o t co i n c i den t w i t h o t herdeve l opmen t s

,2 1

no t gover ned on ly by nega t i vecon d i t i o n s i n the Med i ae va lP e r i od

, 6 2

pos s i b l e fu t u re,i n Engla nd

,

+5 (no te)poss i b le on l y u n de r defi n i tecond i t i o n s o f the n a t i o na lm i n d

, 7 5pover ty a n ega t i ve fa ctor i n ,70 , 7 1

p reven t i ve fa c t ors i n, 2 0

, 57 ,

90

pro x ima te ca u ses s ugge s tedfo r , 1 2 , 9 1 . [See Proxim a te Ca u ses]qu e s t i o n w i t h rega rd t on a t i o n a l , 1 4 , 1 5serv i ce s o f the F lem i n gs t o,7 5, 7 6

s impl e,whe n de ta c hed from

o t h e r a c t i v i t i es,1 9

s u gge s ted compa r i so n be

tween,a nd o t her n a t i o n a l

a c t i v i t i es , 2 0

tem po ra ry,i n Spa i n a nd

Engl a nd, 82 , 84

-86

u n der the Roma n Emp i re,

+ 6 , + 7u nde te r red by o t h er a c t i v i t ie s,39u n equ a l i n va r i o u s n a t i o n s ,

1 4 , 1 5

34 6

Na t i o n a lope ra -hou se

,s ugges t i o n s fo r a

,

i n the e i g h tee n t h cen tury ,

opera,Mr . Bee ch am a nd

,1 34

ope ra,s i nger s a nd

,1 34 , 1 35

opera,s teps t owa r d s , i n

e i gh teen t h cen tu ry,

1 00,

1 0 2

opera , the En gl i s h l a ngu a gea nd

,2 2 2

,2 2 3. [See Eng

l i s h La ngu a ge]ope ra , the two pr i n c i p le s of,

2 39ope ra

,wa n t o f, i n Eng l a n d ,

2 40

ou t l oo k o n Opera i n En gl a nd ,d i ve r s i t y of

, 3, 95- 1 2 3, 2 52

va l ue of a rt-wor k s,1 9

va l ue o f fore i g n a rt—wor k s,

2 7 0

Na t i o n a l i sma nd a r t i s t i c exp re s s i on , 2 51a nd Fra n ce

,2 6 9 ,

a nd G erm a ny , 1 4 4 , 2 6 1 - 2 6 3,2 6 8

a nd Mus i ca l Deve l opmen t ,2 6 2

,2 6 3. [See IVI us i ca l

Deve l opmen t . N a t i on a lfou nda t i o n s]

a nd the h i s t ory o f En gl i s hOp e ra

,2 51 , 2 52

Engl i s h,a ndOpe ra

,1 -5, 1 51 ,

186 , 2 18, 2 1 9 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 4 ,

2 51 , 2 52 , 2 6 0 . [See Engl i s h . Opera ]

Ne l so n ’s v i c to r i e s , im po r ta n ceo f

,87 ( no te )

Ne t h er la nd s,

the . [See Bel

g i um . Du t c h . Fl a n der s .Flem i n gs . Hol l a nd]c i v i l w a r i n , 6 8geog ra ph i ca l fea t u re s of,

INDEX

Odoa ce r, 53 ( n o te)

Offen ba ch,18 ( n o te) , 1 9 2 ( n o te)

Okeghem,2 6 6

Opera . [See Compose r . Engl i s h Ope ra . I ta l ia n Ope ra .

Lyr i ca l Drama . Mu s i cDram a ]

a fi c t i t i ou s , 2 1 7a n a t temp ted rev i va l o fG ree kDram a

, 93, 94 , 1 0 7 , 1 08,I I 4 , 2 37

a r i s toc ra t i c c u l t o f fo re i gn ,2 1 2 , 2 52 . [SeeFore i g n Ope ra

,cu l t of.

I ta l1a n Ope ra]a s a pu re l y m u s i ca l s ta temen to f emo t i o n

,2 18

da nge rs o f seven teen t h cen

t u ry , 1 1 4

momen t o f pa u se i n , 6 9 , 7 17 6

ra ces i n h a b i t in g, 7 2 , 73

s oc i a l eq u i po i se i n, 73, 7 4

t rea t i es o f, w i t h En gla n d , 7 3( n o te)

Newma n , Er n es t , 1 1 1 (no te) ,

Newton , 2 8, 35Norm a n dy , a bou nda ry of theNorma n wa nder i ngs

, 54

( no te)Norma n p i ra tes , a type o f ex

te r iori z a t ion , 38

Norm a n s , wa n de r i n gs of the ,54 ( n o te )

N orw a y . [See S ca n d i n a v i a ]a bou nd a ry o f the No rma n

wa nder i ngs , 54 ( no te)u n i ted t o Sweden a nd Den

m a r k, 70

N orwa y Deep,the

,1 1

No t i t i a Dign i ta tum , 48 ( no te)

INDEX

Operadu a l n a t u re o f

, 1 2 1 , 1 89 , 2 1 3,

e i gh teen t h c en tu ry,a bu se s i n ,

1 14e i gh teen t h cen t u ry

,type of

,

i n Engla n d , 1 1 0e i gh t een t h cen t u ry

,wr i t ten

i n two fi xed s ty le s, 1 1 4 ,

1 1 5emo t i on a l objec t o f

, 1 09 , 1 1 0 ,

1 1 2

En gl i s h a pprova l of,1 2 1

En gl i s h d i s l i ke of fo re i gn,

expen se s a nd u nce r ta i n t i e s of,

1 2 5- 1 2 7

fu n c t i on ofmus i c i n, 1 1 2

- 1 1 4 ,

1 2 1 - 1 2 3i nfl uen ce of s i nge r s on

,i n

the e i gh teen t h cen t u ry ,

me l ody i n , 189 (n o te )nece s s i ty of s imp l i c i t y i n

,

no t a n i so la ted men ta la c t i v i ty , 1seven teen t h c en tu ry , i n Engl a nd

, 94Opera Boo k s . [See Engl i s hLa n gu a ge . Eng l i s h Ope ra .

Li bre t t i s t s . Lyr i c s]a d i sm a l h i s t ory

, 1 52

ba d ne s s o f, b l am ed, 1 03,

2 94cha nged c ha ra c te r o f

,i n l a te

n i ne teen th cen t u ry,

1 7 9 ,1 80

compose rs ’ a t t i t u de s t owa rd s,

2 94- 2 9 6

d i ffi cu l ty of fi nd i n g,2 94

i n the ea r l y n i ne teen t h cen

t u ry , 1 6 3, 2 9 6 , 2 9 7

Ll 4 7

i n the e i gh teen t h cen tu ry ,156

- 1 6 0 ,2 96

i n the e i gh t een t h cen t u ry( i n termed i a te type) , 1 6 0

1 6 2

i n the seven teen t h cen tu ry,

n ece ss i t y of prov i d i n g , 2 94prob l em of securin g , 2 96

- 2 98

symbo l i sm i n ea r ly n i ne teen t hce n tu ry , 1 7 9 , 1 80

t he i r h eroes (ea r ly n i n eteen thcen t u ry ) , 1 6 6 - 1 7 1 ,I 7 6 , 1 7 7t he i r he ro i ne s (ea r l y n i neteen thcen t u ry) , 1 7 2

- 1 7 7t he i r s ta ge- c rowd s ( ea r l yn i ne teen t h cen t u ry ) , 1 6 4 ,1 6 5t h e i r s ta ge - type s (ea r l y n i n e

teen thcen tu ry) , 1 7 8

Opera i n Engl i s h .

”

[See Engl i s h La n gu a ge . Engl i s hOpe ra . P u b l i c . Recept iv i ty. Song-s peech . Tra

ve l l i n g]d i ffi cu l t i e s i n con nec t i onw i t h , 2 1 9 ,i n London

,2 4 2

i t s re l a t i o n to Engl i s h Opera ,

oppon en t s t o , 2 1 7Opera t i c I n con gru i t i es , 10 7o f M e t h od

,1 1 2 - 1 1 6

,1 56

o f Subj ec t , 1 0 7- 1 1 2

Eng l i s h d i s l i ke o f,1 2 0 ,

Op i e,Mrs

,quo ted

, 1 74 , 1 7 6

Orga num,6 1 (n o te)

Oryn thi a , 1 7 4Os t r ogo t h s

, 53 ( no te)Otello

,2 1 7 (no te) , 2 2 7 ( no te)

Ot h e l l o,1 1 1

,186

,2 97

1 2 1 ,

34 8

Ou de,a n ne x a t i o n o f

,2 9 (n ote)

Ou twa rd nes s,

”

37 . [See Exterior i z a t ion ]

Ove r t h rows,Mus i co-n a t i o n a l ,

Pa a rdeberg , 36 ( n o te)P a i n t i n g

,2 6

a nd m u s i c compa red , 31 -36a nd Ope ra c omp a red , 1 2 5,

Engl i s h , 2 7 - 2 9e x h i b i t i o n of, i ne xpen s i ve , 34(n o te)

P a l es t r i n a , 2 3, 2 6 6

a nd F lem i s h i nfl uen ce s, 7 9

( no te)pu z z l i n g pos i t i on o f, i n m u s i

ca l h i s to ry, 7 8

t r u e h i s t o r i ca l pos i t i o n of, 81 ,82

Pa l l a d in s Ru t i l ius T a u ru s , 51( n o te)

Pa lmer,8. Er nes t . [See P a t ro n

’ sF u n d]

P a pa c y,the . [See Ex ter i o r i z a

t i o n . Rome]a l l i a n ce s o f

,80

ch a ra c ter o f i ts e x te r i o r i z a t i oni n the M ed i ae va l Pe r i od a sopposed t o t h a t o f Secu l a rEu rope

,6 2 - 6 4

impo ten ce o f the , 80i n s t i ga t o r of re l i g i ou s wa rfa re ,82

,83

i n the fi fteen t h cen t u ry, 7 9

med i ae va l w a r s o f,6 8

r i se o f, 57

-

59s i x teen t h ce n t u ry pol i cy o f,82

,83

tempora l powe r o f,6 2 ( no te )

P a pa l s ta te s , 6 2 (n o te) , 7 9Pa r i s

,1 1 7 , 2 6 9

INDEX

Pa r l i amen t s,Engl i s h

,6 5 (n o te)

P a r ry , Si r H u be r t , quo ted , 105

(n o te) , 1 06 ( no te)P a r ry ’ s voya ges

,2 9 ( no te)

P a t ro n a ge,pr i va te

,2 82 , 2 83

d iffi c u l t i e s o f, 2 83, 2 84P a t ron ’ s Fu n d

,the

, 2 9 2

Pa ul ine,180

Pelle'

a r a ndM 1 1 3Pep i n , 54 ( n o te)Pen

,2 3

Pe r i c le s , 1 2

Pe r i od s,the fou r m u s i co-na

t ion a l , 4 7Pe r i od

, the Med i aeva l, 59

b i r t h a nd gra du a l a s cen da n cyo f the i n te r i or i z i n g force ,

con d i t i o n s i n Sca n d i na v i a fo rMus ic a l deve lopmen t,

cond i t i o n s 1n Spa i n for m u s ic a l deve l opmen t

,6 9 , 70

com pa r i so n be tween m u s i ca lco n d i t i o n s i n med i aeva lRom e a nd t ho se i n modernEng l a nd a nd Amer i ca , 7 4 ,7 5

D i s c ove ry o f D i s ca n t , 6 0 ,6 1

d i s t i n c t i on be twee n the twotypes of ex te r i o r i z i n g forcei n

,6 3

du a l c h a ra c te r of e x ter i or i z at i o n i n med i aeva l Eu rope ,6 2 - 6 4fou nda t i o n o f n a t i o n s

, 59 , 6 0

geogra ph i ca l con d i t i on s i n theNe t he r la nd s

, 7 1 , 7 2

gen e ra l a spe c t of e x te r i o r i z at i o n i n , 6 8

mom en t s o f n a t i on a l pa u se A .

i n Spa i n,6 9 , 7 0 ; B. i n

Sc a n d i n a v i a, 7 0 , 7 1 ; C . i n

the Ne t he r l a nds , 7 1—7 6

ND

Pe t ra r ch,2 3

Phe idia s,1 2

P h i l ha rmo n i c Soc i e t y,2 54

Phi l idor,100 ( no te)

P h i l i p of Bu rgu ndy,1 2

P h i l l i ps,H en ry

,1 7 1 (n ote )

P i e r son,H ugo

,a dena t i o na l i z ed

En gl i s hm a n,105 (no te)

h i s i so l a t i o n, 9 2 (no te )

P i n ke r ton,i n Madame Butterfly,

1 2 0 a nd 1 2 1 a nd 1 2 2 (no te)P l a n c hé, 1 81

quo ted,1 6 5

P l a s sey,2 8 (no te)

P l a to,1 05 (n o te)

Pl in ies,the , 51 ( n ote)

Pococ k, J .

,quo ted

,1 6 8

Poe t ry,2 6

, 40

a nd d rama,

1 09 , 1 1 1,

1 1 3,

compa r i s o n o f,w i t h m u s i c

,

31-

36

El i z a bet h a n , a nd the c l a ss ic i s t s

, 93 ( no te)En gl i s h

,2 7

- 2 9R om a n

, 51 , 52

P o i t i er s,6 7

Po l es,med i ae va l wa r s o f the ,

Po lyph on i c sc hoo l,8, 9 ( no te) ,

1 6,1 7 , 7 7 , 85

Pom p,M e l a

, 51 ( no te)Pon tva l l a i n

,6 7

Pope,A l e x a n der

,2 7 , 1 18

Po rson,2 8

Por t uga la s a col o n i z i n g powe r , 88

(not e)d i scove ry o f Ame r i ca c h a n ge sthe n a t i o n a l a nd m us i ca lcon d i t i o n s o f

, 7 6—7 9

n a va l e s t a b l i s hme n t o f,84

( no te)m u s i ca l s ter i l i ty of, 87

INDEX

Po r t ugu e se s c hoo l o f Opera,

2 86

P or t ugu ese, the, 1 7 , 2 3, 2 4 , 2 5,

44Porur

,108

P r i s c i a n, 51 (n o te)

P r i sc i a n,Th.

, 52 (no te)P rox im a t e ca u ses (of Opera t i cfa i l u res) , 6 (no te) , 10- 1 2

,

1

Pucc ign i

,1 2 0 . [See P i n ker to n]

Pu b l i c . [SeeA ccess ibi l i ty. Com

pose r . En gl a nd . Engl i s h .Fore i gn . I n te l l i g i b i l i t y .Sp i r i t u a l -u n i o n]

edu ca t i o n of the , 2 47exc i teme n t a t produc t i on o fEl e k t ra a nd Sa l ome

,149 ,

1 50

Ge rm a n,a nd Ge rm a n Ope ra

,

m a n a ge r ia l de t a c hme n t from,

op i n i on,1 36 , 143

Mr. Beech am ’ s d i s sa t i sfa c t i o nw i t h the

,148

m u n i fi ce nce i n G t . Br i ta i n,

Opera neces sa r i l y ba sed on,

a pprec i a t i o n,2 37 , 2 38, 2 7 8

2 81,

2 99 . [See u nde rCom pose r]

the , a nd Engl i s h l a n gu a ge i nOpe ra

,2 2 1 - 2 2 4 , 2 34 . [See

Engl i s h l a ngu age]the

,a nd n ew Ope ra s , 2 47

the , pa r t l y res pon s i b le for

m u s i ca l -prod u c t i v i ty,2 7 8,

2 7 9Pu rce l l

,2 6

,1 04 ,

(n o t e) , 1 6 3, 1 7 9 , 2 7 5a n a t i on a l com pose r , 105( no te)a nd ly r i ca l d ram a

, 95, 189

( no te)

INDEX

Pu r ce l la nd Son g- s peec h , 1 54

- 1 56

a n i so la ted compose r , 2, 5,

6 ( n o te) , 1 2 (no te ) , 1 6

( no te) , 2 7 6 , 2 7 7co l l a bora t i o n w i t h Na humT a te

,1 52

qu o ted,1 1 3, 1 1 5

s i t u a t i o n o f En gl i s h Oper aa t dea t h of, 95, 98

Pyrrfiur, 108

Quebec , Wo l fe a t,2 8

Quen of euene for ye Mi tre, 1 7

( note)Qu i n t i l i a n

, 51 (n o te )

Ra le i gh,2 7 (no te)

Ra ph a e l,2 3

Rea d i n g,Abbey of, 1 7

Rebe l l i o n,the G rea t , 1 2 (n o te )

Recep t i v i ty (pub l i c)a nd rece n t Opera t i c u nder~ta k i n gs , 14 3

a nd the t ra ve l l i n g Operacompa n ies

,1 2 8

l eve l of,2 4 7

ques t i o n w i t h rega r d t o ,2 38

spa de-wor k,va ry i n g op i n

i on s t he reon,2 47—2 50

s t u dy o f fa c t s nece ssa ry,2 4 1 ,

2 4 2

Rec i ta t i ve . [See Con nec t i ngl i n k s . Du a l i ty . I ta l i a nOpera . Opera ]

a ca u se o f d i s sa t i sfa c t i o n i ne i g h teen t h cen t u ry Engl a nd , 1 1 2

a n i n tegra l pa r t o f e i gh teen t hcen t u ry I t a l i a n Opera

,1 1 4 ,

1 1 5a t tem p t to t ra n spl a n t , 99

3S I

Engl i s h rebe l l i o n a ga i n s t,i n

the e i g h teen t h cen t u ry , 1 1 5i n ven t i on o f, 94Reform a t i o n Sym phony, the , 36

(n o te )Refo rm a t i on ,

the,1 2 (n o t e) , 7 9

(no te )Regesta , P a pa l , 58 ( no te)Re l i g i on . [SeeCrusades . Pa p a cy .

Rom e]a s a ba s i s for e x ter i or i z a t i o n ,

Re l i g i ou s wa rfa re a nd mu s i ca ld eve l opm e n t

,84

Reynol d s,F .

,qu o ted

,1 7 4

Reyn ol ds , J o sh u a , 2 8

R i c h a rd I .,i n Ope ra

,1 78

R ienz i , 2 31

Robi n Hood,qu oted , 1 7 6

Roc kstro , W . S . , 9Rol t

,1 0 1 (no te )

Rom a n Em p i re . [See Rome]a n a rm ed c am p , 4 7ba rba r i a n i n r oa ds i n t o the

,

53-

55before the ba rba r i a n i n roa d s ,

ch rono l ogy o f ba rba r i a n i nroa ds i n to the

, 53 a nd 54

( no te)c u l t u re u n de r the , com pa redw i t h G ree k cu l t u re , 52 a nd

53 ( no te)dou b l e proce ss of ex te r i or i z at i o n i n the

, 51

fou nded a nd m a i n ta i ned oni dea s of exter1or i z a t ion , 4 9

51

h i s t o r i ca l spec u l a t i o n w i t hrega rd t o

, 57l im i t s of the

, 48, 4 9m a te r i a l prospe r i t y o f t he, 48,4 9 > 50

352

Roma n Emp i rem i l i t a ry sys tem of the

, 48

(no te )m u s i c u n de r the , 4 6 , 4 7r ig idi tyofsys tem i n the , 50 , 51

Rome . [See P a pa cy . Roma nEmp i re]

a nd G reek m u s i ca l c u l t u re , 46a s a type o f e x te r i or i z a t i o n

,

38, 39b i s h ops o f

,t he i r a ggra nd i se

m en t, 58 a nd 59 ( no te)

comm u n i ca t i o n be tween,a nd

her va s sa l s ta te s , 58 ( no te )com pa r i s o n o f m u s i ca l co nd it i o n s i n med i aeva l

,w i t h

t h ose i n m ode r n Engla nda nd Ame r i ca

, 7 4 , 7 5e n te red by A l a r i c

, 54 (no te)F lem i s h sc hoo l i n

,10

, 7 4 ,

7 5, 7 9 ( n o t e) , 84i n the s i x teen t h cen t u ry

, 82 ,

83i n va ded by the G a u l s

, 49i t s beg i n n i ng

, 48

m a te r i a l c on d i t i o n s i n,

1 1 ,

6 7my t h o l ogy a nd h i s t o ry of

,

a s the s ubj ec t o f I t a l i a nOpe ra

,108

r i se o f the Pa pa cy, 57

-59 .

[See Pa pa cy]rea s on s fo r m u s i ca l unp roducdvuy, 6 4 , 6 7s a c ked by G ense r i c

, 54 (n o te )Spa n i s h s choo l i n , 82‘ Sume r i s icumen i n ’

a s a

Roma n m a d r i ga l, 2 3

t a ke n by the Spa n i a rd s,

the i n s t i ga t or o f re l i g i o u swa rfa re , 82 , 83

Rom ney,2 8

Rorina, 1 1 9

INDEX

Ros se t t i,2 9

Ross i n i, 18 ( n o te)

t r a n s l a t i o n s o f, 2 30

Roya l I ta l i a n Ope ra,1 2 8. [See

Coven t G a rden . I ta l i a nOpe ra]

Roya l Co l l ege o f Mu s i c , a nd

N a t i o n a l Ope ra H ou se,10 2 ( no te )

Ru b i n s t e i n,A n to n , a den a t ion a

l i z ed S l a v,1 05 ( n o te)

Ruma n i a,con fl i c t o f H u n s

a nd Os t rogo t h s w i t h V i s igo t h s i n

, 54 ( no te)“ Ru n

,

” ques t i o n of the,2 99,

300

Rus s i acon d i t i o n s i n

, 4 3confl i c t i n s ou t h

, 53c u l t of m u s i c i n

,18

,87 , 88

Sa lome,2 48

p rodu c t i o n o f,i n Lon don

Sa l ve v i rgo v irg in um ,1 7 (n ot e)

Sam We l le r i sm s ” in t ra gedy,

2 32

Sa ra cen s . [See Moors]wa nde r i ngs a nd conques t s o f

the, 54 ( n o te)

Sa rawa k,2 8

Sa voy T hea t rea s soc i a t i o n s o f the

,2 45, 2 4 6

Ope ra s a t the , 2 43prod uc t i o n a t the , 2 45s ong—speec h a t the, 189 , 19 1

I 93Sa xon s , med i ae va l wa r s of the ,

6 8. [SeeAngles a ndSa xons]Sca l a , 80Sca nd i n a v i acom pa ra t i ve pover ty of med i

ze v a l, 7 0 , 7 1

354

S i n ge r si nfl uen ce o f

,o n e i gh teen t h

cen t u ry Opera , 1 1 4 , 1 1 5nece s s i ty o f i n te l l i g i b i l i t y i n ,

1 9 1

n o t pr im a r i l y respon s i b le fo rs ong—s peech

,1 35 (n o te) ,

1 93, 194pos i t i o n of

,u nde r p re sen t

opera t i c co nd i t i o n s,2 2 3

t he i r bea u t i fu l vo i ces ,” 2 0 1,

2 0 2

t he i r e l a bora te s tora l irer (e i g hteen thce n t u ry) , 1 59t ra i ned i n fore i gn m e t hods

,

- 2 o 1

t ra i ned i n I t a l i a n m e t h od s(e i gh teen t h cen t u ry) , 1 59 ,1 6 0

S i n g i n g m a s te r s , Engl i s h , t he i rI ta l i a n m e t h ods

,1 59 , 1 6 0

,

obj ec t s of the En gl i s h,199 ,

2 00,2 10

Smy t h,M i ss

,14 1 , 1 4 4

Some t h i ng, the

,ou t s i de

Eu rope, 7 0

the,o u t s i de the Rom a n Emp i re

, 49Song

,1 4 , 2 08

Son g—s peec h . [See Engl i s h la ngua ge . T ra n s l a t i o n]

a nd C om i c Ope ra,

1 9 1 ,19 2

a nd P u rce l l , 1 54 . [See P u rce l l]

a t the Sa voy T hea t re . [SeeG i lbe r t a nd Su l l i va n .

S a voy . Su l l i va n]d i ffi c u l t ie s i n t ra n s l a t i n g

,2 19 ,

e x am pl e o f, t ra n s l a ted , fromS iegfr ied, 2 2 8 (no te )

INDEX

fo re i g n s ta n da rd s i n , 2 09 ,

2 1 0

imposs ible in tra n sla tedOpera ,2 2 2

i n Ope ra,2 1 3, 2 1 4

n ece ss i ty fo r e la bor a t i o n of,1 83, 1 84no t ye t evol ved , 187p lea s u re der i ved from ,

19 2 ,193pr im a r i l y a com pose r ’ s ma t ter ,

I 35 ( no te ) , 193. I 9+que s t i o n w i t h rega rd t o , inEng l i s h

, 1 86 , 1 93, 2 1 2

s u i t a b i l i ty ofEngl i s h fo r , 2 04 ,

Sora rt ner, 1 08

Sou th Se a Bubb le,2 7 ( no te)

Sou t h Sea s , 2 7Spa i n

a nd re l i g i ou s co nfl i c t , 84a s a co l o n i z i ng powe r , 88

( no te)c i v i l wa r s i n , 6 8, 6 9d i s cove ry of Am er i ca c h a n gesthe na t i o na l a nd m u s i ca lc on d i t i o n s o f, 7 6 -7 9dom i n a t i o n of I ta l y by , 7 9 ,80

en t e red by Sa ra cen s , 54 ( n o te)en te red by V i s i go t h s , 54

( n o te)fi r s t beg i n n i n gs o f mode rnty pe o f e x te r i or i z a t i o n i n ,7 0

med i ae va l wa rs o f, 6 8, 6 9IVI ohamm eda n wa rfa re i n , 70mom en t of pa use i n , 6 9m u s i ca l deve l opm en t i n

,84

m u s i ca l s te r i l i ty o f, 87m u s i c prod uced i n

, 1 7n a va l e s t a b l i s hmen t o f, 84

(n o te)

INDEX

Spa i np hys i ca l co n d i t i o n s i n , 4 3s ho r t n es s ofher m u s i ca l oppo rtun i ty, 7 0

soc i a l a nd pol i t i ca l c ond i t i o n si n

, 7 0

Spa n i sh,sc h oo l i n Rome , s i x

teen thcen t u ry,82

,84—86

the,2 3

- 2 5Sp i ce I s l a n d s

,2 8 (no te)

Sp i r i t u a l -Un i on . [SeeCompose r]

Spohr, 30 ( no te)

S ta n ford,S i r C . V . ,

1 2 0 ( no te) ,1 36 ( no te) , 1 82 ( no te) ,2 4 3

a nd s t a te-a id, qu o ted , 2 88a nd the En gl i s h l a ngu a ge

,

quo t ed,185

a nd the “ ru n,qu o ted

,2 99

a n t i c i pa ted , 1 0 1

S ta te-A id, 2 84 . [See Com pose r ,the En gl i s h Ope ra t i c

,a nd

fi n a n ce . Na t i o n a l Ope ra .

Na t i o n a l Ope ra H ou se]a co n t i n e n t a l cu s tom

,2 85

2 87a nd Mr . Be ec ham , 1 34

- 1 40

a nd S ir C . S t a n ford, 1 0 1 ,

2 88

a s a pr i n c i p le , 2 88e i gh teen t h cen turysuggest ion sfor

, 1 0 1 , 1 0 2

S tee le,2 8

S t o ra ce,6 ( n o te ) , 1 6 0

,1 7 5

( n o te)S t ra u ss

,R i ch a rd , 89 (n o te)

im i t a t i o n s of,i n Engl a n d ,

1 1 9Strea tfie ld

,R . A .

,108 ( no te ) ,

2 1 3 ( no te)Sue t on i u s

, 51 (no te )Su ev i

, 54 (n o te)

u nde r

355

Su l l i va n,S i r A .

, 2 5, 1 2 0 ( no te) ,2 45

a nd Offenba ch , 19 2 (n o te)a pu re l y En gl i s h com pose r

,

2 6 6

c r i t i c i sm o f,

2 4 3 a nd 2 4 4

(n o te )h i s a t t emp t s t o deve l op Ope ra ,

h1s Bi rm in gh am lec t u req uo t ed

, 2 9 a nd 30 ( no te) ,1 1 1 (n o te )serv i ce s of

,to the Com i c Ope ra

S ta ge , 1 9 2 ( n o te )“ Sum e r i s i cum en i n

,1 7

(no te) , 2 3Swede n . [See S ca nd i n a v i a]

a bou n d a ry o f the N orm a nwa nde r i n gs

, 54 ( no te)u n i t ed t o No rwa y a nd Den

m a r k, 7 0

Sw i s s s c hoo l o f Ope ra,

2 86

Sw i t z e r l a nd,m ed i aeva l w a r s o f

,

6 8

phy s i ca l c o n d i t i o n s i n, 4 3

Ta c i t u s, 51 (n ote)

T a ng i e r,2 7 (n o te)

T a te , N a hum ,1 52

T e n nyson,2 9

T er ry,D . ,quo ted

,1 6 7 , 1 7 1

T e r tu l l i a n, 51 ( no t e)

T eu t on i c n a t i on s , 2 5Schoo l , a nd n a t i o n a l exterio ri

z a t ion, 88. [See G e rma n

s c hool . G erm a ny]T h a c ke ra y

,W . M . , 2 9

T h a c ke ra y,T . J . , 1 78 (no te )

l e el f/tow” l l / i telz,q u o ted

,1 6 4 ,

T hea t re—goer s . [S ee Con ce r tgoer s . Pub l i c . Recep t i v i ty]

356

T hea t re -goe r sa ndEngl i shla ngua ge inOpera ,

1 86 - 190, 2 0 2 , 2 06,2 1 3

2 1 7a nd t hea tr i ca l mora l i t y

,1 1 1 ,

I 1 2

the Engl i s h a s, 8, 9 7 , 2 0 2 ,

t yp e s o f,2 1 6 , 2 1 7

Tbe Bea uty Stone, 1 80 ,2 44

Tbe Begga r’

s Opera , 1 0 2, 1 1 9 .

[See Ba l l a d Ope ra ]a s a type o f En gl i s h Ope ra

,

1 1 6

fam i l i a r i ty of i t s t op i c, 108

,

109fea t u re s of

, 157i n t rodu c t i o n t o

,qu o ted

,1 1 5

qu oted,1 1 0 (n o te ) , 1 57 , 1 58

r efe re n ce t o , i n Boswe l l ’s Life,1 1 1 (no te)The P l a ye r1 1 0 ( n o t e )

l e Boberni a n Gi rl , 2 , 2 48

Tbe Bondma n,quo ted

,1 6 7 , 1 7 5

Tbe Bride: of V eni ee,q uo ted

,

Ca nterbury P i lgri ms , 1 82

(no te )T/ze Country Bur i a l . [See S i lv i a ]Tbe t ’i / to p ay, 1 58

T/ze quo ted,

1 6 5,

i n,qu o ted

,

T/i e

l e Gra nd D i a nza tie Roma nee of

Blue Bea rd,qu o t ed , 1 6 2

T/te H a unted Tower,10 2

qu o ted,1 7 5

l e H ei r of V i roni , qu oted , 1 6 8

Tbe Kn iglzt of S nosodoun , 1 1 9T/i e lll a td of fi

‘rtoi r

,1 7 1 ( no te )

qu o t ed,1 53, 1 6 7 , 70

Tbe Ma ni a r, quo t ed , 1 6 4 , 1 6 5,1 7 1

INDEX

T/ze M ibado, 1 2 0

T/ze MorbDoctor , 1 59l e Mounta in Sylp /z , 1 2 0 ,

1 6 2

a nd 1 6 3 ( no te) , 1 7 8. [SeeBa r ne t t

, J .]Tbe Nigbt Da neerr

,1 2 0

l e Noble Outlaw ,

1 7 +T heodo re , 53 ( n o te)Tbe Orpba n

’

r Friend, qu o ted ,1 7 6

Tbe Pa d/orb,qu o ted

,1 6 1

l e Q ua ke/ r Opera , 1 58 ( no te)Tbe Sappbi re Nee/fla re, 2 44T/ze Siege of Roe/zelle, qu o ted , 1 6 9 ,

I 7 5, 1 7 6 , 1 7 7 , 1 7 8

T/ze Sl ave,q uo ted

, 1 7 6

Tue Sw irr Ba ndi tti . [See Tbe

Ma ni a e]Tbe Ta l irrna n

,q uo ted

,1 6 8

,1 7 8

Tbe Trip to Portrnzoutli , qu o ted ,1 6 1

l e Troubadour,qu o ted

, 1 80

T/ze Vei led Propbet, 1 80

Tbe V i llage Opera ,quo ted

,

l 59Tbe V i rg in of tbe S un

,qu o ted ,

X7 3, 1 7 4V i rg in Sue/fired.

J ep / t a’

r Ra f/1 Vow]Tbe l l

’

reeberr, 14 1 , 144T homa s

,Go r i n g

, a den a t ion

a l i z ed En gl i s hm a n,2 6 6

T homa s the Rhym e r,108

Tiefia nd, 1 4 1 ( n ote)T i ppoo Sa i b , 2 8 (n o te)T i t i a n

,2 3

T ou rs , Ba t t l e o f, 54 (no te) , 87( no te)

T ol s to i,Leo

,2 1 2 ( no te ) . [See

A cce s s i b i l i ty . Com pose r ,the

,

‘Sp i r i t u a l u n i on ’

of.

I n te l l i g i b i l i ty]

quo ted,

Tu [See

358 INDEX

Vowe l sd i s rega rd of

,by s i n g i n g

m a s te r s,2 00 ,

2 0 1

i n Engl i s h a nd I t a l i a n , 1 9 6

i n te l l i g i b i l i t y of,

a nd conson a n t s compa red

,2 03

o f the En gl i s h l a n gu a ge,1 9 1 ,

I 9 7 , 198, 2 05of the I ta l i a n la ngu a ge

,1 9 7

Wa gn e r,1 3, 2 5, 36 (n o te) , 2 95,

30 2

a nd pr i va te pa t ron a ge,2 82

a nd s ong—spee c h,2 09

a nd the t r u e end o f Opera ,1 1 3

a nd We be r , 98, 2 6 2

a s soc i a t i o n,pro te s t of t he

,14 7

( no te)im i ta t i o n s of

,i n Engl a n d

,1 1 9 ,

2 52

i n London, 43 (n o te)

popu l a r c u l t o f, 9 2 (n o te)

q uo ted,88 (no te) , 89 ( n o te) ,

1 89 ( n o te)Wa l ke r

,Er n es t

,quo t ed

, 9 2

(no te) , 104 a nd 1 05 ( no te) ,1 1 6 ( no te) , 1 55 ( no te) ,2 4 3 a nd 2 4 4 ( n o te)

Wa l l a ce,V i n cen t

, 5, 1 6 2,1 6 4

(n o t e) , 1 6 8 (no te)c r i t i c i sm o f

,1 6 3

Wa l l a ce , W i l l i am , 2 1 (no t e) , 2 1 9( no te) , 2 84 ( n o te)

W a rdou r—S tree t ism,

1 6 3, 1 81,

182

Wa r sA fgh a n

,2 9 ( no t e)

Am er i c a n, 2 8 ( no t e )

A ngl o-Fren ch(fourteen tha ndfi fte en t h cen tu r i es) , 83

Bu rme se, 2 9 (no te)

Ch i n ese op i um , 2 9 ( note)c i v i l , i n Spa i n , 70C r im ea n , 87 ( n o t e)Eu ropea n m ed i ae va l

, 6 6 -6 9Fra n co-P r u s s ia n , 87 (n o te)i n N . Ame r i ca

,w i thFra n ce

,

2 8 (no t e)i n Sc i n de

, 2 9 ( n o te)Ka ffi r

, 2 9 ( n o te)M a h ra t ta , 2 8 (n o te)Moh amm eda n

,i n Spa i n ,

H

7 0

o f M a r l boroug h a nd Na pol eon

,87 ( no te)

of the Roses,1 2 ( no te) , 6 7

S i k h,2 9 ( no te)

w i t h T ip poo Sa i b , 2 8 ( no te)Wea t h er l ey

,F . E. , 2 34 (n o te)

Webe r,2 5, 2 6 2

a nd Wa gne r, 98, 2 6 2

We l s hm e n a nd the m i l k -tra de,2 86 ( n o te)

Wh a r t on,La dy

,100

W i d n e s, 7

W i l l i am I . ,1 6

,6 5

Wo l fe,2 8 ( no te)

Wood,S ir H en ry J .

,2 54

Wordswor t h,2 9 , 1 6 0

Wo rl d - a ta v i sm, 6 6

Wor l d—Power . [See Engl a n d .

Ex te r i or i z a t i o n . Pa pa cy .Rome . Sea -Powe r]

a b sen ce o f,doe s n o t e n su re

m u s i ca l p rod u c t i v i ty, 4 3

a n c i e n t Rome a s a , 4 7-51

a nd fu t u re m u s i ca l h i s t o ry ofEngl a nd

, 4 5 (n ote)a n expl a n a t i o n o f m u s i ca lh i s t o ry

, 31 , 4 2

deve l opmen t ofEngl i sh, compa red w i t hher men ta l a nda r t i s t i c deve l opmen t , 2 72 9

359

Wor l d-Po v verEngla nd a nd Rome a s

‘ types

ca l deve lopm en t, 40 2 7 7

gible , M” 4 5 Yor k s h i 're , 30 (no te)composers,

GLASGOW Pam r nu A T T H E UNWERS tr v PRES S a v Bourza r ara c ne k os e A ND co . LTD.

Music and Nationalism Chap - Forgotten Books · PREFACE books in o n e; ﬁrst, a st u dy o f the...

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Transcript of Music and Nationalism Chap - Forgotten Books · PREFACE books in o n e; ﬁrst, a st u dy o f the...