Mosul Dam: Geology and Safety Concerns...ilarly sinkh on as show Dam site, loca ology and S the ing...
Transcript of Mosul Dam: Geology and Safety Concerns...ilarly sinkh on as show Dam site, loca ology and S the ing...
Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture 13 (2019) 151-177 doi: 10.17265/1934-7359/2019.03.001
Mosul Dam: Geology and Safety Concerns
Nasrat Adamo1, Nadhir Al-Ansari2, Varoujan Sissakian3, Jan Laue2 and Sven Knutsson2
1. Private Consultant Engineering, Sågaregränd 3 lgh 100260358 Norrköping, Sweden
2. Lulea University of Technology, Lulea 97187, Sweden
3. University of Kurdistan, Howler, KRG, Iraq and Private Consultant Geologist, Erbil 44001, Iraq
Abstract: Mosul Dam is an earth fill dam located on the River Tigris northern part of Iraq. The capacity of its reservoir is 11.11 billion cubic meters which makes it the fourth biggest dam in the Middle East. From geological perspective, the dam is located on double plunging anticlines. The rocks of the site are mainly composed of highly jointed and karistified alternating beds of limestones, gysum and marls, since the impoundment of the reservoir seepage of water was recognized under the foundation of the dam. To stop or minimize the seepage, intensive grouting operations were conducted. Recent investigations and evaluation of the conditions of the dam indicate that it is in a critical situation. In this paper, consequences of the dam failure are discussed and possible solutions are given. Key words: Mosul Dam, karst, infiltration, dam foundation, dam failure.
1. Introduction
Mosul Dam, the largest dam in Iraq, is also one of
the large dams in the world and the fourth largest
reservoir in the Middle East. It is located on the Tigris
river in northern Iraq approximately 50 kilometers
north west of Mosul city and 80 kilometers from the
Syrian and Turkish borders.
Although the dam is about 500 km on a straight line
distance to the north from Baghdad a flood wave study
showed that such wave resulting from the dam collapse
could reach Baghdad within 48 hours causing
devastating results for the whole reach and its
population.
The maps in Figs. 1 and 2 show the location of this
dam.
2. History
Mosul dam site was first investigated in 1952 by an
American firm, after which four investigation
campaigns were conducted in the sixties and seventies.
The first three reports prepared by American, Finish
and Soviet consultants agreed on the difficulties
Corresponding author: Nadhir A. Al-Ansari, professor,
research fields: water resources and environment.
involved in the site for the construction of a high dam
based on the conditions of foundations due to the
presence of gypsum, gypsum anhydride and gypsum
breccias. The fourth study report prepared by Swiss
consultants concluded that the dam can be built and
that the foundation can be sealed by intensive blanket
grouting together with a deep grout curtain. A
conclusion which proved later on to be very short
sighted. The construction of the dam was initiated in
1980 and completed in 1985. The first sign of trouble
appeared at the first filling in the spring of 1986 [1].
Maintenance foundation treatment by continuous
massive grouting program was envisaged as a solution,
but the problem persisted and mass grouting continued
ever since as a maintenance measure with no signs of
an end in the future. Moreover sinkholes which had
started to form since the filling of reservoir evolved
into common phenomena [2, 3].
3. Dams Features
Mosul Dam scheme consists of three parts:
(1) Mosul 1, which is the main embankment dam
and main power station.
(2) Mosul 2, the re-regulating dam and power station
located 9.1 km downstream of the main dam; distance
D DAVID PUBLISHING
152
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Fig. 2 Map o
ul Dam location
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osul Dam: Ge
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ul Dam: upstre
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osul Dam: Ge
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153
of the dam is
eters, and the
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osul Dam [4].
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Pleistocene
rocks of the
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karstified la
followed by
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dam area is
low mounta
NW-SE dire
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area.
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the dam sit
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during and
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Fig. 10 [7].
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al Geology
logy of the
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ayers of lim
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characterized
ainous area. T
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mestone and
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ange to almo
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orphological
rea and in the
tification phe
oles are show
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osul Dam: Ge
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ervoir area.
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mations in d
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ddings.
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led Der Wadi
Figs. 9 and 1
karsts phe
stream area of
The continual
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y karstified
oundations ga
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ing the dam
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the extent of
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voir.
inkholes will
water aquifer
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156
Fig. 6 Karst
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tified gypsum w
Mo
in the upper m
within the Fath
osul Dam: Ge
member of the F
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eology and S
Fatha formatio
at Atshan antic
Safety Concer
on [6].
cline, South of
rns
Mosul Dam [66].
Fig. 8 Karst
Fig. 9 Enlardam site [5].
tified gypsum w
rged Google Ea
Mo
within the Fath
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osul Dam: Ge
ha formation a
owing many sin
eology and S
at Atshan antic
nkholes (dark
Safety Concer
cline, south of
spots encircled
rns
Mosul Dam [6
d by red color)
6].
), in the upstre
157
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7
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Fig. 10 Resu
formation o
which form
and the res
dissolution
present abov
dynamics ha
of clayey
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during the
termed as t
thickness ran
first layer wa
section and
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GB3 was d
chute ski ju
dangerous d
grouting of t
11 shows th
ults of bathyme
of highly dev
easy passage
ervoir water
of gypsum a
ve and below
ad caused th
marls and
cavities form
d anhydride b
rix. Four su
geological in
the Gypsum
nging betwee
as found at a
it was marke
were at high
discovered at
ump. The G
due to their
the deep grou
he geological
Mo
etric survey of
veloped cond
es to the flow
r. This had c
and gypsum
these limesto
he collapsing
gypsum anh
ming beds of b
blocks embed
uch layers w
nvestigations
m-Breccias la
en 8 meters an
depth of 80 m
d as the GB0
her levels. Th
t the founda
GB layers pro
erratic beha
ut curtain und
cross section
osul Dam: Ge
f Mosul Dam r
duits and cav
w of ground w
caused exten
anhydrite ro
one layers. Th
of whole la
hydrite into
brecciaed gyp
dded into a lo
where discov
s and they w
ayers which
nd 16 meters.
meters in the r
0 layer. The o
e last one i.e
ation of spill
oved to be v
avior during
der the dam.
n under the d
eology and S
reservoir carrie
verns
water
nsive
ocks
hese
ayers
the
psum
oose
vered
were
had
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. the
lway
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Fig.
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Dam
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and
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I
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bor
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The
wor
Safety Concer
ed out in 2011
. 12 gives the
m central part
During the ex
d flip bucket
ctacular cavi
shown in the
n Fig. 14 the
velopment in
blematic are
imation of th
ing and field
his figure ind
e. Below th
gment karsts
fine the end o
eria of the
ending the c
re safety. In
ended below t
e design crit
rks are given
rns
by a Luleå uni
e lithological
t.
xcavation wo
the GB3 lay
ties and open
e photographs
dotted line is
n sections 69
a as visualiz
his line was
d permeability
dicate some of
his line acco
cease to ex
of the deep g
grout curta
curtain 20 m
actual fact
this line after
eria and full
in Ref. [8].
iversity PhD st
l column und
orks of the sp
yer was expo
n joints and c
s in Fig. 13.
s the estimate
9-87 which
zed by the d
based on th
y testing. The
f the points o
ording to th
xist and this d
grout curtain
ain, however
meters below
the depth o
r impounding
l details of
tudent [7].
der the Mosul
pillway chute
osed showing
cracks. These
ed karsts line
is the most
designers, the
he results of
e black spots
f major grout
he designer’s
depth should
n. The design
r, called for
this line for
f dissolution
the reservoir.
the grouting
l
e
g
e
e
t
e
f
s
t
s
d
n
r
r
n
.
g
Fig. 11 Geoeast to west w
ological long sewhich are stack
Mo
ection under dked together in
osul Dam: Ge
am axis (the lon the above figu
eology and S
ong extending ure) [4].
Safety Concer
from east to w
rns
west shown has
s been divided
159
d in parts from
9
m
160
Fig. 12 The lithological co
Mo
olumn under th
osul Dam: Ge
he Mosul Dam
eology and S
central part (r
Safety Concer
red rectangles
rns
indicate the GGypsum Bresci
a layers) [4].
Fig. 13 Crac
cks and cavitie
Mo
es in the GB3 l
osul Dam: Ge
ayer below spi
eology and S
illway’s chute
Safety Concer
and flip bucke
rns
et [9].
161
1
162
Fig. 14 Estimtake locations
The sch
mechanism
Groundwate
wash the Ma
formed in g
collapse of m
forming con
The grou
during const
construction
cavern struc
amount of
excavation
performing
caverns in t
protection sh
drainage tun
amounts o
intake/tailrac
the excavati
quality of se
river water
concentratio
water throug
Further stud
very large W
from long d
below and i
mated karsts ls) [9].
hematic diag
of the gypsu
er flowing thr
arley clay fro
gypsum/anhy
more gypsum
ntinuous layer
undwater reg
truction espe
n of the pump
ctures and th
seepage flow
of the cave
extensive gro
the form of b
hells around
nnels all round
f seepage
ce tunnel wa
ion face ahe
eepage water
quality and
on of sulfate
gh gypsum a
dies showed th
Wadi Der Ma
distance upstr
independently
Mo
ine in the prob
gram Fig.
um/breccias
ough caverno
om above into
ydrite layers
m/anhydrite in
rs of the brecc
gime was s
ecially in con
p storage sche
he intake/tailr
w was trem
rns was onl
outing work
boxes which
theme, in ad
d the caverns
flow the
as only possib
ead of excav
r was much d
it contained
es indicating
and gypsum a
hat this wate
alih aquifer w
ream and wh
y from the ri
osul Dam: Ge
blem area (sect
15 shows
layer format
ous limestone
o cavities alre
and causing
nto these cav
cias.
studied caref
nnection with
eme undergro
race tunnel.
mendous and
ly possible a
all around th
also served
ddition to driv
. Due to the l
driving of
ble after grou
vation work.
different from
d a much hig
the passage
anhydride lay
r belonged to
which is being
hich was runn
ver aquifer. T
eology and S
tions 69-87) (T
the
tion.
e can
eady
g the
vities
fully
h the
ound
The
the
after
hese
as a
ving
large
the
uting
The
m the
gher
e of
yers.
o the
g fed
ning
This
aqu
imp
of o
of
perf
the
diff
pum
con
the
exp
6. (Ge
G
As
this
loca
bec
this
flow
eve
diss
exp
cm/
at a
fron
cou
Safety Concer
The black spots
uifer was also
pounding. Fig
one spring wh
the tunnel
forming muc
Wadi Der M
ficulties it had
mp storage
ntributed to th
right bank
plained later o
Grouting eneral)
Grouting such
such groutin
s will result in
ally in adjace
comes chemic
s zone of satur
w continuous
entually pass
solution rate
perience it is
/sec in a 2 cm
a rate of few c
nt. If the velo
uld dissolve at
rns
show location
o fed directly
g. 16 is a pho
hich had erup
and could
ch grouting w
alih aquifer i
d caused duri
scheme, but
he formation
downstream
on.
of Gyps
h formations
ng begins to
n an increase
ent parts. Wa
cally saturated
ration no furt
s, the zone
ses from th
es accelerate
known that s
m wide gypsu
centimeters pe
ocities were a
t a rate of 9 m
ns of some of th
y from the re
otograph of th
pted during th
only be st
works. The Im
is not only du
ing the constr
t it is also
of a series of
m of the m
siferous F
is very trick
seal some se
e of the hydra
ater passing o
d within a flow
ther dissolutio
moves dow
he exit. At
e again sha
seepage velo
um vein, it sho
er year from
about 10-2 cm
meter per year
he major grout
eservoir after
he water flow
he excavation
topped after
mportance of
ue to the great
ruction of the
believed it
f sinkholes at
main dam as
Formations
ky operation.
eepage paths,
aulic gradient
over gypsum
w path and in
on occurs. As
wnstream and
this stage,
arply. From
ocities of 10-4
ould dissolve
an advancing
m/sec gypsum
r. Dissolution
t
r
w
n
r
f
t
e
t
t
s
s
.
,
t
m
n
s
d
,
m 4
e
g
m
n
Fig. 15 Sche
Fig. 16 The from Wadi D
ematic diagram
flow (360/sec)er Malih aquif
Mo
m showing the
) from undergrfer [9].
osul Dam: Ge
formation of a
round aquifer
eology and S
a breccias laye
into the intake
Safety Concer
er.
e/tailrace tunn
rns
nel of the pump
p storage schem
163
me originating
3
g
Mosul Dam: Geology and Safety Concerns
164
occurs until seepage water reaches a calcium sulfate
saturation of 2,000 ppm. Hence the dissolution zone
moves downstream as greater quantities of unsaturated
water attack a gypsum vein [10, 11].
From this it seems that it is most difficult to seal a
cracked or fissured gypsum formation permanently,
especially in the presence of other formations
which are also jointed, cracked and highly conductive
to flow as in the case of Mosul dam foundations
especially in view of the very high heads created by the
reservoir.
Nevertheless, the designers of the dam considered
that grouting should be used as the anti-seepage
element for the deep cutoff under the dam, while
construction of positive cutoff in the form of concrete
diaphragm could have been used instead. A better
choice of anti-seepage measure should have been the
construction of concrete diaphragm especially that
hydro-fraise machines which could go to a depth of 140
m for the construction of such diaphragm were
available and the work could have been done from river
bed level.
7. The Grouting Works Program
An extensive grouting works program was
anticipated by the designers in view of the soluble
nature of the foundation and its configuration. One
report in 1991 estimated that dissolution intensity at
Mosul dam foundations ranged from 42 to 80 tons per
day. This process coupled with the presence of karstic
limestone and calcareous marls as well as anhydrite
presented a very problematic and difficult foundation,
which was anticipated by everybody since the
beginning, and the consultants and the IBOE
(International Board of Expert) which had been
appointed to follow the design and construction of the
dam agreed the design outlines of the grouting works
and their acceptance criteria only after extensive
discussions and lengthy meetings.
The first element of grouting works is the contact
blanket grouting covering the contact area of the clay
core with the foundation surface to close all
preferential seepage paths by filling all fissures and
joints and protect from concentrated seepage flows
directly under the core. The second is the deep three
rows curtain which extends down to the karst line.
A concrete grouting gallery was constructed at the
bottom of the cutoff trench so as to continue the grout
curtain works without interfering with the embankment
construction. It was also meant to be used for
continuous observation of the curtain performance
during operation. Pairs of open pipe piezometers were
installed upstream and downstream of the curtain, one
pair at each section of the gallery in order to be able to
measure the efficiency of the curtain. The gallery
proved to be of immense usefulness to carry out
maintenance grouting of the curtain in what was to be
defined as massive grouting, a process which has
continued from the first filling of the reservoir up to
now. The required efficiency of the grout works was to
reduce the seepage flow to safe limits to allow the
water upstream the curtain to be saturated with calcium
sulfate and therefore stopping any further dissolution
of gypsum or t hydration of anhydrites. In the
limestone beds grouting was to plug and seal all
anticipated cracks and joints and hinder the free flow of
seepage. The criteria were expressed in terms of
Lugeon units of rock mass permeability values which
were defined specifically for each of the blanket
grouting, and the various depth and parts of the grout
curtain. During the progress of the work it was evident
that while cracks and cavities in limestone could be
reasonably filled, the criteria could not be achieved
over many locations in the GB beds in the deep curtain
at depth which remained open to seepage and were
described at the time as windows. These windows
remained open in many locations under the central part
of the dam even after the full scale impounding of the
reservoir had started in the spring of 1985 when the
grouting problem was not yet settled; a thing which
could not be stopped due to the early closure of the
river in October 1984.
The beds
were the bre
difficult to g
again to the
within the lo
accelerated d
during the li
In spite o
tried to solv
mix designs
persisted an
different sol
8. Problemof the Res
The first
requiring m
resulted in r
following:
8.1 Seepage
As water
springs bega
once were
spillway buc
further left.
measuremen
of seepage w
Fig. 17 Cheperiod Febru
where this p
eccias aforem
grout, and if te
flow after th
oose matrix.
dissolution an
ifetime of the
of the many g
ve this probl
and using di
nd even the u
lutions was eq
ms Encountervoir (198
filling uncov
much serious
remedial wor
Springs in L
r level in th
an to develop
close to the
cket structure
. The seepa
nt and chemic
was 830 l /se
emical test resuary-August 19
Mo
roblem had s
mentioned wh
emporarily se
he dispersion
This situatio
nd formation
e dam.
grouting tech
em including
ifferent pressu
use of chemic
qually unsucc
tered durin85-1988)
vered many s
s attention a
rks. All is su
eft Bank
he reservoir
in this bank.
e right and l
e and chute an
age water w
cal testing. T
econd (on 22
ults of water s986 [12].
osul Dam: Ge
severely occu
hich proved v
ealed they ope
of the grout
on led later o
n of large cav
hniques that w
g changing g
ures, the prob
cal grouting w
cessful [8].
ng First Fill
serious probl
and studies
ummarized in
increased m
The more ser
left sides of
nd others wer
was collected
The total quan
2nd March 19
seepage from t
eology and S
urred
very
ened
mix
on to
vities
were
grout
blem
with
ling
lems
and
n the
many
rious
f the
re at
for
ntity
986)
whi
Thi
seco
Che
indi
Thi
met
seep
wat
Aug
F
mor
disc
the
add
Arr
pipe
wer
also
chu
and
to t
perf
outf
curt
A
of s
not
the most impo
Safety Concer
ich correspon
is could yield
ond at full
emical tests
icating leachi
is is equival
ters. Fig. 17 s
page from th
ter level was
gust 1986 [12
Further hydro
re open pipe
cover seepage
depth of the
ding another
rangements w
es to dischar
re covered by
o constructed
ute to stop se
d across it from
the left bank
formed also
flanked by
tain.
Although thes
seepage and t
eliminate the
ortant five spri
rns
nded with a re
d, if extrapola
reservoir e
showed an
ing of gypsum
ent to void
shows the obt
he most impo
s raised duri
2].
geological in
e piezometer
e paths show
e grout curtai
line of gr
were made to
rge away the
y filter materia
d along the le
eepages flow
m the upstrea
k grout curta
to protect th
water seepin
se additional w
the dissolutio
em.
ings vs. water
eservoir level
ated to 2 cub
elevation of
increase in
m at a rate of
volume of
tained test res
ortant five sp
ing the perio
nvestigations
rs and use o
wed the need f
in at certain
routing hole
o catch som
e water safel
al. Anew deep
eft side of th
wing undernea
am direction. A
ain along da
the left bank
ng around t
works reduce
on of gypsum
level was rais
165
l of 304 masl.
ic meters per
f 330 masl.
salts content
f 30 tons/day.
10-15 cubic
sults of water
prings as the
od February-
by installing
of tracers to
for extending
sections and
s in others.
e springs by
y and others
p curtain was
he spillway’s
ath the chute
An extension
am axis was
k from being
the executed
ed the amount
m, they could
sed during the
5
.
r
.
t
.
c
r
e
-
g
o
g
d
.
y
s
s
s
e
n
s
g
d
t
d
e
166
8.2 Deterio
Dam
Similar m
quality from
which was
coffer dam
alarming d
transmissibi
indicated in
The incre
by reduction
sections in th
the increased
to increased
various par
difference in
and downst
pairs in the
and still are
the formatio
indicate the
procedure.
As water
formation of
to the stab
introduction
called (Mas
Fig. 18 Incrfor the increawas due to th
ration of the
measurements
m under the da
collected fro
no 6 used du
dissolution o
lity during
Fig. 18.
ease in seepag
n of the grou
the river chan
d size of the
d dissolution.
rts were m
n the hydraul
tream piezom
grouting gal
up till today
on of cavitie
need for filli
level was re
f large cavitie
bility of th
n of introducin
ssive Groutin
reased transmiased head showe washing awa
Mo
e Grout Cur
of seepage w
am at the river
om the pond
uring river di
of gypsum
the same
ge quantity w
ut curtain effi
nnel and coul
aforemention
Grout curta
measured by
ic head betw
meters that w
lery. These p
as the only m
es in the fo
ing grouting a
eaching high
es was posing
he dam. Th
ng a new tech
ng) to inject
issibility vs. timwn in Fig. 17. ay of gypsum p
osul Dam: Ge
tain under M
water quantity
r channel sect
d created by
iversion, sho
and increa
period [12],
was accompa
ciencies in m
d be attribute
ned windows
in efficiencie
observing
een the upstr
were installed
piezometers w
means to disco
oundation and
as a maintena
er elevations
g a constant th
his required
hnique which
thick grout
me (February-A(Dissolution ha
particles filling
eology and S
Main
y and
tion,
y the
owed
ased
, as
anied
many
ed to
due
es at
the
ream
d in
were
over
d to
ance
s the
hreat
the
was
(by
add
ben
carb
requ
con
bor
from
and
ope
from
form
this
wor
inje
was
tons
wer
8.3
I
the
bee
reac
insp
sink
met
righ
was
August 1986), ad leveled off
gs in the cracks
Safety Concer
ding 3 weigh
ntonite that n
bonate using
uired the fas
nditions by tru
eholes lined w
m the crest of
d injected in
eration know
m 1986 up to
ms of conven
s procedure is
rld. Grouting
ected grouting
s 25,000 tons
s are of mass
re pumped in
Developmen
n September
reservoir wa
en drawn dow
ched during
pection revea
kholes at the
ters from t
ht abutment.
s located also
and continuouafter the initia
s and joints of
rns
ht sand to 1
needed to be
g 1:1 water
st transport o
uck mixers to
with steel pip
f dam to the ga
the require
wn as “Massi
o the present
ntional grouti
s probably a
g records sho
g from 1986
of injected s
ive grouting
the following
t of Sinkholes
1986 an insp
s carried out
wn to EL.316.4
the previo
aled the dev
right bank at
he contact
One sinkho
at about 1 kil
us dissolution oal increase in tthe rock forma
1 weight cem
e activated u
r/cement rat
of the grout
o the location
pes that penetr
allery, where
ed treatment
ive Grouting
days in addi
ing as needed
unique case
ows that the
up to and inc
solids out of w
and even larg
g years [8].
s
pection of the
when the wa
4m from El.3
ous flood s
velopment of
many points
of the dam
ole of major
lometer or so
of gypsum in ththe first three ation) [12].
ment, 4% of
using sodium
tio). It also
t mix in dry
of three deep
rated the core
it was mixed
zones. This
g” continued
ition to other
d. The use of
in the whole
e quantity of
cluding 1988
which 12,200
ger quantities
e right rim of
ater level had
09m which it
season. This
f a series of
at about 150
m with the
r proportions
o away. These
he same periodmonths which
f
m
o
y
p
e
d
s
d
r
f
e
f
8
0
s
f
d
t
s
f
0
e
s
e
d h
sinkholes sh
layers which
the operatio
1991 to 199
the downstr
followed a st
the dam and
were indicati
Careful obse
the ground
settled gra
underground
fluctuation
operation of
south of the
to Der Male
the dam area
the reservoir
the right rim
in Fig. 19, an
in Fig. 20 sh
Fig. 19 Loca
howed dram
h were expos
on years of th
8 new series
ream area o
traight line al
at about 400
ion of an acti
ervations and
surfaces at
adually and
d cavities wh
of the wate
f the reregula
main dam an
eh undergrou
a and being c
r through the
m. The locatio
nd the photog
how the initia
ation of downs
Mo
atic solution
sed on the sh
he dam and s
of sinkholes
f the dam.
lignment para
meters away
ive process of
d measuremen
the sinkhole
d collapsed
ich were form
er level res
ating dam 8 k
nd partly due
und aquifer w
charged from
gypsum laye
on of these sin
graphs of sink
al phase of its
stream sinkhol
osul Dam: Ge
n of the gyp
hore line. Du
specifically f
began to form
These sinkh
allel to the ax
y. These sinkh
f rock dissolut
nts indicated
es locations
d in enlar
med partly by
ulting from
kilometers to
to the connec
which runs un
m the right rim
ers day lightin
nkholes is sh
khole (SD2) g
s formation in
les which had d
eology and S
psum
uring
from
m in
holes
xis of
holes
ution.
that
had
rged
y the
the
o the
ction
nder
m of
ng at
hown
given
n the
con
shap
T
sink
aqu
stor
sink
alig
afte
ope
sink
com
B
by g
sett
sink
dam
Feb
situ
dow
I
developed duri
Safety Concer
ntractor’s con
pe after full d
The chemica
khole gave th
uifer encounte
rage scheme
kholes locatio
gnment at the
er the erosion
eration. This
khole pheno
mposition of D
By contrast to
ground surfac
tlement until t
khole at the l
m of dam sho
bruary 2002
uated close
wnstream of t
n Fig. 23, thi
ing the period
rns
ncrete paved
development.
al compositio
e same result
ered during th
tailrace tunn
on. Further fr
river bank o
n of the alluvi
spring seem
omena and
Der Maleh aq
o the right ban
ce cracking fo
the occurrenc
eft bank very
own in Fig.
without pre
to housing
he left flank
is sinkhole se
[9].
work area a
.
on of the w
ts as those fro
he excavation
nel not very
rom this area
one spring wa
ium cover du
ms to follow
its water
quifer (Fig. 2
nk sinkholes
ollowed by gr
ce of the full
y close down
22 occurred
revious warn
ng colony
eems to be lo
167
and the final
water in the
m Der Maleh
n of the pump
far from the
a on the same
as discovered
ue to spillway
w the same
has same
1).
which began
round surface
collapse, one
stream of the
suddenly in
ning. It was
150 meters
ocated on the
7
l
e
h
p
e
e
d
y
e
e
n
e
e
e
n
s
s
e
168
Fig. 20 Two
Fig. 21 Spri
o views of sinkh
ing downstream
Mo
hole SD2 at the
m of dam [9].
osul Dam: Ge
e initial stage a
eology and S
and final stage
Safety Concer
s of developme
rns
ent [9].
Fig. 22 Phot
Fig. 23 Aeri
same line of
suggestion t
the possible
9. Mosul Question o
In early 19
possible dam
Mosul Dam
released in
contract with
such study. T
ready in 198
tographs of the
ial view of the
f the other sin
to the sudden
infiltration o
Dam Flooof Badush D
984, the Mini
mage that cou
m failure and
the Tigris R
h the same co
The study be
85 showed th
Mo
e right bank si
Dam area show
nkholes on the
n collapse of
of
od Wave SDam
istry felt the n
uld be incurre
d the subsequ
River valley.
onsultant of M
ing done, and
e colossal da
osul Dam: Ge
nkhole showin
wing alignmen
e right bank .
this sinkhole
Study and
need to assess
ed as result f
uent flood w
. So it signe
Mosul dam to
d the report b
amages that co
eology and S
ng developmen
nt of downstrea
.One
es is
the
s the
from
wave
ed a
o do
being
ould
resu
prop
bey
sho
prob
for
fail
in T
be
tim
and
[13
T
Safety Concer
nt stages and sk
am sinkholes [
ult in such an
perties and in
yond Baghdad
owed that: (1)
bable cause w
the various sc
ure, the initia
Table 2, with
expected (Sc
es to various
d flooded are
].
These alarmi
rns
ketch indicatin
9].
event to both
nfrastructures
d. The main
) if failure wo
would be the
cenarios of th
al wave hydro
peak discharg
cenario A);
cities on the r
as are shown
ng results pr
ng mapped dim
h human lives
s with its imp
conclusions
ould occur at
e foundation
he reservoir w
ograph would
rge of 551,000
(3) the calc
river, max he
n in Table 2
rompted the
169
mensions [9].
s and material
pact reaching
of the study
all, the most
geology; (2)
water levels at
d be as shown
0 cumecs can
ulated travel
eight of wave,
and Fig. 24
Ministry of
9
l
g
y
t
)
t
n
n
l
,
4
f
170
Table 2 Floo
Hours/Case
0
1
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
18.0
24.0
Table 3 Floo
od wave hydro
od wave discha
Mo
ograph at vario
A
1
13
80
215
372
474
535
551
538
507
405
271
186
123
37
18
arge, time of a
osul Dam: Ge
ous initial cond
arrival and floo
eology and S
ditions of failu
B
1
13
80
210
356
452
499
510
469
469
382
266
192
136
47
2
oded areas at v
Safety Concer
re.
C
1
13
80
215
335
422
480
509
497
497
435
186
195
130
39
19
various locatio
rns
ns in the Tigri
D
1
13
80
212
325
404
453
475
460
460
405
278
198
142
49
22
is River Valleyy.
Fig. 24 Wav
Irrigation, w
grave hazar
construction
from Mosul
Dam flood w
called Badus
this size
Unfortunate
completing 3
UN econom
invasion of K
10. Safety
10.1 Evalua
From the b
the completi
by the Intern
Owner; the M
water resour
reaching saf
dam. The Bo
final selecti
previously b
diaphragm
grouting, as
works were
ve height at va
when it was c
rd on the po
n of a protect
Dam to cont
wave in case
sh Dam whic
in the hist
ly the works
30-40% of th
mic sanctions
Kuwait.
Evaluation
tion of the Da
beginning of
ion of Mosul
national Boar
Ministry of Ir
rces. This B
fe and sound d
oard however
ion of the
by others, nor
for anti-see
the last deta
not ready w
Mo
rious distances
clear that the
pulation, to
tive dam 40
tain the full v
of its failure
ch is probably
tory of dam
were suspen
he works, whi
s imposed o
n of the Da
am Safety Co
the detailed d
Dam, it was
rd of Experts
rrigation; late
oard helped
design and co
r did not have
dam site w
r of selecting
epage meas
ailed geologi
when the Con
osul Dam: Ge
s downstream
dam present
design and
km downstr
volume of M
. This is the
y a unique cas
m construct
ded in 1991 a
ch was due to
on Iraq after
m
onditions in 1
design phase u
followed clo
appointed by
er the Ministr
tremendousl
onstruction of
any saying in
which was d
positive conc
sure instead
ical investiga
nsultant had t
eology and S
of dam and tim
ted a
start
ream
Mosul
dam
se of
tion.
after
o the
r its
988
until
osely
y the
ry of
ly in
f the
n the
done
crete
d of
ation
their
prel
But
fou
adv
how
seal
for
acc
was
exc
198
com
trea
con
was
con
Con
in t
cav
of s
10.2
N
unti
revi
repo
Safety Concer
me of travel tim
liminary plan
t the Board re
ndation and g
vice to refine
wever, from r
l the brecciae
all, these bre
ept any form
s considered
cept for its fo
88 by both
mpletion and
atment works
ntinue for the
s supported by
ntractor at t
nsultant to ful
treating many
vities, of whic
solid grouting
2 Evaluation
No general rev
il 1995. A g
iew of all th
orts and me
rns
me of arrival.
nning report
cognized the
gave early w
the grouting
reaching the d
ed gypsum in
eccias beds a
m of grouting
by the dam a
oundation. Th
the Board
operation of t
s, massive a
whole life of
y training an
he urging o
lfill this task.
y grave cases
ch the case of
g materials is
of the Dam S
view of the d
general inspe
he accumulate
easurements
approved by
problem of g
warnings and
g criteria; it st
design criteri
n the foundati
are recognize
g. The dam a
as safe from
he conclusio
and Consu
the dam was
and conventi
f the dam. Th
Iraqi grouting
of both the
This team w
s of very larg
f one that too
well docume
Safety Condit
dam safety wa
ection of the
ted data and
were conduc
171
y the Owner.
gypsum in the
all necessary
topped, short
ia required to
ons once and
d now not to
as completed
in all aspects
n reached in
ultant at the
that grouting
ional, should
is conclusion
g team by the
e board and
was successful
ge dissolution
ok 5,000 tons
ented.
tions in 1995
as carried out
e dam and a
all available
cted by two
1
.
e
y
t
o
d
o
d
s
n
e
g
d
n
e
d
l
n
s
t
a
e
o
Mosul Dam: Geology and Safety Concerns
172
Bulgarian Specialists. They judged that the dam
condition was generally acceptable, but they
recommended taking the actions which are
summarized in Table 3.
10.3 Evaluation of the Dam Safety Conditions in
2004-2005
After the 2003 war, and the occupation of Iraq by the
United State and Britain, the US army corps of
engineers performed a quick survey and a safety of Iraq
dams and concluded that Mosul Dam was in a
precarious state and formed severe threats on the
occupation forces stationed in the Tigris River Valley.
A complete safety assessment study was then initiated
in which Washington group International & Black and
Veatch (JV) were contracted in 2004 to do. Their report
was submitted in August 2005 and included the results
of thorough investigation of the dam conditions; it even
included the assessment the dam safety conditions that
was carried out by a PoE (panel of experts) which was
formed especially to carry out this task. The panel
assessment was based on potential FMA (failure mode
analysis) and recognizing the usefulness of Badush
Dam.
The PoE summary of the findings included the
following main points:
(1) Construction of Badush Dam between Mosul
Dam and the City of Mosul would address downstream
loss-of-life risks for all possible positional failure
modes.
(2) Construction of a diaphragm wall from the crest
of the dam using current technology is an unproven
alternative that could not, therefore, be relied upon to
reduce loss-of-life risk sufficiently, considering the
very large downstream population-at-risk. In addition,
this alternative would be more costly than building
Badush Dam.
(3) Construction of an upstream diaphragm cutoff
wall and upstream impermeable face might reduce
loss-of-life risk sufficiently, however, it would require
an extended reservoir lowering and it would be more
costly than building Badush Dam.
(4) Foundation grouting does not provide acceptable
long term loss-of-life risk reduction, considering the
very large downstream population at risk.
(5) Continued and improved foundation grouting
and careful monitoring and visual inspection would be
reasonable risk reduction measures to extend the
economic benefits of the Mosul Dam (power
generation and irrigation) as long as practical
From the above it is clear that the PoE recommends
the necessity for continuing the maintenance grouting
works, the usefulness of Badush dam, but it rules out
the use of diaphragm wall as a replacement of the grout
curtain. It is worth mentioning that the diaphragm
alternative was proposed in 1987 by two consultants
during construction and that it was rejected by the
International Board of Experts of the Dam.
Table 3 Summary of recommended actions.
Item examined Recommended action
1 State of gypsum dissolution Continue the grouting programs as before as maintenance work for the whole life of the dam and never atop
2 Deep grout curtain Breadth of curtain is not sufficient according to Soviet and Bulgarian standards. Add two more grouting rows, one at each of the U/s and D/S of existing curtain
3 Instrumentation Readings were judged acceptable, no action is required except routine maintenance
4 Seepage and dissolved salts quantities
The quantities of these seem to increase with rising water level of reservoir, so it is recommended not to accumulate water above Maximum Operation Water Level (EL. 330 masl). If such event occurs in the event of very high floods, then the reservoir is to be drawn down immediately below this level. WL should not be kept for appreciable length of time at this level in any event
5 Ground water measurement at downstream
Many more open pipe piezometers should be installed at the near vicinity of the dam at the downstream. I is most important to observe ground water movement there and relate this to reservoir water level fluctuation
Mosul Dam: Geology and Safety Concerns
173
10.4 Evaluation of the Dam Safety Conditions in
2006-2007
A new PoE was formed by the Ministry of Water
Resources in 2006 to follow up the dam safety question.
This PoE was formed mainly from Engineers from
Harza Engineering (USA) and one member from Italy;
but it shall be referred to as the (Harza PoE). The PoE
had a series of meeting extending over 2006 and 2007.
The main worries of this PoE were about the seepage
under the dam and the possibility of the formation of
new sinkholes; this was highlighted by the formation of
the sinkhole on the left bank very close to the dam in
2002 (Fig. 22). During these meetings the following
conclusions and recommendations were forwarded:
(1) The dam safety was questionable even with the
continuation of the maintenance grouting program.
(2) There was g a very high possibility of the
occurrence of sinkholes on the left bank close to the
dam body.
(3) The need for intensive new geophysical
investigation to be carried out using Geo-Radar in
addition to the other conventional investigation that
was ongoing at the time.
(4) Install many more open pipe piezometers at this
bank to observe ground water movement and give early
warning of the formation of new sinkholes and take
action by emptying the reservoir.
(5) Limit the maximum operation level of the
reservoir to (319 masl) instead of the maximum
designed operation water level of 330 masl.
(6) Construct a positive cut-off in the form of
concrete diaphragm as a permanent solution as the
protracted grouting had not been sufficient to stabilize
the situation. Admitting that such a cut-off would have
unprecedented depth, therefore its implementation
should be studied by uniquely specialized contractors
and equipment manufacturers.
(7) The PoE went further to cast doubts on the
usefulness of Badush Dam stating that the current
design of the clay core may not be sufficient to sustain
the Mosul Dam flood wave and that the bottom outlets
may get clogged by debris leading to overtopping of
the dam.
While the limitation of the reservoir water level was
enforced during the subsequent years the question of
the diaphragm was not settled and maintenance
grouting work was continuous by the site crew as
previously done until June 2014 when the Mosul City
fell to ISIS terrorists. Even the dam site was captured
by them but only for 20 days before they were repelled
back by government and coalition forces. However the
grouting works activities as the crew left and did not go
back to site again.
10.5 Evaluation of the Dam Safety Conditions in
2015-2016
The repercussions of the halting of the grouting
maintenance work was visualized and sensed sharply
by USACE who were very much aware of the fragile
situation of the dam foundation and their reaction to
this was prompt. An interagency team from many
United States agencies was formed in the beginning of
2015 which was lead by the USACE to carry out
measurements, surveys and observations to follow
developments that might lead to the dam failure. The
following was done: (1) An early warning system
consisting of remote sensing instruments was installed
to check for movement and settlement in important
locations on the embankment and structures; (2)
Installing observation cameras on the dam crest and
downstream berms for the same purpose; (3) A
bathymetric survey upstream and downstream of the
dam was conducted by socialized divers.
The findings of the US interagency team were
alarming and may be summarized in the following:
(1) There were signs of increased formation of
caverns and sinkholes under the dam. The
discontinuation of grouting works from August 2014
until beginning of 2016 has resulted in an increased
loss of gypsum and formation of new cavities of about
174
10,000 cubi
have happe
shown in Fig
(2) Increa
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. The cumulat
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osul Dam: Ge
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Dam.
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175
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Fig. 28 US i
11. Presen
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[14, 15]. A
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Joint Researc
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osul Dam: Ge
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undate an are
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over these a
er polluted w
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use the spread
[16].
ces, the I
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the World B
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been done un
e participatio
g to a close
these works.
eology and S
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was
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be p
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Re
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Safety Concer
Recent word
aluation of th
the question
uld happen in
phragm or c
sued. One th
lacement of p
weaker grout
nditions than
l it contribut
mations. The
q even with c
pondered by
nning regard
commissioned
manent solu
sued.
ferences
Adamo, N., a
Story: Engin
and Geotechn
Adamo, N. 20
in the World.
in Lålue Tech
Adamo, N., A
Knutsson, S
Dangerous D
during and
of Earth Sci
47-58.
Swiss Consu
rns
from the s
e conditions
n that remain
n the future
construction o
hing remains
parent rock i
ting material
the first day
te to lower p
dam will co
continuous gr
the Iraqi pol
ding the dam
d sometime
ution other
and Al-Ansari, N
eering Problem
nical Engineeri
014. “Mosul Da
” Lecture deliv
hnical Universit
Al-Ansari, N.,
S. 2015. “My
Dam in the W
after Impound
ence and Geot
ultants. 1979. M
site gives a
at the site at
ns without an
, and wheth
of Badush D
s for sure; t
in Mosul dam
ls will not re
ys of dam op
possibilities
ontinue to pos
routing [17] a
licy makers i
m. The dam
in the f
than groutin
N. 2016. “Mosu
ms.” Journal of
ing 6 (3): 213-4
am: The Most D
vered to PhD stu
ity on 10th Nov
Issa, E. I., Siss
ystery of Mo
World: Problem
ding the Reser
technical Engi
Mosul Dam Pr
an optimistic
t the present,
nswer is what
her driving a
Dam will be
the continual
m foundation
sult in better
peration, nor
of sinkholes
se a threat to
and this must
in any future
m should be
future or a
ng must be
ul Dam the Full
f Earth Science
44.
Dangerous Dam
udents audience
vember 2014.
sakian, V., and
osul Dam the
ms Encountered
rvoir.” Journal
neering 5 (3):
roject Planning
c
,
t
a
e
l
n
r
r
s
o
t
e
e
a
e
l
e
m
e
d
e
d
l
:
g
Mosul Dam: Geology and Safety Concerns
177
Report. The State Organization for Dams and Reservoirs, the Ministry of Irrigation, Iraq.
[5] Sissakian, V., Al-Ansari, N., Issa, E. I., Adamo, N., and Knutsson, S. 2015. “Mystery of Mosul Dam the Dangerous Dam in the World: General Geology.” Journal of Earth Science and Geotechnical Engineering 5 (3): 1-13.
[6] Sissakian, K, Adamo, N, Al-Ansari, N, Knutsson, S, and Laue, J. 2018. “Badush Dam, NW Iraq; A Geological Study.” Journal of Earth Science and Geotechnical Engineering 8 (2): 1-15.
[7] Issa, E. I., Al-Ansari, N., and Knutsson, S. 2013. “Changes in Bed Morphology of Mosul Dam Reservoir.” J. Advanced Science and Engineering Research 3 (2): 86-95.
[8] Adamo, N., and Al-Ansari, N. 2016. “Mosul Dam the Full Story: Engineering Problems.” Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering 6 (3): 213-44.
[9] Washington Group International, Black and Veatch J. V. 2005. Mosul Dam Study. Final Report, Task Order No. 8. Republic of Iraq Project Contracting Office, Provisional Coalition Authority.
[10] James, A. N., and Kirkpatrick, I. M. 1980. “Design of Foundations of Dams Containing Soluble Rock and Solis.” Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology 13: 189-98.
[11] Morrison-Knudson Inc. 1989. Solution Equilibrium and Kinetic Rate Studies. Unpublished report.
[12] Guzina, B., Sarić, J., and Petrovic, N. 1991. “Seepage and Dissolution at Foundation of a Dam during the First Impounding of Reservoir.” Paper presented on ICOLD Meeting, Vienna, Austria.
[13] Swiss Consultants. 1984. Mosul Dam Flood Wave Study Report (Vols. 1-3). Security measures II, Addendum 3, Task 2. Confidential report submitted to the Ministry of Irrigation, Republic of Iraq.
[14] Adamo, N., and Al-Ansari, N. 2016. “Mosul Dam the Full Story: Safety Evaluations of Mosul Dam.” Journal of Earth Science and Geotechnical Engineering 6 (3): 185-212.
[15] The Japan Times, News. 2016. “Most Dangerous Dam Facing Collapse, Threatens Half in Mosul: Us Army.” February 10th, https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/ 02/10/world/dangerous-dam-facing-collapse-threatens-half-million-mosul-u-s-army/#.XII8ECJKjZ4.
[16] Annunziato, A., Andredakis, I., and Probst, P. 2016. Impact of Flood by a Possible Failure of the Mosul Dam, Version 2. JRC technical reports. EU Commission. http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC101555/lbna27923enn.pdf.
[17] Kelley, J. R., Wakeley, L. D., Broadfoot, S.W., Pearson, M. L., McGrath, C. J., McGill, T. E., Jorgeson, J. D., and Talbot, C. A. 2007. “Geologic Setting of Mosul Dam and Its Engineering Implications.” USACE, Engineering Research and Development Center. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a472047.pdf.