motivasi CHAPTER 6 ALEX.doc

8/11/2019 motivasi CHAPTER 6 ALEX.doc

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CHAPTER 6

Interest and Afect

Historical Foundations of Interest and Aect Eyfects of Emotions on Learning

and Motivation

Personal and Situational Interest Emotions and Goals

Three Persectives on Interest Test An!iety

Measures of Interest and "esearch Findings# $e%ning Test An!iety

$evelomental and Individual $ierences in Eects on Learning and

Performance

Interest Interventions

Self&'orth Theory Summary

(vervie) Further "eading

*oncetual ModelEmotions and Educational (utcomes

Ta!onomy of Emotions

Several high school teachers are tal+ing in the lunchroorn a,out one of their

favorite toics&student motivation- The teachers have some)hat d)erent vie)s

a,out motivation# ,ut all are concerned ,ecause their students do not have much

interest in schoolrvor+-

Ms. Duncan : lm really worried. None of my students has any interest in math.They just dont care about anything todo with school. They donthave the right values. All they care about are their girlfriends orboyfriends, instant messaging, cell hones, and artying.

Mr. Anderson: !ell, " dont #now " have some #ids who are interested in learning.They do get involved and l try to ma#e the wor# meaningful tothem, They have to tal# and discuss things$ at least some ofthemseem to li#e it. And sometimes, very rarely, but on those reallygreat days, the class discussion really gels going and some of the#ids are so into it, you can see that they are so involved they are

not really thin#ing of anything else. %ou #now " live for those days$thats what ma#es teaching worthwhile,

Mr. &oe': !ell, at least you have those A( and honors #ids. They do getturned on to some academic things. The #ids " have in the regularmath classes are not interested and dont thin# its that imortant.)ut " do some u''les and games with them. !hen we have gameday they get interested for at least a little while. " also try to teachthem some s#ills. They are going to need them when they get inthe real world, so l try to hold them to some standards.


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Mr. Anderson: %es, or at least when they go to college, that is always a goodthing to try to motivate them, the threat of college. )ut, you #noutsometimes my #ids get so wound u about going to college,ma#ing good grades, and scoring high on the *AT that they get sonervous they bomb the test. %ou can just see them getting allan+ious before the test, and then during the test, you can seethem wriggling around, sweating, loo#ing all anic#y. *ome of

them ma#e themselves sic# with nerves. *ome of my beststudents have trouble on the tests. They will do great on thehomewor# but then really blow it on the test. " dont #now what todo with them.

Ms. Duncan: !ell, " have some li#e that, too. They dont seem too interested inthe math, but they do get an+ious for a test. " just try to ma#ethem feel good about themselves. %ou #now that is the biggestthing for all adolescentstheyre so selfconscious and need all theositive stro#es and ositive feedbac# and selfesteem we cangive them. They are dealing with so many things, its no wonderthey have selfesteem roblems. " just wish they would get more

interested in school.Mr. &oe': !ell, " dont #now if thats all there is to it. " thin# selfesteem isimortant, but there is more to motivation than that. " used to bereally nervous before tests, too. " would thin# " was rearedbecause " could do the roblems correctly on homewor#assignments, but then once " started on the test, it seemed li#e "couldnt do the roblems. " would start to thin#, -h no, "m goingto fail this test, "m going to /un# out, my arents will really bemad because "m doing so badly -" would loo# around andeveryone else seemed to be just wor#ing away doing 0ne, whichwould just ma#e me more nervous. "t was so hard to concentrate.

1ventually " had a teacher who heled me. 2e showed me sometric#s to hel me control my nerves. 2e also heled me see that if" did oorly " was not stuid. 2e heled me see that " had theability to do math. "n fact, hes robably the reason " became amath teacher. Now, " try to hel my students the same way heheled me and it is not just by giving them ositive stro#es, orwarm fu''ies, or trying to raise their selfesteem. " have highstandards and try to ma#e sure my students have the s#ills tomeet them. They will feel better about themselves they canactually do the math roblems than if " just tell them how greatthey are. They can sot a hony right away and they thin#, just

li#e 2olden 3aul0eld, that most adults are honics, so they dontneed their teachers to be that way.

This chater discusses student interests and the various aective or emotional

varia,les that have ,een lin+ed to student learning and achievement- Given the

diversity of such varia,les this chater is not organi.ed around one theoretical


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ersective li+e the receding chaters# ,ut it includes the most relevant and

common varia,les-

'e ,egin )ith a short discussion of the historical foundations of interest and

aect to include the general issues in research on emotions and aect- 'e then

move to a commonly cited descrition and e!lanation of motivation/ the role of

interest in learning and achievement- The self&)orth theory of achievement

motivation is resented# )hich is highly relevant to interest and aect- 'e then

cover research on the role of aects and emotions in achievement settings- The

chater concludes )ith a discussion of one of the most researched constructs in

achievement motivation research&test an!iety&to include ho) it can constrain

learning and erformance- Ater studying this chapter, you should be able

to:

$istinguish ,et)een emotions and moods and understand the otentialemotional resonses that could he generated in a classroom conte!t-

$istinguish ,et)een situational and ersonal interest and e!lain ho) ,oth

are related to student motivation and learning in achievement conte!ts-

$escri,e the ma%or oints of the self&)orth theory of achievement

motivation and e!lain ho) self&)orth varia,les can aect motivation and

achievement-

$iscuss the ma%or 0ndings on the role of emotions and aects in learningand motivation-

$e0ne te!t an!iety and e!lain ho) it oerates to in1uence student

learning# as )ell as ho) classroom conte!ts can increase or decrease

an!iety-

HIT!RICA" #!$%ATI!%& !# I%TERE&T A% A##ECT

Interest refers to the li+ing and )illful engagement in an activity 2Schra) 3

Lehman# 45567- "esearch on interest has increased in recent years# ,ut the toic

has a long history in sychology and education 2Hidi# 68857- In the 6955s the

German hilosoher Her,art )rote that interest in a su,%ect can romote

motivation and learning- Many early sychologists emhasi.ed that interest can

energi.e# among them 'illiam :ames 269857- :ohn $e)ey 2686;7 e!lained his

osition forcefully ,y noting that the individual and the environment interact to


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raise interest- Thorndi+e 268;artlett 268;47# noted for )or+ in human memory# ,elieved that

interest facilitated it-

"esearch on interest )aned )hen ,ehaviorism ,ecame dominant in

sychology- The situation did not change immediately )hen cognitive sychology

moved to the forefront ,ecause early cognitive theories focused on information

rocessing to the e!clusion of motivational rocesses- Fortunately that situation

no) has changed as researchers from educational# develomental# social# and

cognitive sychology ,egan to integrate motivational and cognitive varia,les to

,etter e!lain student learning and achievement 2Hidi# 68857- "esearchers today

commonly dra) a distinction ,et)een ersonal 2or individual7 interest and

situational interest- (ersonal interestis a more sta,le ersonal disosition to)arda seci0c toic or domain# )hereas situational interest reresents a more

temorary# situation&seci0c attention to a toic 2?rdan 3 Turner# 455


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Sch)ar. 3 *lore# 688B Ca%onc# 68897 ho)ever# research on cognition and

learning did not necessarily integrate this )or+- >ro)n# >ransford# Ferrara# and

*amione 2689;7# in the 2andboo# of

3hild (sychology# stated# D>lea+ though it may sound# academic cognition is

relatively eortful# isolated# and cold - - - Academic cognition is cold# in that the

rincial concern is )ith the +no)ledge and strategies necessary for eciency#

)ith little emhasis laced on the emotional factors that might romote or

imede that eciency 2- 97- It is unli+ely that this statement )ould ,e made

today ,ut it re1ects the general .eitgeist of research in the heyday of ure

cognitive models-

In addition# much of the research on achievement motivation has ,een

dominated ,y cognitive theories such as e!ectancy&value theory attri,ution

theory social cognitive theory goal theory# and self&determination theory Althoughthese theories include emotions# they focus on cognitions such as attri,utions#

%udgments of self&ecacy and cometence# goals# and value ,eliefs- Attri,ution

theory 2Chapter 37 addresses emotions the most directly of all these theories#

,ut in attri,ution theory emotions are the direct outcome of a cognitive &

attri,utional analysis of success or failure- In this case# cognitions 2i-e-#

attri,utions7 are still the most imortant construct in the theory and emotions 1o)

from the nature of the attri,utions made in a situation 2'einer# 689B# 688


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motivation and oor erformance in school are due to a lac+ of interest- Students

)ill say that )hen they do not learn it is ,ecause school and classes are ,oring

and that they cannot ,ecome interested in the )or+- These intuitive vie)s of

motivation roose interest us an imortant asect of motivation that causally

in1uences attention# learning# thin+ing# and erformance- In addition# most

eole ,elieve that they +no) )hat interest is and that they understand ho) it

oerates to in1uence learning- Although these intuitive notions a,out interest are

lausi,le# their oularity has sometimes hindered the develoment of careful

sychological research on interest-

As noted in Chapter 2# the construct of interest is similar to )hat Eccles

and 'ig0eld termed intrinsic interest- Ho)ever# research on interest# ,roadly

de0ned# has ,een ursued ,y researchers from a num,er of dierent

ersectives# ,eyond e!ectancy&value theory and motivational theories ingeneral-

'e stated earlier that research on interest has )a!ed and )aned in

sychology and education over the years 2ra# Hidi# 3 "enninger# 68847- Early

vie)s 2e-g-# Her,art# :ames# $e)ey7 )ere ,ased more on hilosohy than on

sychology and there )as little emirical research to suort their ideas- $uring

the heyday of ,ehaviorism# there )as little research on interest in the ?nited

States# although related concets such as curiosity 2>erlyne# 68B57 and attitudes

2Evans# 6867 )ere e!amined 2ra et al-# l8847- Ho)ever# )ith the develoment

of cognitive and descrition and e!lanation of motivation/ the role of interest in

learning and achievement - the self&)orth theory of achievement motivation

resented# )hich is highly relevant to interest and aect- 'e then cover research

on the role of aects and emotion in achievement settings- The chater

concludes )ith a discussion of one of the most researched constructs in

achievement motivation research&test an!iety&to include ho) it can learning and

erformance-

After studying this chater# you should ,e a,le to/

$istinguish ,et)een emotions and moods and understand the otential

emotional resonses that could ,e generated in classroom conte!t-

$istinguish ,et)een situational and ersonal interest and e!lain ho) ,oth

are related to student motivation and learning in achievement conte!t-


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$escri,e the ma%or oints of the self )orth theory achievement motivation

and e!lain ho) self )orth varia,les can aect motivation and

achievement-

$iscuss the ma%or 0ndings on the role of emotions and aect in learning and

motivation-

$e0ne te!t an!iety and e!lain ho) it oerates to in1uence student

learning# as )ell as ho) classroom conte!ts can increase or degrease

an!iety-

HIT!RICA" #!$%ATI!%& !# I%TERE&T A% A##ECT

"nterest refers to the li+ing and )illful engagement in an activity 2schra) 3

Lehman# 45567- "esearch on interest has increased in recent years# ,ut the toic

has a long history in sicology and education 2Hidi# 68857- In the 6955s the

German hilosoher Her,art )rote that interest in a su,%ect can romote

motivation and learning- Many early sychologists emhasi.ed that interest can

energi.e# among them 'illiam :ames 269857- :ohn $e)ey 2686;7 e!lained his

osition forcefully ,y noting that the individual and the environment interact to

raise interest- Thorndi+e 268;artlett 268;47# noted for )or+ in human memory# ,elieve that interest

facilitated it-

"esearch on interest )aned )hen ,ehaviorism ,ecame dominant in

sychology- The situation did not change immediately )hen cognitive sychology

moved to the forefront ,ecause early cognitive theories focused on information

rocessing to the e!clusion of motivational rocesses- Fortunately that situation

no) has changed as researchers from educational# develoment# social# and

cognitive sychology ,egan to integrate motivational and cognitive varia,les to

,etter e!lain student learning and achievement 2Hidi# 68857-

"esearchers today commonly dra) a distinction ,et)een ersonal 2or

individual7 interest and situational interest- (ersonal interest is more sta,le

ersonal disosition to)ard seci0c toic domain# )hereas situational interest

reresents a more temorary# situation&seci0c attention to a toic 2?rdan 3


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Turner# 455


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of the construct- in the recent research on interest ,y motivational sychologists#

develomental

sychologists# educational sychologists# and reading and literacy researchers#

many dierent de0&

nitions of interest have ,een given- ra et al- 268847 roosed three general

ersectives on in&

terest that can hel us uriclerstand this diverse ,ody of research 2see Figure B-67-

The three

aroaches cover ersonal interest 2an individual disosition7# intcrestingness ian

asect of the con&

te!t7# and interest as a sychological state 2including situational interest7- Each of

these three er&

sectives is e!lained in the follo)ing te!t along )ith its relations to the other t)ogeneral

de0nitions of interest- it is clear from these de0nitions that interest inclttdes an

aective comonent

2e-g-# ositive aect7 and cognitive comonents such as +no)ledge and values

2ra# 68887-

Personal Interest

"esearchers concctuali.e ersonal interest as a relatively sta,le enduring#

disosition# ersonality

trait# or characteristic of the individual 2ra et al-# 68847- Personal interest

usually is assumed to

,e directed to)ard some seci0c activity or toic 2e-g-# a articular interest in

sorts# science# mu&

sic# dance# or comuters7 in contrast to curiosity# )hich is assumed to ,e tt

characteristic ofthe er&

son that is more diusely directed 2eg# someone )ho is generally curious a,out

many things7-

For e!amle# much of the vocational education and career choice literature is

,ased on as&

sessing individuals interests in dierent activities and careers# Eccles and

'ig0elds concet of in&


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trinsic interest 2see *hater C7 )ould ,e concetually similar to ersonal interest-

other

researchers have measured ersonal interest as a reference for certain toics

2e-g-# Dl refer math

to science7# a general li+ing for the su,%ect area 2e-g-# 6 li+e math7# ersonal

en%oyment 2e-g##

D6 en%oy )or+ing on math ro,lems7# and sometimes imortance or ersonal

signi0cance of the

toic 2e-g-# DMath is imortant to mc7 2Schiefcle# ra# 96 'inteler# 68847- ln

Eccles and

'ig0clcls model# this last asect )ould he a searate construct of imortance or

attainment value#

Interest and Aect 46;

not interest 2see *hater 47- Given these de0nitions# research has focused on

individual dierences

in ersonal interest and ho) these individual dierences are related to learning

and erfomiance-

It is imortant to note# ho)ever# that ersonal interest&the ersonal li+ing or

ositive attitude or

aect&is directed to)ard a seci0c content or activity and is relatively sta,le over

time-

Interestingness as a *onte!tual Factor That Leads to Situational Interest

Another research aroach is to study the conte!tual features that ma+e some

tas+ or activity in&

teresting 2see Figure B-67 in other )ords# study the interestingness of the conte!t

2ra et al-#

68847- ln this )or+# the interestingness of the conte!t should result in the

generation of

situational interest 2ra et al# 68847# )hich is the sychological state of ,eing

interested in


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the tas+ or activity Thus# reading researchers have studied situational interest ,y

investigating

te!t&,ased interest# trying to understand ho) dierent asects of te!ts can

generate and sustain

interest on the art of readers# There are many dierent features of te!ts that can

generate inter&

est# such as novelty surrise# comle!ity am,iguity and inclusion of certain tyes

of themes 2e-g-#

love7- Given this situated ersective# researchers have tended to ignore

individual dierences

and have loo+ed for general rinciles to descri,e ho) the features of the

environment 2e-g-#

classrooms# media# comuters# te!t,oo+s7 can generate situational interest->rohy 268887 and

>ergin 268887 discussed many of the factors in classrooms that can generate

student interest-

Hidi and Anderson 268847 noted# ho)ever# that situational interest is dierent

from arousal or

curiosity 2>erlyne# 68B57# ,ecause situational interest may ,e tied to seci0c

content 2e-g-# ri story

a,out sace travel7 rather than to structural features of the te!t or environment

such as novelty and

surrise# and situational interest may last longer than arousal and develo into a

ersonal interest-

Although situational interest is more conte!t&deendent than ersonal interest# it

is still usually tied

to seci0c features of the te!t or conte!t- Hidi 245557 suggested that situational

interest involves

,oth ositive aect and increased attention to the tas+ as a function of the

aective involvement-

in addition# there may he t)o hases ofsituational interest- In the 0rst hase#

situational in&


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terest is triggered or activated- ln the second# interest is further maintained 2Hidi#

6885# 4555

Hidi 3 >aird# 689B Hidi Sr Harac+ie)ic.# 45557- Mitchell 2688;7 referred to these

hrases as

catching and holding interest# follo)ing a distinction ,y $e)ey 2686;7- Ho)ever#

Hidi 245557 sug&

gested that catching refers to the direction or diversion of already activated

situational interest#

)hereas triggering suggests the initial activation of situational interest-

Interest as a Psychological State

As sho)n in Figure B-6# situational interest is one tye of interest as a

sychological state# The re&

vious section noted that situational interest is aroused or activated as a functionof interestingness

of the conte!t- Some te!ts 2a novel versus a dry te!t,oo+7 are more interesting

than others# some

content areas generate more interest than others# and some teachers or lecturers

are very good at

ma+ing their classrooms or lectures interesting# all of )hich can generate

situational interest- This

situational interest derives from conte!tual features and may not include any

ersonal interest-

lndivicluals can develo actuali.ed individual interest in )hich an individuals

ersonal interest

interacts )ith the interesting environmental features to roduce heightened

interest 2ra et al-#

68847- For e!amle# Meg# a middle grades student Nvith a high level of ersonal

interest in science&

related toics# occasionally reads e!ository te!ts a,out science toics in her

language arts class- (n

these occasions# Meg e!eriences a heightened sychological state of interest in

contrast to other oc&


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casions during language arts class )hen she reads a,out nonscienti0c toics- Her

ersonal interest

in science also is activated in the science class and she e!eriences actuali.ed

individual interest-


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This 5Sltl5n that interest is evo+ed only )hen an individual has hoth high value

and high

+no)ledge ol an activity or toic has not ,een acceted ,y all interest

researchers- For e!amle#

Ale!ander# uli+o)ich# and %etton 2688O7 and To,ias 2688O7 argued that

interestQvalue is or&

thogonal to rior +no)ledge- They assumed that individuals can have high

interest and high

+no)ledge 2cell O in Figure B-47# )hich is similar to "enningers interest cell-

Ho)ever# these re&

searchers assumed that individuals can have high interest in rt toic even though

they may have

lo) +no)ledge a,out it 2cell 4 in Figure B47- To,ias 2688O7 did not assign seci0cla,els to his

cells# ,ut noted that although the lo) +no)ledge&high ersonal interest cell 2cell

47 may not ,e

lountl often in adults# there could ,e domains in )hich children are interested in

the content ,ttt

have little +no)ledge or e!ertise in that domain- Accordingly# To,ias 2688O7

suggested that this

Interest and Aect 46aird 2689B7 ,et)een factors that

stimulate sit&


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uational interest versus those that maintain interest# Mitchell 2688;7 found that in

secondary

mathematics classrooms certain factors catch student interest and other factors

hold it# Mitchell

found that grou )or+# u..les# and the use of comuterslheled to activate

interest# ,ut did not

hold student interest- ln contrast# the use ofmeaningful )or+ and the active

involvement of stu&

dents as learners )ere related to the maintenance ol situational interest- ln the

vignette at the start

of this chater# Mr- Anderson and Mr- Loe. tal+ a,out )ays they try to catch and

hold student

interest using games and u..les as )ell as meaningfulness and involvement#Harac+ie)ic. et al-

245557 found similar results in a college classroom setting- The simle e!erience

of en%oyment

of the course and the lectures# similar to the catch asect# )as not related to

continued interest

over time or to erformance- Ho)ever# a measure of interest in course content

that re1ected er&

cetions of meaningfulness of the content and intrinsic interest 2similar to the

hold comonent7

)as related to continued interest over time and short&term erformance-

Accordingly# the longK

tenn develoment of interest seems to ,e served ,etter ,y the use of meaningful

tas+s and student

l1WfUlW2XlfNXlNN ill iNXNlW2Y lUiN1iNlZlXN ltlldil ,y NYN


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ferences in the nature of reschool ,oysW and girls= lay )ith o,%ects of interest to

them# Girls )ere

more li+ely to use their interest o,%ects in a numher of dierent )ays in their lay#

)hereas ,oys

sho)ed more lay actions only )hen using their o,%ects to mimic the real&)orld

use of the o,%ect-

ln addition# "enninger 2 l8847 found gender dierences in the role of interest in

elementary school

students solution of arithmetic ro,lems- >oys )ere more li+ely to ma+e errors on

uninteresting

math ro,lems# )hereas the girls made more errors )hen they )or+ed on

interesting math ro,&

lems# "enninger interreted this gender&,y&interest interaction ,y suggesting thatinterest facilitates

,oys ro,lem solving ,ecause it hels them to understand and )or+ on the

ro,lems- ln contrast-

interest seems to interfere and ,ecomes a distraction for girls on the ro,lems#

,chiefele et al-

268847 also found that the interest&achievement lin+age )as stronger for male

students a,out 64\

of the variance in their achievement )as accounted for ,y interest# )hereas the

variance )as only

B\ for female students- (n the other hand# research sho)s that self&concet

redicts interest

Interest and Aect 4

APPLIE$ "ESEA"*H B-6

'hat *an >e $one to "educe School $roout]

School droout is a ma%or ro,lem in the ?nited States today This issue is

discussed in

greater deth later in this te!t 2*hater 657- There are many reasons )hy

students dro out


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of school- Many are at high ris+ for failure and have serious de0cits in reading#

)riting#

mathematical# reasoning# and leaming s+ills- Aside from these ro,lems# ho)ever#

most

students )ho dro out of school 0nd school ,oring and sho) little e!citement

a,out school

learning- This chater suggests that such students lac+ ersonal interest in toics

covered

in school# and that the school setting is not heling to generate situational

interest#

The conditions in many classrooms do little to raise situational interest- Such

interest

)ill not ,e increased )hen teachers redominantly lecture# vary the classroomformat lit&

tle from day to day give students fe) choices in toics to study or research# and

ma+e lit&

tle attemt to lin+ the material to relevant issues in everyday life- Studying

@uadratic

e@uations# for e!amle# can ,e a dull e!ercise )hen teachers e!lain ho) to solve

them to

the )hole class and then assign ro,lems to solve in class and for home)or+# The

ro,&

lems can ,e made more interesting ,y lin+ing them to real&life henomena# such

as ho)

high a ,all )ill rise )hen thro)n into the air- *reative teachers )ill use classroom

and out&

door activities to demonstrate the roerties of mathematical e@uations-

All students have ersonal interests# and creative teachers )ill 0nd )ays to lin+

these

interests to the classroom toics- Such lin+ing com,ines ersonal )ith situational

interest#

)hich )ill revent ,oredom and ultimately could hel to reduce school droout- A

good e!&


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amle is found in the increasingly oular senior ro%ects# )here high school

seniors select

a toic in )hich they have ersonal interest# research it# )rite a aer on it# and

reare and

deliver a resentation that includes ros- This assignment is art of the schools

academic

rogram and is used in one of the classes 2e-g-# English7- lt allo)s students to

e!lore in

greater deth a toic in )hich they are interested and )hich they choose- The

assignment

includes dierent activities# there,y ensuring a varied fomiat- Students set their

o)n sched&

ules to comlete the assignment and choose their resentation formats andros- Senior

ro%ects com,ine ersonal )ith situational interest and sho) students ho) school

learning

can he en%oya,le and can facilitate their understanding of a toic of high interest

to them-

Students )ho do not lan to attend college could choose a senior ro%ect lin+ed to

a voca&

- tional interest- Teachers could sho) students ho) the ro%ect )ill imrove their

)or+ s+ills

and otentially hel them in their careers- This ,elief might hel students stay in

school-

'e do not mean to do)nlay s+ill de0cits# ,ecause no amount of interest )ill lead

to

a s+illful erfomiance )hen caa,ilities are lac+ing- Most students at rs+ for

school

droout need remedial assistance in order to en%oy some measure of success- S+ill

remedi&

ation rograrns# com,ined )ith lin+ing students interests )ith learning# may hel

to re&

duce the droout rate and thus contri,ute to a more roductive citi.enry


29/67

among seventh graders and that this eect is consistent across gender 2Marsh#

Traut)cin# Ludt+e

oller# 3 >aumert# 455y modeling interest

in the material#

the teacher can communicate that the content is interesting- Ms- "ose# a high

school ,i&

ology and chemistry teacher# consciously tries to model her o)n interest in the

science


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material she is teaching ,y tal+ing a,out her learning of it and ho) it interests

her-

;- *reate surrise and disc@ttili,riant in the classroom- *reating surrise ,y

resenting material that

goes against e!ectations or rior +no)ledge can create cognitive clise@uili,rium

on the

art of students- They then may ,e dra)n to the material to attemt to 0gure out

)hy their

,eliefs or +no)ledge are discreant# and then they ,ecome more engaged and

involved-

Ms- Putnam attemts to create surrise and dise@uili,ritun ,y having students

re&

dict )hat )ill haen in dierent science e!eriments and then sho)ing that thestuK

dents redictions are )rong )hen she does the model e!eriment- She sends

the

remainder of the class tal+ing a,out ho) thc students derived their redictions

and ho)

the e!eriment and related theory disrove their redictions-

O- ?se variety and novelty- As common sense# as )ell as interest research# tells

us# ifstudents are

doing the same activity day in and day out# ,oredom )ill inevita,ly set in# lt is

useful to

have a variety of activities throughout the )ee+# month# and school year- ln

addition# the

introduction of novel ideas# content# tasls# and activities may facilitate situational

interest-

Ms# >a++o is a third&grade elementary school teacher )ho uses a )ide variety of

ac&

tivity and tas+ formats to +ee her children engaged- The class has a regular

structure and

organi.ation# so the novelty is not over)helming# ,ut )ithin the structure- The

students


31/67

do many dierent activities for reading# arithmetic# science# and social studies-

Moreover#

the same activities are used not only )ithin one content area domain 2e-g-# lays

in read&

ing7 ,ut also across dierent domains- Students enioy the diversity of activities

and are

al)ays )aiting to see the ne!t ne) thing that Ms- >a++o )ill do in class-

uild on and integrate student ersonal interest in designing lessons- Although

there is clearly a

diversity of ersonal interests# many students share some interests- 'hen

teachers con&


32/67

nect the lesson content to ersonal interests or common interests of the students#

it can

facilitate attention and situational interest-

Ms- 'right is a si!th&grade elementary school teacher )ho )as having diculty

get&

ting a grou of Latino ,oys in her class interested in some revie) of ,asic

arithmetic rin&

ciles# Although the rest of the class )as engaged in the games she designed# this

grou

of ,oys thought it )as ,oring- Ho)ever# she noticed that the ,oys sent time

discussing

,ase,all and the dierent star Latino ,ase,all layers in the ma%or leagues- She

then de&signed a set of activities around comuting various ,ase,all statistics such as

,atting av&

erage# earned run average# and slugging ercentage- She found that although

some other

students did not li+e this home)or+ activity the grou of Latino ,oys got engaged

in this

and came to as+ for more so they could get ,etter at comuting these statistics-

SELF '("TH THE("_

(vervie)

Another varia,le relevant to ersonal and situational interest is self&)orth 2or self&

esteem7# )hich

concems individuals= aects# emotions# or feelings a,out themselves or

evaluations of themselves- At

the ,eginning of this chater# Ms- $uncan invo+ed self&esteem as an e!lanation

for some students

motivational ro,lems- Self&)orth should not ,e confused )ith individuals

ercetions of their o)n

cometence or self&ecacy )hich are cognitive araisals or ,eliefs a,out the self

2see *haters 4


33/67

and O7- Self&)orth is a more aective or emotional reaction to the self- lt can mean

ta+ing ride in

yourself and your ,ehavior# feeling good a,out yourself and accomlishments#

and having a general

ositive image of yourself- in addition# self&)orth is usually a more clillusc and less

seci0c reaction

to the self than a seci0c araisal of ersonal a,ility to do a seci0c tas+ or of

cometence in a se&

ci0c domain 2Harter# 689


34/67

esteem )ill result in remediation of these ro,lems- As La.arus 268867 noted# this

logic leads

444 sinner B

eole to ,elieve that they )ill avoid these ro,lems ,y rehearsing simle

ositive statements

a,out the self 2ie-# D6rn a good erson# student# or )orlRer-7 or having others

give them the same

tye of noncontingent ositive feed,ac+- This vie) is simlistic in the lace of the

comle!ity of

these ro,lems 2*roc+er SI 'olfe# 45567-

"e1ecting the emhasis it receives in our oular culture# some educators

su,scri,e to thissimlistic vie)- Teachers are often afraid to say anything negative to students

a,out their er&

formance ,ecause they ,elieve it )ill hurt the students= self&esteem- There are

schools and class`

rooms that engage in self&esteem rograms )here,y children are as+ed to chant

ositive

statements a,out themselves in order to enhance self&esteem 2see Ms- $uncans

comments at the

,eginning of this chater7 or teachers are directed to give unconditional ositive

feed,ac+ to all

students- ln contrast to these oular ,ut misleading vie)s of self&esteem#

*ovington 26884#

6889 *ovington Vt >eeiy 68B7 roosed a model of self&)orth ,ased on current

theories of stu&

dent motivation- l&le has develoed a rogram ofemirical research that hels tts

understand self`

)orth in school conte!ts-

*oncetual Model

*ovington 268847 roosed that the need for self&)orth is a ,asic need of all

individuals- This


35/67

need is reresented in the universal search for self&accetance# in 'estern

society# )orth for

school&age children often is determined ,y their academic achievements and is

assessed in com&

etitive )ays 2i#c-# doing ,ettcr than other students7# To the e!tent that children

internali.e orac&

cet this general societal value# their self&)orth )ill deend on their school

achievement-

*ovington 268847 suggested that the need for self&)orth )ill generate a num,er

of dierent

atterns of motivational ,eliefs and ,ehaviors- *hildren and adults often )ant to

ma+e attri,u&

tions to a,ility for their successes ,ecause these attri,utions increase self&)orthmore than do cl&

fort auri,utions 2see *hater ;7- The need for selfK)orth is driving the tyes of

attri,utions

individuals ma+e in situations- This is an imortant addition to attri,ution theory#

)hich docs not

include the ossi,ility that ersonal needs can in1uence the attri,ution rocess-

*ovington sug&

gested that individuals often )ill try to hide ho) tnttch cllot they ut forth on a

tas+ so that oth&

ers )ill thin+ they simly have high a,ility- For e!amle# some students )ill not

tell their eers

that they studied hard for a test- if they then do )ell# the usual attri,ution logic is

that they must

have high a,ility ,ecause they did not study hard 2*ovington# 6884# 68897#

*ovington 26884# l8897 has sho)n that students often engage in self&handicaing

,ehav&

iors 2i-e-# doing things that imede success7 to rotect their self&)orth- For

e!amle# students may

rocrastinate in studying for an e!am or doing a aer or ro%ect for a class# lf

they )ait until thc


36/67

last minute to do the )or+# it is li+ely that they )ill not ,e as successful as they

cottld ,e# (ver

the long run# this ,ehavior is self&handicaing ,ecause erformance is lo)cr than

ossi,le#

Ho)ever# from a self&)orth and attri,ution ersective# rocrastination can have a

ositive moK

tivtttional eect# lf the students do oorly they can attri,ute their erformance to

lac+ of eort#

there,y rotecting their self&)orth ,ecause they do not have to conclude they

lac+ a,ility At the

same time# il they end u doing )ell# even )ith the rocrastination# they can

ma+e an attri,ution

that they must have high a,ility (ther)ise# ho) could they e!lain success )ith alo) level of

eort] *onversely# if they clo try hard and do not rocrastinate and still do oorly#

it is li+ely that

the students )ill conclude they lac+ a,ility and their self&)orth )ill suer- >y

com,ining his self&

)orth ersective )ith attri,ution theory# *ovington sho)ed that the dynamics of

self&)orth are

more comlicated than a simle self`esteem ersective )ould have us ,elieve-

Interest and Aect 44;

The issue is not that self&esteem is not an imortant outcome of schooling- 6&

larter 26889#

68887 revie)ed the research on self&concet and self&esteem and it is clear that

these concets are

correlated# al,eit they are not the same construct- More imortantly it is clear

from develomen&

tal research that self&esteem or self&)orth often declines over the course of

develoment# and in


37/67

articular during adolescence 2Harter# 6889# 68887- This decline often is

accomanied ,y an in&

crease in deression and other mental health ro,lems 2Harter# 6889# 68887- This

decline in self&

esteem is not %ust a function of ersonal cognitive&develomental changes or

conte!tual changes

2transition to middle schoolsQhigh schools7# ,ut rather an interaction ,et)een the

ersonal and

conte!tual factors- Jevertheless# the fact that self&esteem declines )ith age&and it

aears that

it may decline more for girls than for ,oys 2Hatter# 6889# 68887&is an imortant

issue- interest&

ingly 6&latter# 'aters# and 'hitesell 26887 suggested that some of the declinemay ,e a function

not of gender status ,ut rather of the individuals endorsement of masculinity&

femininity valttes#

)ith tnore feminine individuals sho)ing a ,igger dro in self&esteem over time#

Accordingly although schools should ,e sensitive to these issues of selfKestcem

and more

general issues ofmental health 2"oeser# 6889 "oeser# Eccles# 3 Stro,el# 68897#

the simle# causal

lin+age of self&esteem to school achievement is @uestiona,le- Many layeole and

teachers auto&

matically assume that if selfKesteem is imortant and should ,e encottraged#

they should )or+ on

it directly# often ,y raising the students indiscriminately >y )or+ing on

increasing self&esteem#

they assume that learning# motivation# and achievement )ill he automatically

imroved-

The causal ordering in this simle model is most li+ely incorrect# as sell&esteem

tends to 1o)

from actual accomlishments and achievements# not vice versa- *roc+er and

'olfe 245567 dis&


38/67


39/67

se@uences for interest and motivation- ln the ast fe) years the toic of emotions

in education

has seen greater emhasis among researchers and ractitioners# and esecially in

ho) etnotions

and cognitions may interact to aect leaming and motivation- ln this section )e

discuss the in&

terlay of emotions and educational outcomes-

4 O *hater B

Ta!onomy of Emotions

There are a num,er of dierent ta!onomies or )ays of de0ning emotions that

have ,een used ,yersonality and social sychologists 2Fri%da# 689B Plutehi+# 6895 "ussell B/

>arrett# 6888 'at&

son 3 Tellegen# 689efore descri,ing the ta!onomy# it )ill hel to clarify a fe) terms-

As Forgas 245557 ointed out# the de0nition of terms such as oXect#feclings#

emotions# and

mood is dicult ,ecause there is a lac+ of ,road agreement among researchers

a,out their mean&

ing- This is not unusual in research on motivation 2Murhy b6 Ale!ander# 45557#

,ut it is a ro,&

lem in doing research on emotions and moods-

Forgas 245557 noted that aect can ,e considered the ,roadest and most

inclusive tenn ,e&

cause it comrises seci0c emotions and general moods- Forgas de0ned mood in

terms of rela&

tively lo)&intensity diuse# and enduring aective states that have no salient

antecedent cause and


40/67

little cognitive content- Peole can feel good or had or ,e in a good or had mood

)ithout any

salient antecedent event or )ithout really +no)ing )hy 2the cognitive antecedent7

they feel the

)ay they do- In contrast# Forgas 245557 suggested that emotions are more short&

lived# intense

henomena that usually have a salient cause 2eg# failing an e!am7- The individual

tyically is

a)are of the cause of the emotion- ln addition# emotions usually have some clear

cognitive con&

tent or referent- Seci0c emotions such as ride# anger# ity# fear# shame# and

guilt often are the

target of emotions research in contrast to the generaland more diuse good and,ad moods that

mood researchers e!amine-

Pe+run 26884 Pe+run 3r Frese# 68847 roosed a general ta!onomy ofemotions

that is rele&

vant to student motivation# learning# and achievement- Ta,le B-6 dislays a

summary of his ta!on&

omy The columns rellect the common dimension ofthe ositivityQnegativity of the

emotions 2also

Ta,le B-6 Ta!onomy of Student Emotions

Positive Jegative

Tas+Kreated

Process&related En%oyment >oredom

Prosective Hoe An!iety

Anticiatory %oy Hoelessness

2"esignationQdesair7

"etrosective "elief &

(utcome&related %oy Sadness

Pride $isaointment

ShameQguilt

Social


41/67

Gratitude Anger

Emathy :ealousyQenvy

Admiration *ontemt

SymathyQlove AntiathyQhate

Adated from Pe+in

n# l884-

Interest and Aect 44arrett# 6888 'atson et al-# 68887# ,ut that is not re1ectedin the ta!onomy

in Ta,le B-6- ln contrast# the ta!onomy divides emotions into t)o general

categories/ tas+&related

and social- Tas+&related emotions are relevant to achievement or learning tas+s in

school or other set&

tings# as )ell as to )or+&related tas+s in occuations 2Pe+run B6 Frese# 68847-

Social emotions refer

to otential emotions that could ,e generated from social interactions )ith other

individuals-

'ithin the tas+&related section of Ta,le B-6# a distinction is made ,et)een

emotions that are

e!erienced )hile engaged in a tas+# )hich includes the rocess&related emotions

of en%oyment

and ,oredom- The second main category re1ects rosective emotions that

students might e!&

erience as they aroach a tas+ or thin+ a,out engaging in a tas+ and the

e!ected outcomes-

These rosective emotions include hoe or anticiatory %oy as )ell as an!iety

a,out the tas+#


42/67

hoelessness# or desair- The third category includes retrosective emotions that

a student might

e!erience after the tas+ is comleted# such as relief# %oy and ride# as )ell as

negative emotions

such as sadness# disaointment# shame# or guilt- Many of these retrosective

emotions are the

same as those discussed in *hater ; as outcomes of attri,utional rocesses- lt is

li+ely that ret&

rosective emotions such as ride# shame# and guilt are lin+ed closely )ith the

tye and nature

of the attri,utions that individuals ma+e for their tas+ erformance 2'einer# l8>B#

688


43/67

Forgas 245557 also noted that the distinction ,et)een mood and emotions

arallels# to some

e!tent# the research on the interlay of aect and cognition- For e!amle#

emotions researchers

tend to focus on the conte!tual and cognitive antecedents of emotional reactions#

including var&

ious araisal strategies li+e attri,utions- They attemt to understand ho) and

)hy eole come

to e!erience the seci0c emotions that are generated in dierent situations

2such as those out&

lined in Ta,le B- I 7- ln contrast# mood researchers are usually interested in the

conse@uences of

mood on cognition and cognitive rocessing# so mood ,ecomes the indeendentvaria,le- For

emotion researchers# on the other hand# the emotions often are the deendent

varia,le that results

from various cognitive and araisal rocesses-

Eects of Emotions on Learning and Motivation

There has ,een a long history of research on the causal orclenng of cognition and

aect 2Smith Sr

ir,y 4555 'einer# 689


44/67

44B *hater B

models that hel us understand ho)# )hy# and )hen 2under )hat conditions7

cognition recedes

and in1uences aect and ho)# )hy and )hen aect recedes and in1uences

cognition-

ln the *hater ; discussion of attri,ution theory )e outlined some of the )ays

that cogni&

tive araisals and attri,utions can in1uence emotions- This chater focuses on

the lin+s from af&

fect to cognition- In terms of the relations ,et)een aect and su,se@uent

cognition# leaming# and

erformance# Pe+run 268847 suggested that there are four general routes ,y

)hich emotions ormood might in1uence various outcomes# Three of these routes are through

cognitive mediators

and the fourth is through a motivational ath)ay The dierent models and

constructs discussed

in this chater illustrate all four of these routes @uite )ell 2Linnen,rin+ B6 Pintrich#

45557-

The 0rst route ,y )hich emotions or mood might in1uence learning and

erformance is

through memory rocesses such as retrieval and storage of information 2Pe+run#

68847# There is

@uite a ,it of research on mood&deendent memory The general idea is that

aective states such as

mood are encoded at the same time as other information and that the aect and

information are in&

timately lin+ed in an associative net)or+ 2>o)er# 6896 Forgas# 45557- This leads

to 0ndings such

HS aect&State deendent retrieval# in 'hich retrieval o0nforrnation is enhanced

if the ersons mood

at the retrieval tas+ matches the ersons mood at the encoding hase 2Forgas#

45557- "esearch


45/67

sho)s that mood or aective state facilitates the recall of aectively congruent

material 2Forgas#

45557# such that eole in a good mood are more li+ely to recall ositive

information and eole

in a ,ad mood are more li+ely to recall negative inforrnation- linnenhrinlR and

Pintrich 245557 and

Linnen,rin+# "yan# and Pintrich 268887 suggested that negative aect might

in1uence )or+ing

memory ,y mediating the eects ofgoal orientations- ln this research 2discussed

further later in this

chater7# negative aect had a detrimental eect on )or+ing memory ,ut ositive

aect )as ttnre&

lated to )or+ing memory lhis general e!lanation for the integration ofencoding# retrieval# and

aective rocesses is one ofthe main thrusts of ersonal and situational interest

research-

The second inediational ath)ay is that aect in1uences the use ofdi1ercnt

cognitive# regula&

tory and thin+ing strategies# )hich could then lead to dierent tyes of

achievement and erform&

ance outcomes 2Forgas# 4555 Pe+run# 68847- For e!amle# some of the original

research suggested

that ositive mood roduced more raid# less detailed and less systematic

rocessing of infornra&

tion# )hile negative mood resulted in more systematic- analytic# or detailed

rocessing of informa&

tion 2Forgas# 4555 Pe+run# 68847# l&lo)cver# recent )or+ sho)s that this is too

simlistic a osition

and more comle! roosals are needed- Fiedler 245557 contended that ositive

aect as a general

aroach orientation facilitates more assimilation rocesses such as generative#

to&do)n# and cre&


46/67

ative rocesses# including see+ing out novelty ln contrast# negative mood re1ects

more of an aver&

sive or avoidance orientation and can result in more accommodation# including a

focus on e!ternal

information and details# as )ell as ,eing more stimulus&,ound and less )illing to

ma+e mista+es-

(ther research on the use of cognitive and self&regtrlatory strategies in school

settings has not

addressed the role ol aect in great detail# ,ut a fe) studies sho) that negative

aect decreases

the ro,a,ility that students )ill use cognitive strategies that result in deeer and

more elaho&

rated rocessing of the information 2Linnenhrin+ [4 Pintrich# 45557- For e!amle#Turner#

Thore# and Meyer 268897 found that negative aect related negatively to

elementary students

deeer strategy use- Moreover# negative aect mediated the negative relation

,et)een erform&

ance goals and strategy use# lf negative aect or emotion is a generally aversivc

state# it ma+es

sense that students )ho e!erience negative aect are less li+ely to use deeer

rocessing strate&

gies# as these re@uire much more engagement and a ositive aroach to the

academic tas+- ln

contrast# ositive aect should result in more engagement and deeer strategy

use- This latter

hyothesis re1ects some of the 0ndings from the research on ersonal and

situational interest-

Interest andAect 44

The third cognitive ath)ay is that aect can increase or decrease the attentional

resources that


47/67

are availa,le to students 2Linnen,rin+ 3 Pintrich# 4555 Pe+run# 68847- As Pe+run

noted# emotions

can ta+e u sace in )or+ing memory and increase the cognitive load for

individuals- For e!amle#

if a student is trying to do an academic tas+ and at the same time is having

feelings of fear or an!i&

ety these feelings 2and their accomanying cognitions a,out )orry and self&dou,t7

can ta+e u the

limited )or+ing memory resources and can interfere )ith the cognitive rocessing

needed to do the

academic tas+ 26&lem,ree# 6899 'ine# 686 Ceidner# 68897- This general

interference or cognitive

load e!lanation is a hallmar+ of )or+ on test an!iety that is discussed in moredetail later in this

chater- ?nder this general cognitive load hyothesis# it might ,e e!ected that

any emotion 2os&

itive or negative7 )ould ta+e u attentional resources and result in reduced

cognitive rocessing or

erformance- Ho)ever# this does not seem to he the case# given the dierential

and asymmetric 0nd&

ings for ositive and negative aect 2Forgas# 45557- There is a need for further

e!loration of ho)

emotions and mood can in1uence attentional resources and ultimately

erformance-

The fourth and 0nal general ath)ay that Pe+run 2l8847 suggested is that

emotions can

)or+ through their eect on intrinsic and e!trinsic motivational rocesses-

LinnenlrinlR and

Pintrich 245557 also suggested that motivational and aective rocesses can

interact to inlluence

cognitive and ,ehavioral outcomes- ?nder this general assumtion# ositive

emotions# such as


48/67

the e!erience of en%oyment in doing a tas+ or the anticiatory or outcome&

related %oy of a tas+

2see Ta,le o-l7# may lead to intrinsic motivation for the tas+- ln *hater )e

discuss dierent

de0nitions ol intrinsic motivation# one of )hich is the e!erience of en%oyment

and dee en&

gagement in a tas+- From this ersective# negative emotions such as ,oredom#

sadness# or fear#

should decrease intrinsic motivation for doing the tas+# al,eit some of them 2e-g-#

fear7 also might

increase the e!trinsic motivation for the tas+-

lt seems clear that aective and motivational rocesses can interact and# through

these inter&actions# in1uence cognition# learning# and erformance 2Linnen,rin+ Sr Pintrich#

45557- At the

same time# there is a need for much more research on ho) to eectively integrate

aective rocesses

)ith the motivational and cognitive rocesses that have ,een e!amined in much

more detail- This

is sure to he one of the ma%or areas of future research in achievement motivation

research-

Emotions and Goals

Interest in emotions has turned in recent years to their interlay )ith self&

regulation- A +ey

rocess in self&regulation is goal setting- Self&regulation involves setting goals and

assessing goal

rogress )hile )or+ing on tas+s- The ercetion of rogress ,uilds self&ecacy

2erceived caa&

,ilities7 and sustains motivation-

Linnenhrin+ and Pintrich 24554# 455O7 resented a model in )hich students=

aects a,out

school and learning in1uence their classroom goals- Students )ho feel ositively

are at to adot a&


49/67

roach goals 2see *hater


50/67

strategy use and cognitive rocessing-

From these 0ndings )e might conclude that ositive aect increases eort and

strategy use

ho)ever# the relation seems comle!- *learly further research is )arranted# )hich

should shed

light on a toic that is undere!lored ,ut otentially imortant for motivation and

achievement-

TEST AJIET_

At the ,eginning of this chater Mr- Anderson and Mr- Loe. discussed the

ro,lem of test an!&

iety ancl ho) it can have a negative in1uence on student erformance on tests-

Mr- Loe. even

tal+ed a,out ho) he suered from it )hen he )as a student- Test an!iety can ,e ama%or ro,&

lem at all levels# from elementary through ostsecondary education- lt reresents

a tye of emo&

tion that can have a negative eect on learning# in contrast to the ositive aect

that is generated

,y ersonal and situational interest-

ln addition# unli+e the recent resurgence ofemirical research on interest# test

an!iety research

has ,een outgoing since at least the 68


51/67

here# ,ut rather )e highlight some imortant issues a,out test an!iety and

academic erformance-

$e0ning Test An!iety

ln de0ning test an!iety there are a num,er of imortant issues to consider- A

general clelinition

of an!iety is an unleasant feeling or emotional Sl.lle that has hysiological and

,ehavioral con&

comitants# and that is e!erienced in formal testing or other evaluative situations

2$use+# 6895#

- 997- Test an!iety is a seci0c form of this generali.ed evaluative an!iety in

reference to test sit&

uations- Test an!iety is de0ned as a set of henomenological# hysiological# and

,ehavioral re&sonses that accomany concern a,out ossi,le negative conse@uences or failure

on an e!am or

similar evaluative situation 2Ceidner# 68897-

The henomenological asect of test an!iety usually includes cognitive and

emotional com&

onents# The cognitive comonent is )orry# and the emotional comonent is

emotion or agent

2Lie,ert [6 Morris# 68B 'ig0eld b6 Eccles# 6898 Ceidner# 68897# The cognitive

2)orry7 com&

onent refers to the cognitions that accomany an!iety# such as )orrying a,out

0un+ing the test#

thin+ing a,out the conse@uences of failing the test 2e-g-# arents ,eing uset#

having to dro out

of college7# )orrying a,out ,eing una,le to 0nish the test# thin+ing a,out items

that one cannot

ans)er# and thin+ing a,out ,eing em,arrassed ,ecause of a lo) grade 2see Mr-

Loe.s comments

Interest and Aect 448


52/67

at the start of this chater7- These and similar thoughts might run through highly

test&an!ious

ersons= minds as they ta+e a test-

The emotionality comonent refers to the actual arousal that individuals

e!erience as they

ta+e a test# such as fear# unease# or uncomforta,leness 2Ceidner# 68897- This

arousal can ,ecome

a classically conditioned aective reaction to evaluative situations 2'ig0eld Gr

Eccles# 68987# It

should ,e noted that# although most eole feel some an!iety )hen ut in a

erformance situa&

tion# for test&an!ious individuals the an!iety ,ecomes over)helming and

interferes )ith theira,ility to erform a tas+ they have mastered in another nonevaluative situation- in

the e!amle

at the ,eginning of this chater# Mr- Loe. recalled ho) he could do mathematical

ro,lems on

the home)or+ 2nonevaluative situation7 ,ut had diculties during tests- Many

erformers such

as musicians# actors# and athletes may sho) de,ilitating eects of an!iety during

a erformance

in contrast to rehearsals or ractice- Ceidner 268897 also noted that the

hysiological asect can

include arousal symtoms such as s)eaty alms# uset stomach# and raid

heart,eat-

in Ceidners 268897 model of test an!iety these henomenological# hysiological#

and ,ehav&

ioral comonents are the most central to test an!iety The ,ehavioral asect of

an!iety can include

the various coing mechanisms that eole use to deal )ith their an!iety as )ell

as such ,ehavioral

and cognitive outcomes as tas+&related thin+ing# cognition# attention# and actual

erformance- >oth


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conte!tual and ersonal factors in1uence the activation of test an!iety The nature

of the testing sit&

uation can create cues that can arouse an!iety ln addition# there are a num,er of

ersonal charac&

teristics 2e-g-# ersonal traits# self&ecacy actual a,ility self&regulatory s+ills#

e!ertise7 that can lead

individuals to araise the same o,%ective testing situation in dierent )ays# For

some individuals#

tests can ,e seen as a challenge for others# they are an!iety&arousing situations

2Ceiclner# 68897- "c&

garclless of dierences in conte!ts and cues# ho)ever# various forms of test

an!iety seem to ,e gov&

erned ,y the same tye of cognitive and motivational rocesses 2Ceidner orMatthe)s# 455


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in contrast# state I4Sl an!iety is more seci0c to the situation and tnay ,c

e!erienced ,y

many or most eole in certain stressful situations- For e!amle# ta+ing a college

or graduate

school admissions test 2e-g-# SAT# A*T# G"E# LSAT7 that has high imortance for

most eole

ro,a,ly )ill generate state test an!iety in many test&ta+ers- >esides these high&

sta+es testing sit&

uations# some classrooms in )hich testing# grading# and cometition are

emhasi.ed can gener&

ate high levels of state test art!iety in many students 2Hill B6/ 'ig0eld# 689O7-

Most test an!iety

models also redict that eole )ho are high in trait B


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dren er classroom- >y their estimates# ,et)een O and S million children in

elementary and sec&

ondary schools in the ?nited States have to coe )ith high test an!iety Hill and

'ig0eld also

estimated that another 65&6


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fer at the time of retrieval ,ecause they are not a,le to recall needed information

to do )ell on the

test# even if they +ne) it ,efore the test 2Ceiclner# 68897- This e!lanation

includes the 0rst and third

ath)ays that )ere resented in this chater on ho) aect might in1uence

learning 2Pe+run# 68847-

The other e!lanation is that highly test&an!ious students have de0cits in general

cognitive

learning strategies or test&ta+ing strategies that is# they do not +no) ho) to

study very )ell# do not

+no) ho) to ta+e a test strategically# and often are not )ell reared for the test-

This e!lanation

arallels the second ath)ay for the eect of emotion on cognition 2Pe+run#68847- This lac+ of

s+ill can result in retrieval ro,lems- More imortantly this model suggests that

the ro,lem is re&

ally an encoding ro,lem at the time of learning the material- it is not that

students cannot re&

mem,er it )ell on the e!am it is that these students never leamed it very )ell in

thc 0rst lace

2Ceidner# 68897- To,ias 2689


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focuses on the interactive nature ofan!iety and cognition# learning and coing

strategies# and self&

regulation is romising- ln fact# the most recent models of test an!iety are ,ased

in self&regulation

theory or coingQaraisal models that com,ine ,oth e!lanations and focus on

ho) cognitive and

metacognitive strategies# along )ith motivational and emotional coing

strategies- are used 2or not

used7 in testing situations 2Ceidner# 68897- For e!amle# Schut. and $avis 245557

resented a cle&

tailed model of ho) emotions# including l*S6 an!iety are related to the use ol

various cognitive and

emotional regulatory strategies in a classroom conte!t- This tye of model )ill ,ein the vanguard

of future research on not only test an!iety ,ut also on all emotions and aect in

the classroom-

Interest and Aect 4;6

in temis of ho) the classroom situation can create state an!iety Hill and 'iglield

2689O7 and

'iglield and Eccles 268987 discussed a num,er of features of classrooms that can

heighten an!iety

for children- First# they noted that many classroom and standardi.ed achievement

tests have time lim&

its that create ressure on students to 0nish )ithin a certain amount of time- The

lac+ of time 2or er&

ceived lac+ of time7 can increase stttdents an!iety articularly if an!ious

students send art of the

testing time )orrying a,out their erformance- This distraction not only )ill

reduce cognitiveQatterr

tional caacity ,ut also )ill reduce the amount of overall time sent thin+ing

a,out the test- in ad&


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dition# these tests are often introduced or discussed in terms of students= relative

a,ility )hich can

heighten social comarison and an!iety Finally Hill and 'iglield 2689O7 noted that

the format and

mechanics of the tess can ,e unfamiliar to students or more di1icult than their

usual school)or+-

Leaming settings that have overly high standards for evaluation are associated

)ith higher lev&

els of an!iety 2Helm+e# 6899 'ig0eld Sr Eccles# 6898 Cat. B6 *hassin# 689


59/67

general ercetion&mediating model is in line )ith theories of motivation

discussed in this te!t-

Interventions

Hill and 'ig0eld 2689O7 summari.ed a num,er of studies that attemted to

change school or

classroom use of tests and reort cards- These studies suggest that simle

changes such as re&

moving time constraints from classroom tests can hel an!ious students erform

,etter- or

course# this may not ,e easy )hen classes are only O


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emotionality comonent# others have addressed the cognitive or )ony

comonent# and some

have attemted to address ,oth comonents 2Tryon# 6895 Ceidner# 68897-

Treatments aimed at

the emotionality comonent usually attemt some tye of desensiti.ation to the

negative aect

generated in the situation# similar to )hat is done in ,ehavior theray )ith

desensiti.ation of

4;4 *hater B

individuals )ith ho,ias- Some studies have also used self&directed rela!ation

techni@ues to helstudents coe )ith the negative aect and an!iety 2Ceidner# 68897- Tryon 268957

suggested that

these studies have had mi!ed success# )hich may ,e due to the fact that ,y

addressing only the

emotionality comonent they are not considering the )orry comonent# )hich is

more closely

associated )ith actual decrements in erformance#

interventions that have ,een aimed at the )ony comonent have included direct

study and

strategy s+ills training# cognitive ,ehavioral sell&regulation to control the

un)anted and distracl`

ing thoughts# and motivational or attri,ution training to hel students control and

manage their

an!iety 2Ceidner# 68897# These cognitive treatments have sho)n some)hat

stronger ositive ef&

fects on reducing an!iety and imroving erformance# ,ut most researchers

,elieve that inte)en&

tions need 65 address ,oth emotiortality and )orry comonents through a

diversity of methods


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2Hill 3 'ig0eld# 689O Tryon# 6895 Ceidner# 68897- For e!amle# Hill and 'ig0eld

2689O7 out&

lined a school&,ased an!iety reduction rogram that includes training in ,oth

study and test&

ta+ing s+ills# as )ell as motivational and attri,utional training# lt seems li+ely that

these tyes of

ecologically valid rograms that address the multile asects of an!iety in the

classroom )ill ,e

more successful than single treatment or simler interventions- An!iety

intervention rograms

need to ,ecome more integrated into the school curriculum# ,e sensitive to

develomental diller&

ences# and include strategies targeted to hel the diverse ro,lems that dierenttyes of test&an!ious

students have 2s+ills training versus an!iety control7 2'igheld 3 Eccles# 68987-

Alication B-4

rovides some seci0c suggestions for decreasingitest an!iety in the classroom-

APPLI*ATI(J B-4 - ;

Alying Test An!iety "esearch in the *lassroom

There are a large num,er of strategies that can ,e used to reduce test an!iety in

the classroom

2Ceidner# 68897- &

l Pmvidc more time to comlete the test- The loosening of time re@uirements

seems to hel many

te!t&an!ious students- Mr- Fran+# an eighth&grade mathematics teacher# ma+es

arrange&

ments for some students to have a longer eriod of time to comlete his endKol&

unit tests-

He +no)s his tests usually ta+e a,out O5&O< minutes ofhis


62/67

iety He allo)s them to continue to )or+ on the test into the ne!t class eriod- His

ne!t class

is not disruted ,ecause they also are ta+ing the same end&of&unit test- Mr- Fran+

al)ays

e!lains to the other teachers )hy some of the students )ill ,e a little late to

their ne!t class-

4- Modify test item dMculty and order As noted throughout this ,oo+# tas+s

2including tests7

should ,e matched closely to student e!ertise&challenging# ,ut not

over)helmingly

dicult- This rincile also alies to an!iety Tas+s that are too dicult create

an!iety

test items that are too dicult create test an!iety lt hels to have items that notonly are

matched to student s+ill level ,ut also rogress in diculty level# from easier

items at the

start of the test to harder items later in the test-

Mr- March# a high school history teacher# designs his multileKchoice tests so that

easier items are at the ,eginning and harder items are at the end- He 0nds this

hels all

Interest and Aect 4;;

students D)arm u to the tas+# and esecially those )ho are very ne)ous- As

they start

the test# they have some success and thus feel more comforta,le- Their an!iety

dissiates

and they can then rogress more easily through the test-

Provide students oortunities to comment on test or test items- iQhen some

students can )rite

comments on test items# articularly am,iguous ones or dicult ones# it seems to

hel


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them erform ,etter- Ms- l&long al)ays rovides sace on the test for students to

ma+e

comments a,out their thoughts a,out the items# their diculty# etc# Students li+e

this and

seem to feel less an!iety ,ecause of it-

"educe social comarison and u,lic dislay of Lest scores- 'hen teachers and

students have

u,lic access to test scores 2i-e## through listing on u,lic ,ulletin ,oards# ,y the

u,lic

calling out of scores in front of )hole class7# it can create many oortunities for

social

comarison among students- ln this case# students +no) ho) others did and they

may,egin to ma+e negative and maladative comarisons and attri,utions for their

o)n or

others= erformance- Teachers should strive to reduce social comarison and have

stu&

dents ma+e aroriate attri,utions for test erformance- Ms- astleton emloys

these

ideas ,y not osting students= scores on ,ulletin ,oards and tal+ing a,out test

erform&

ance as a function of eort and actual s+ill# not general a,ility

"educe the ci%ormance&oriented nature of testing situations to%icus on mastery

and hirmtttivc as&

sessmcnt uroses- If teachers discuss tests as )ays of ,eating out others# as a

cometition

that only a fe) can )in 2grading on a strict curve7# this can create an!iety for all

students#

not %ust for highly an!ious students-

Mr- *raven is careful to discuss tests as oortunities for all students to

demonstrate

)hat they have learned and as a )ay for him to evaluate his lE;*lllllg- l&lc also

notes ho)


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the information from tests can hel students go ,ac+ and relearn )hat they have

not mas&

tered- The evaluation also rovides him )ith information that he might need to

reteach

certain concets if most of the students sho) on the test that they have not

mastered them-

S?MMA"_

Interest refers to the li+ing and )illful engagement in

an activity Historical 0gures in education such as

$e)ey and Thorndi+e felt that interest )as imortant

for learning and achievement# ,ut little research )as

conducted on interest )hile ,chaviorisin )as the

dominant aradigm in sychology Today researchersactively are e!loring interest to assess its role in learn&

ing and motivation-

Personal interest and situational interest are tNvo

di1erent tyes of interest that can in1uence learning

and erfottnance# Personal interest is a more sta,le er&

sonality or individual dierence varia,le- Personal in&

terests are directed at seci0c activities or toics ,ut

there is a great deal of varia,ility in )hat activities or

toics )ill ,e of ersonal interest to any one individual-

in contrast# situational interest is a conte!tual vie) of

interest# )here,y interest is generated ,ythe features of

the ittunediate environment- Situational interest can ,e

increased ,y the use of interesting te!ts# media# re&

sentations# and the li+e# and is generally assumed to ,e

relatively consistent across individuals- Personal and

situational interest relate ositively to choice of future

activities# memory attention# deeer cognitive rocess&

ing# and actual achievement and erformance-

Sell&esteem and self&)orth are emotional reactions

to the self- Self&)orth refers to emotional reactions or


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4;O *hater B

feelings a,out the self- Poular vie)s of self&esteem are

too simlistic to oer much hel in our attemts to un&

derstand student achievement in the classroom- *ov&

ingtons self&)orth theory addresses the role of

self&)orth in school learning and is relevant to current

theoretical models of motivation# such as attri,ution

theory Self&)orth research sho)s that self&)orth is an

imortant outcome of schooling- The oular notion

that increasing self&esteem )ill lead to ,etter learning

and achievement is not a useful ersective on the re&lations ,et)een self&esteem and school learning-

A%ect comrises seci0c emotions and general

moods# Emotions are short&lived henomena that have

identiha,le causes# )hereas moods are lo)&intensity

and diuse aective states )ith no salient antecetlents

and little cognitive content- There are various )ays to

categori.e emotions that students e!erience- (ne ta!&

onomy classi0es emotions in tenns of )hether they are

ositive or negative and tas+&related or social- 'ithin

the tas+&related category emotions may ,e rocess&

related# rosective# or retrosective-

There are multile ath)ays )here,y aect might

lead to dierential learning and erformance/ 267 al&

fective e!eriences in1uence ho) information is en&

coded and recalled# 247 aective e!eriences inlluence

the tyes of cognitive and self&regulatory strategies

used# 2;7 aective e!eriences in1uence attention and

)or+ing memory resources# and 2O7 aective e!eri&

ences inlluence intrinsic and e!trinsic motivation- "e&

gardless ofthe e!act rocess# it is imortant to +ee in


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mind that the relationshi of aect and learning is ,i&

directional that is# each has an in1uence on the other#

Test an!iety has several comonents# ,ut t)o of

the most imortant are )orry and emotionality The

)orry comonent refers to the eognitions or

thoughts that individuals have )hen they )orry dur&

ing a test&ta+ing situation- The emotionality como&

nent involves the emotional arousal 2fear and

negative aect7 that often is generated in evaluative

situations- Paralleling the distinction ,et)een er&

sonal antl situational interest# t


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Pe+run# "- 268847- The imact of emotions on learning

and achievement/ To)ards a theory of

cognitiveQmotivational mediators- -Alied Psychology/

An littcrnationctl "uvicug O6# ;

motivasi CHAPTER 6 ALEX.doc

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