Motivational Systems Chap 26. Traditional Views of “Motivation” Contrary to the behavior...
-
Upload
jaycee-grills -
Category
Documents
-
view
219 -
download
0
Transcript of Motivational Systems Chap 26. Traditional Views of “Motivation” Contrary to the behavior...
Traditional Views of Traditional Views of “Motivation”“Motivation”
Contrary to the behavior analytic view, motivation was traditionally held to be a non-measurable “inner state” or “will” that leads to desire (or lack of) to engage in a behavior
Many educators believe that the motivation to learn is naturally present in children (“intrinsic”) and is harmed by using external “rewards” (reinforcement procedures) to increase engagement in certain behaviors
A very influential book makes just such a claim…
Detrimental Effects of Detrimental Effects of Rewards Rewards
(Motivational Systems)?(Motivational Systems)? “External” motivational systems have
been claimed to cause all sorts of problems:– reduced creativity– reduced self-esteem– feelings of being controlled– reduced intrinsic motivation– dependency on rewards– dependency on others for “self-concept”– failure of skills to generalize
RewardedRewarded by Rewards? by Rewards?
When properly identified, implemented, and monitored, however, “external” motivational systems are the MOST effective means to teaching many varied skills to children and…
Research has shown that, when used skillfully, motivational systems do NOT cause any detrimental effects (Cameron, Banko, & Pierce, 2001; Cameron & Pierce, 1994, 2002; Eisenberger & Cameron, 1996).
Motivation Basics: Motivation Basics: ReinforcementReinforcement
According to the behavior analytic view, motivation is simply the likelihood that someone will engage in a behavior
One of the most powerful ways to increase that likelihood (motivation) is through the use of reinforcement procedures
Reinforcement states that if a particular behavior produces a favorable outcome, then that behavior is more likely to occur again in the future (In other words, the person is more “motivated” to engage in that behavior again)
Reinforcement Basics Reinforcement Basics CONTINGENCY
– delivery of the favorable outcome (the “reinforcer”) DEPENDS on the behavior to produce it (why buy the cow if you can get the milk for nothing?)
OUTCOME PREDICTABILIY– learning occurs best when the reinforcer is
RELIABLY produced by the behavior
IMMEDIACY OF DELIVERY– the sooner the reinforcer occurs after the
behavior the better
Natural ReinforcersNatural Reinforcers Our daily lives are filled with reinforcers
for the behavior we engage in:– Setting an alarm clock gets us up on time– Buying groceries gives us food to eat– Laying out our clothes the night before gets
us to work quicker– Approaching our loved ones gives us
enjoyment and fulfillment– Watching a comedy makes us laugh– Taking aspirin makes us feel better– Infant crying produces a loving mom or dad
Teaching With ReinforcementTeaching With Reinforcement Although many of our behaviors are
reinforced “naturally,” it is desirable to use reinforcement to teach functional skills that are currently very unlikely to occur on their own (but should occur much more frequently)
These include behaviors related to social interactions, communication, and interacting appropriately with one’s environment
Importance of ReinforcementImportance of Reinforcement Contingency management
– Engagement in productive behavior is rewarded, engagement in non-productive behavior is not rewarded
Management of stereotypy– Matching law (see-saw effect)
Reinforcing productive behavior will result in a decrease of non-productive behavior
– Increasing reinforcement
Communication– Frequent feedback gets relayed to the
student
Identifying Potential Identifying Potential ReinforcersReinforcers
Sampling– Think outside the box (go shopping!)
Catalogs– E.g., highlites
Variation on a theme– E.g., Bob the Builder
Stereotypy– E.g., Visual stereotypy, use water toys
Matching Task to ReinforcersMatching Task to Reinforcers
Use naturally reinforcing contingencies when possible– E.g., Snacks for eating
Important tasks get a specific reinforcer– E.g. verbal imitation, toilet training
Reserve a favored reinforcer for specific task– Maintains potency– E.g., M&Ms for bike riding
PotencyPotency
Choice– Multiple reinforcers for multiple tasks– Increase reinforcer breadth– Prevents satiation
Single reinforcer with single response– Most powerful reinforcer for most important
responses Potty training, language skills, eating
– Restricting access increases potency of reward
– (Supply and demand)
Building ReinforcersBuilding Reinforcers Pair Primary Reinforcers with Secondary
Reinforcer Secondary reinforcers paired with novel
rewards Use Premack Principle to establish new
reinforcers– Make engagement with preferred rewards
contingent on engagement with less preferred rewards
E.g., if a child only likes video, must engage in other activities before earning access to video
Skill teaching– Once competent with many activities they
eventually become reinforcers E.g., puzzles, bike riding
Correct Use of Correct Use of ReinforcementReinforcement
Adventitious Reinforcement Effects– Contingent & Immediate
Correct Response and Attending Skills
Teaching ChoiceTeaching Choice
Select from limited range of objects
Select from limited range of pictures
Systematically Increase number of pictures– Choice board– Choice book
Types of Motivational Types of Motivational SystemsSystems
Direct Reinforcement Token Economy Sticker-Check Board Snacks in a cup Embedded snacks in activity schedule Pennies embedded in activity schedule Contingency Contracting Group Contingencies
Token EconomyToken Economy A behavior change system consisting of
– A specified list of target behaviors– Tokens or points that learners receive for
emitting target behaviors– Backup reinforcers obtained by
exchanging earned tokensTokens are arbitrary, neutral stimuli
which become generalized conditioned reinforcers
Use a variety of back up reinforcers to maintain potency of rewards
Must be INDIVIDUALIZED!!!
Conditioned reinforcersConditioned reinforcers
An event object or stimulus that is not initially reinforcing but acquires the properties of a reinforcer after frequent pairing or association with another reinforcer– E.g., ???– Limitations
Can satiate
Generalized conditioned Generalized conditioned reinforcerreinforcer
Paired with a variety of backup reinforcers– E.g., – No satiation– Tokens exchangeable for a wide
variety of backup reinforcers have considerable utility
– Must frequently access backup reinforcer
Common Misconceptions about Common Misconceptions about Generalized Conditioned Generalized Conditioned
ReinforcementReinforcement Reinforcers are generalized because
they reinforce a wide range of behavior or can be used to reinforce behavior in a wide range of settings
Why false? Generalized conditioned reinforcers is
not generalized to behaviors or settings but to many backup reinforcers
Why Use a Token System?Why Use a Token System?Saves resources (time, money)Practical – we aren’t always able to deliver
the SR immediately after the target behaviorChange the learner’s behavior
– Less satiationChange the teacher’s behavior
– Specify what behaviors are important to change– Increases likelihood of using positive SR
Decreases use of aversive procedures
Guidelines for Using a Guidelines for Using a Token SystemToken System
Collect baseline data on target behaviors
Identify Target Behaviors– Operationally define
Define tokens– Easy to administer– Portable– Durable– Safe (nontoxic and can’t be swallowed if
this is an issue with the learner)– Can’t be accessed any other way
Choosing TokensChoosing Tokens They don’t have to have innate value
– Poker chip, sticker, coupon, coin– Check mark, hole punch, happy face– Penny, piece of colored paper cut in a
certain shape, rubber stamp, button, bean– You can use stimuli that the student is likely
to attend to (e.g., letters, Thomas characters) but not too distracting!
Other ExamplesOther Examples
Connect the dots that make a picture of the reinforcer
Puzzle pieces that makes a picture Pieces that add to a scene Tokens have the pic of the item being earned Fill in blank spots on a chart
After tokens have been After tokens have been identified…identified…
Identify backup reinforcers Set up the Exchange
– Decide on schedule of token delivery Begin with CRF
– Deliver tokens immediately– Deliver praise, smile, eye contact with the token
Deliver token when learner is making eye contact if target is social
– Decide who will deliver, when, where tokens will be delivered
– If not on a board, how will tokens be stored? Cup, box, jar, necklace
– Will data be collected?– How much do backup reinforcers cost?
Begin with small number of tokens Gradually increase the number of tokens, while
increasing the cost, potency, and variety of the backup reinforcers.
– With whom, when, and where will tokens be exchanged?
After tokens have been After tokens have been identified…identified…
Train all users: instruction, modeling, feedback, demonstration of mastery– Make sure system is written down so
users can refer to itResponse Cost? – Don’t use until
tokens are established as conditioned reinforcers
Field test your system for several days
Using Token Systems with Using Token Systems with Learners with Limited Learners with Limited
LanguageLanguage Begin with 1 token and immediately deliver the backup reinforcer when the token is earned
Keep the token board in view all the time Place a picture of the item to be earned on the token board Gradually increase the number of tokens
– Look for signs that it’s time to increase the number of tokens –take data on this!
Good attending to the token board Tokens are functioning as reinforcers Learner initiates sequence Learner tries to “steal” tokens to put on the board
Have spaces on the token board that show how many tokens need to be earned to exchange for the backup reinforcer
Building Initial Token SystemsBuilding Initial Token Systems
Direct Reinforcement
Trading one Token for a Toy
Using multiple tokens
Motivational Systems as Motivational Systems as Behavior ChainsBehavior Chains
Behavior Chain– A specific sequence of responses each
associated with a particular stimulus condition
– Involves the performance of a specific series of discrete responses
– Each response is a conditioned SR and an SD
– The responses must be performed in the correct order and in close temporal succession to one another
Motivational Systems as Motivational Systems as Behavior ChainsBehavior Chains
– Earn tokens– Get picture– Put on timer board– Play with toy– Turn off timer– Put toy back– Put timer board back– Put picture in discard pile– Select new choice– Earn tokens
Ways to Fade the Ways to Fade the Token SystemToken System
Plan for this before you begin! Gradually increase the number of responses required to earn
a token Make the schedule of token delivery intermittent Gradually decrease the time the system is in effect Make backup reinforcers preferred items that are available in
the natural environment Gradually increase cost of most preferred items and keep low
preference items cheap Gradually make the token board smaller
– To goal of keeping in daily planner, purse, wallet or fading out entirely
Gradually increase the delay between target behavior and token delivery
No research on which method is best Build in programming for generalization and self-monitoring…
in the next few weeks we’ll discuss this.
Types of Motivational Types of Motivational SystemsSystems
Sticker-Check Board
Snacks in a cup
Embedded snacks in activity schedule
Pennies embedded in activity schedule
Types of Motivational Types of Motivational SystemsSystems
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior
Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior
Types of Motivational Types of Motivational SystemsSystems
Behavioral Contract– Document that specifies a contingent
relationship between the completion of a specified behavior and access to or delivery of a specified reward.
– School Note
Contingency Contingency ContractingContracting
Contingency Contract– AKA Behavioral contract– Document that specifies a
contingent relationship between the completion of a specified behavior and access to, or delivery of, a specified reward
3 Major Components3 Major Components Task
– Who…will perform the task– What…is the task to be performed– When…must the task must be completed– How well…must the task be completed
Reward – why not reinforcer?– Who…will deliver the reward– What…is the reward– When…will the reward be delivered– How much…reward will be delivered
Task Record – include a place for – Task completion– Task reward
Consider…Consider…Nature of the target behavior
– Should already be in the learner’s repertoire
– Should produce a permanent product or performed in the presence of someone else
Verbal skills of the learner– If learner is a nonreader, he
should have good verbal skills– Can use pictures, symbols,
audio or videotape
ContractsContracts
Contracts should be– Fair and realistic– Clearly written
Post contracts in a visible place To evaluate, record occurrence of task
completion during baseline and during contract
Renegotiate contract if necessary Terminate the contract when
independent and proficient performance is achieve– And you’re confident it will be maintained
Group Group ContingencyContingency
Contingency in which a common consequence is delivered contingent upon the behavior of…– One member of the group– Part of the group– Everyone in the group
Advantages of Using Group Advantages of Using Group ContingenciesContingencies
Save timeCan be used when individual
contingencies are impractical– e.g., disruptive behaviors of several
students need to be managedPeer influence can be capitalized
on to increase motivation
Types of Group Types of Group ContingenciesContingencies
Independent– Reward is delivered only to group members
who meet the criteria Dependent
– Reward for the whole group is dependent on the performance of an individual
– The target student may be known or unknown– Potential problems?
Interdependent– All members of the group must meet the
criteria for any member to receive the reward– Potential problems?
GuidelinesGuidelines
Choose rewards that are preferred items for all learners in the group – how?
Be absolutely sure each member of the group is capable of performing the target behavior.
Make sure some group members do not find it reinforcing to sabotage the whole group
The system must minimize the possibility of some members performing the target behavior for others