Monitoring of Performance and Training in Rowing · PDF fileMonitoring of Performance and...

REVIEW ARTICLESDorts Med 3005; 35 (7)' 597^617

01 i;-IM2/O5/0CO7-O597/S3d 95/0

t 2005 Adl5 DotQ infoimation BV All righls raserved

Monitoring of Performance andTraining in Rowingfarek Maestu, Jaak jiirimae and Toivo Jiirimae

Institute of Sport Pedagogy and Coaching Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia

ContentsAbstract 5971, Characteristics of Rowing Performance 5982, Characteristics of Rowing Training 6033, Selected Biochemical Indices of Monitoring Training in Rowing 6044, Selected Psychometric Instruments of Monitoring Training in Rowing 6075, Studies on Monitoring Training In Rowing 6086, Multi-Level Approach of Training Monitoring 6117, Future Investigations and Recommendations 6138, Conclusions 613

AbStrOCt Rowing is a strength-endurance type of sport and competition performancedepends on factors such as aerobic and anaerobic power, physical power, rowingtechnique and tactics. Therefore, a rower has to develop several capacities in orderto be successful and a valid testing battery of a rower has to include parametersthat are highly related to rowing performance. Endurance training is the mainstayin rowing. For the 20(X)m race, power training at high velocities should bepreferred to resistance training at low velocities in order to train more specificallyduring the off-season. The specific training of the international rower has to beapproximately 70% of the whole training time. Several studies have reporteddifferent biochemical parameters for monitoring the training of rowers. There issome evidence that plasma leptin is more sensitive to training volume changesthan specific stress hormones (e.g. cortisol, testosterone, growth hormone). Inrowing, the stress hormone reactions to training volume and/or intensity changesare controversial. The Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes measures bothstress and recovery, and may therefore be more effective than the previously usedBorg ratio scale or the Profile of Mood States, which both focus mainly on thestress component. In the future, probably the most effective way to evaluate thetraining of rowers is to monitor both stress and recovery components at the sametime, using both psychometric data together with the biochemical and perform-ance parameters.

In the world of sport, athletes and coaches pushthemselves harder and harder in order to achieve the

best results in competition. However, by increasingeither the frequency, duration or intensity of train-

598 Maestu et al.

ing. they risk creating excessive fatigue that maylead to functional impairment, described as 'over-training syndrome", 'stateness' or 'bumout'.l'l Theaim of sport training is to accustom the human bodythrough different training loads and competitions, atthe same time minimising the risk of illness, injuryand fatigue in the period leading up to the competi-tion. Thus, an athlete's body must become accus-tomed to training loads that arc intense enough todisplace the homeostasis of an athlete. Once theadaptation to a certain training load has occurred, agreater load must be applied to get further improve-ment and stresstul high-intensity training periodsare necessary to obtain high performance insports.i-' It has been shown that systematic recoveryperiods in tbe training process are necessary to pre-vent an overtraining syndrome and/or staleness.'-'iTraining should be organised in periods of stressfulheavy training to induce sufficient training responsefollowed by a period of reduced load to allow recov-ery and an increase in performance.'' ' ' A problemfor coaches is that athletes respond differently to thesame training loads. A load tbat is too high for oneathlete may have no training effect at all to another.It is evident, however, that underestimation or over-estimation of performance level, trainability andinsufficient recovery will lead to: (i) inappropriatetraining response of the athlete; or (ii) overreachingand eventually staleness, burnout syndrome or over-training.''''^' Hoffman et al.'''' pointed out that peakathletic performance depends on the proper manipu-lation of training volume and intensity as well asproviding adequate rest and recovery between prac-tice sessions.

Overtraining is a state of overexertion. whichmay be attained when the training load and theassociated disturbances in bomeostasis are notmatched by recovery.'^' The first phase of overtrain-ing is quickly reversible and is referred as 'over-reaching'.''"'"' Overreaching is characterised by un-derpeiibrmance. which is reversible wilhin ashort-term recovery period of 1-2 weeks and can berewarded by a state of supereompensation (an in-crease in perfonnance ability allowing 1-2 weeks ofregeneration after a short-term phase of overtrain-

ing).'""" The term 'staleness', is the unwanted endresult of overtraining,'"' and 'overtraining syn-drome' should have the same meaning.''"'

Repetition of a training stimulus will result in aweaker response and, after a time, responses totraining will asymptotically reach a limit. Furtherincreases in petibrmanee can be reached by increas-ing intensity and/or duration of training.''-' Forrowers, it has been demonstrated that trainingkilometres rowed are positively related to success inchampionships.''^ '^' However, the risk of overtrain-ing increases with training volume, particularly withmonotonous training.'''**' ^

A problem in studying training effects is thecomplexity of tbe goals of training, because differ-ent capacities (e.g. aerobic, anaerobic, strength) ofthe athlete have to be developed and improved,'^""'so it also makes the monitoring process complicat-ed. As a typical power endurance sport, rowers needphysical strength to achieve high power per stroke,endurance to sustain this power for 20()0m. as wellas special motoric and tactical skilisJ'^'^'**' Moodstate also seems closely related to perform-

Evaluation of the aetual trainability and diagnosisof possible overload and overtraining are alreadyamong the most complicated tasks in sportsmedicine and sports psychology.'''•^-"•-'' The moni-toring process is effective if it has profound scientif-ic foundations. The aim of the current review articleis to give an overview of the methods used tomonitor training in rowing and to provide somefuture suggestions to make the training monitoringprocess more effective and achieve better perform-ance results during competitions.

1. Characteristics ofRowing Performance

Rowing is primarily a strength-endurance type ofsport. The typical rowing competition takes place ona 2(X)()m course and lasts, depending on a boat typeand weather conditions, 5.5-7.0 minutes. During arace, muscle contraction is relatively slow and about32-38 duty cycles per minute are used. In interna-tional rowers, the power per stroke may reach as

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Monitoring of Performance and Training in Rowing 599

high as 1200W and the average power per race isabout 45()-550W.i'^i During competition, a rowerdepends mainly on his or her aerobic metabolismbecause energy stores and glycolysis are limited tocover the energy demand only for approximately1.5-2.0 minutes.''"*! Aerobie power can be defined asthe maximal oxygen consumption (VOiimx) 'is esti-mated during a performance that lasts from 2 to 10minutes.'--' Aerobic and anaerobic energy contribu-tions on a 2()00m rowing race in different studies arepresented in table I. According lo Roth et al.,'-'' theenergy of the 2OO(3m race was provided 67% aerobi-cally and 33% anaerobically, 21% alactic and 12%lactic. Seeher et alJ-^' found that the aerobic energycontribution may be up to 86%.

Many factors affect physical performance duringrowing. Power depends on aerobic and anaerobicenergy supplies balanced by efficiency or tech-nique.'--' Efficiency is expressed as the relationshipbetween energy expenditure and boat velocity and itdepends on the technical skill of the rower. Efficien-cy varies from as much as 16% to 21%, even duringergometer and tank rowing.'-''•*"' Differences in effi-ciency between rowers and non-rowers have beendemonstrated, while no differences were observedbetween elite lightweights selected for the WorldChampionships team compared with those who didnot make the team.'^"' This indicates that efficiencyon an ergometer is only a rough estimate of tech-nique in the boat.I--'

Testing an athlete is an attempt to evaluate his orher sport-specific performance. The easiest way ofdoing this is to measure the shortest time needed tocover a particular rowing distance. However, this israther complicated, because external factors such as

Table I. Mean conlribution ot aerobic and anaerobic energy duringrowing in different studies using efile heavyweight male rowers

Studies

Hagerman et al.' 'i

Messonnier et al.'^^'

Mickelson andHagerman'^''

Roth et al.i i

Russell et al.'^^'

Seeher et al.! ''i

No. ofsubjects

310

13

25

10

19

7

Aerobicenergy (%

70

86

72

67

84

70-86

Anaerobic) energy (%}

30

14

28

33

16

14-30

wind, water currents and temperature may influencethe result. Furthermore, a need may exist to evaluatethe individual contribution to a boat, including asmany as eight rowers.'-I Accordingly, rowing er-gometers are commonly used to measure individualperformance parameters in rowers and trainingchanges. Although rowing an ergometer does notrequire the same skills as on-water rowing, it hasbeen observed that the ergometer simulates the bi-omechanical and metabolic demands of on-waterrowing.!'" xhe dynamic rowing ergometer Rowper-fect seems to more closely relicct the on-water row-ing technique than the commonly used Concept IIrowing ergometer.' - ' Stroke angle/length, which didnot vary with rate, was similar for both forms ofrowing. The mean trunk., thigh and lower leg anglesat the cateh and finish of the stroke were also similaracross the stroke rates.''-' However, rowing tech-nique is a very complex task and consists of compo-nents such as balance, efficiency, and maintainingthe boat speed during the recovery phase, whichcannot be measured on an ergometer. Thus, estimat-ing rowing technique as a complex on a rowingergometer is of little value in analysing on-watertechnique.

Rowing ergometers sbould be considered valua-ble tools in te.sting, but they should be used with carewhen developing endurance during the preparationperiod because they may seriously affect the tech-nique of on-water rowing.

Many researchers (see table II) have found per-formance-predictive parameters for rowers to pre-dict 2000m rowing ergometer performanee'-**"'*''and two of them''-' ' *'' also developed performance-predictive parameters for 2000m single seull dis-tance. These studies used rowers of different levels,classification (i.e. scullers, sweep rowers) and sex.This may be a reason why each study had differentequations of performance-predictive parameters.However, all these studies reported either V02ma\ inL/min or maximal aerobic power (Pmax) in W ob-tained on incremental test to exhaustion,'-'''**' orduring standardised 2000m all-out rowing ergome-ter test,'-' ' to be an important parameter in predictingperformance over a 2000m rowing ergometer dis-

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600 Miiestu et al.

Table II. Performance predictive parameters IOT rowers on 2000m ergometer distance in different studies

Sludy Classification Parameters SEE Commenis

Cosgrave el al,'^''' 13 M college level rowers

Ingham et al. 41 M and F internationallevel. Also lightweights

Jijfimae et al.'^' 10 M national rowers

Riechman el alj^^ 12 F international level

Russell Bt al.'^*' 19 elite schoolboys

Womack et al.i^i 10 M college rowers

Lactaie S mm alter 2000mefgomeler all-out

Pma«VO2 at 4 mmol/LPower at 4 mmol/LMaximal power

Ptna.La35awCSA ol IhighHeightMuscle mass

Power of 30 sec all-oulV02mMFatigue

HeightBody massSkinfolds

VO2maxPeak velocityVelocity at 4 mmol/LV02 at 4 mmol/L

0.87 May be due to homogenous group.Rowing economy was not found lo bean important predictor to rowing success

0.98 May be not specific enough becauseboth M and F and also lightweightswere used

0.99 Compares on-water and rowingergometer performance parameters

0.96 A 30-sec Wingate test, with fatiguemeasure was developed to predict2000m rowing performance

0.78 Sweep rowers were used, who areknown to be laller and heavier thanscullers

0.81 The rest period in the incremental testcould have too an big inlluence on theV02pnax value

CSA = cross-sectional area; F = female;aerobic power: SEE = standard error of estimate;

lactate concentration correspondingO^m = oxygen consumption; V02nia>i

lo power at 350W; M = male; Pman = maximal= maximum oxygen consumption.

lance. For example. Ingham et al.''•*' and Womack clal.i*"'' lound thai VOzmax. Pma\- and oxygen ctin-sumption (VO2) at a power eliciting a blood lactateconcentration of 4 mmol/L were closely related tothe 2(X)0m ergometer performance time. In contrast.Riechman et al.''"' found that ZOOOm rowing ergom-eter performance titne is best eharacterised by themean power of an all-out 30-second ergomeler test{i.e. a measure of anaerobic lactic power) andVO2max. Similar results were obtained by Jurimae etal.J^''' who reported Pmax and mean power of 40seconds of work (i.e. a measure of anaerobic lacticpower) to be the best predictive parameters of2000m rowing ergometer performance.

It is now possible to determine aerobic capacityon the water due to solid-slate portable measurementequipment, but to our knowledge there are no stud-ies of the use of this type of apparatus in rowing.The.se results, in a rower's natural environment canbe interesting, e.g. how high can V02max be onwater compared with ergometer testing.' However,these tests are logistically difficult to organise andthey are probably more time consuming than labora-

tor> testing. Presently, the testing procedures ofrowers in their natural environment are conductedby our laboratory and are focused mostly on anaer-obic threshold and VO:miix differences between er-gometer and on-water rowing.

Jurimae et al.'^''' compared ergometer rowingwith on-water rowing and found that from differentanthropometric and body composition characteris-tics only muscle mass was correlated to 2{)00msingle scull distance time, while almost every an-thropometric variable was related to 2{K)0m rowingergometer distance time. Similarly. Russell et al.'-**'reported that anthropometric parameters predictedthe 2000m rowing ergometer distance best whencompared with metabolic parameters and a combi-nation of categories. Thus, care should be takenwhen interpreting the rowing ergometer results topredict on-water rowing perfomiance. because an-thropometric variables may have too big an influ-ence on the result. In smaller and lighter rowers, on-water rowing speed is usually compensated byhigher physiological parameters, which is clearlyindicated by the fact that in international regattas

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Monitoring oi Performance and Training in Rowing 601

some lightweights may easily compete with theirheavier peers.

The accurate analysis and assessment of variouscomponents of performance within the training con-text is an important process for coaches and spoilscientists to include as an integral aspect of thetraining and competition programme of a rower.Determinants of competitive success include vari-ous psychological attributes such as self-motiva-tion,I"*"' technical skills (including balance),'"*'' coor-dination with other crew members,'^-' in addi-tion to the physiological characteristics of muscularendurance, aerobic power, anaerobic power andstrength.'"*•'' It is difficult to rate these parameters,although everything depends on appropriate physio-logical characteristics. Some of these parameterscan be compensated with others, for example, goodtechnique may compensate for lower physiologicalparameters. If a rower has no coordination with teammembers he/she can still be a good single sculler.These parameters must be viewed together to allowbetter understanding of a rower's state. Therefore, agood testing battery for a rower needs to consist ofseveral parameters to determinate his or her per-formance and to make the selection process moreeffective. A key aspect to consider regarding a phys-iological test is the extent to which it is actuallycorrelated with rowing performance.'"'^'

Changes in performance capacity can he anal-ysed during all-out rowing tests in a rowing boatover various distances or on a rowing ergometer.Pmax during a standardised test (e.g. 2-. 6- and 7-minute all-out. 500, 2000. 2500 and 6000m all-outtests) can be used for evaluation of the exercisecapacity.'"-" -- - -' -''*'-"--' "' However, Steinacker etai.i20| argued that Pmax is subject to motivation of therower tested and, therefore, may not be sensitiveenough to monitor a complete rowing season. Aquestion was then raised by the authors that morereliable test programmes, such as fast ramp testscould be used for measuring rowing performance.because they may fit into a training programmemore easily. However, our experience (unpublisheddata) has showed that 1 minute of maximal rowingon a rowing ergometer has no relationship with

changes in rowing ergometer performance over2000m after heavy training periods. This is sup-ported hy the study of Smith,'"^ ' who found nochanges in 500ni rowing ergometer time nor powerafter 3 weeks of overload training with a 33% in-crease in the frequency and a 30% increase in train-ing volume and the following tapering week ininternational male and female rowers. This may beexplained by the fact that anaerobic energy produc-tion may have too big an influence on the lest resultsand it is well known that in successful rowers anaer-obic capacity trainings are <10'v^ of the whole train-ing time.''"*'

Endurance capacity is an important result oftraining and regeneration.'"'-''' Higher performanceat a fixed or individual lactate threshold meanshigher maximum performance, but there is a widescattering of individual data of rowers. In successfulrowers, the 4 mmol/L lactate threshold is in therange of 75-85% of their Pmax."-*' ' It .should betaken into account that different testing protocolsand different types of ergometers used may contrib-ute different levels of 4 mmol/L blood lactate levels.For example, Lornies et al.''*'' found higher lactate

•levels for a given heart rate on the Gjessing than onthe Concept II rowing ergometer. possibly becauseof power losses in the transmission system of theGjessing rowing ergometer. Maximal lactate valuesdecrease with higher lactate threshold, as an indica-tor of increased endurance capacity.''•*' However,using fixed or individual lactate threshold valuesmeasured on a rowing ergometer as guidelines fortraining intensity must be viewed with caution be-cause they do not exactly mirror the blood lactate atsteady-state for rowers.'" ' Lactate threshold andmaximum lactate values are also influenced by pre-ceding exerci.se and muscle glycogen stores.' '•*'Thus, all variables must be standardised before test-ing the athlete to avoid difficulties in interpretationof the test results. In a glycogen-deficient state,maximum lactate and performance are depressedand lactate threshold virtually increased, but in thestale of overreaching or overtraining without glyco-gen deficit, maximum luctate and performance ca-

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602 Maestu et al

pacity, and Iactute threshold are decreased or lactatethreshold imchanged.' i6.:u.5.il

Nowadays, the blood lactate response to exerciseis a commonly accepted tool for performance as-sessment and training prescription.'' ""^^ The hloodlactate response has been thoroughly investigatedand de.scrihed using variety of terms and defini-tions J' - * -"' The anaerobic threshold has heen one ofthe most comtnonly used terms for descrihing thehlood lactate response. Anaerobic threshold can bedefined as the workload that can be performed bythe oxidative metabolism and at which blood lactateproduction and release are balanced during continu-ous exercise.''"'•-''"'• ^1

To determine anaerobic threshold, nutnerousconcepts and definitions have been published in thelast decades.'"'^'' However, although a number ofcompeting models exist to fit blood lactate concen-tration data during incremental exercise, there hasbeen little comparison between different concepts inrowers.

Steinackeri'-^i and Wolf and Roth""" have report-ed that the submaximal aerobic capacity measuredas the power that elicits a blood lactate level of 4.0mmol/L is the most predictive parameter of compe-tition performance in trained rowers, especially insmall boats such as singles and doubles. However,some authors have questioned the physiological sig-nificance of a fixed blood lactate value of 4.0 mmol/L, which does not take into account the individualkinetics of the lactate concentration curve.'^^•'^'Moreover, power at a blood lactate level of 4.0mmol/L has not been reported to represent a steady-state workload in rowing.'-''-•'' 1 Different anaerobicthreshold concepts (fixed blood lactate values of 2, 3and 4 mmol/L, Dmax.' modified Dmax. LTLOG,^

increases of 1 mmol/L and over the resting level [forfurther explanatioti see Jiirimiie et al.'™']) and theirrelationships to rowing performance were studiedby Jiirimae et al.'™' using 21 male national standardrowers. The results of this study indicated the anaer-

obic threshold value to be 3.7 mtnol/L determinedby the LTLOG method, which was lower than thesuggested 4 mmol/L value by different au-thors'''*-'^-'^' and may therefore be a better indicatorfor selecting training intensities without accumula-tion of blood lactate. The authors concluded thatLTLOG represented the 2000m all-out rowing er-gometer performance best. Moreover, a deflectionpoint using the LTLOG method was very easilydetected, allowing tnore accuracy for each athlete.Thus, the LTLOG value, which detects the anaerobicthreshold with less subjectivity, may be a moreappropriate measure of training modality in rowing;however, it must be still confirmed in future studies.

Coen et al.''''' described an on-water graded exer-cise test battery to measure individual anaerobicthreshold and sport-specific performance on coxlesspairs. The results of the study indicated that heartrates and performance on individual anaerobicthreshold were significantly related between ergom-eter and on-water rowing. Furthermore, a gradedincremental exercise test on water was strongly re-lated to competition results over 2000m. especiallywhen seat positions were considered,''''! whichseems expected. However, performing on-watergraded incremental exercise was extremely timeconsuming and the weather conditions may have toobig an influence to make proper conclusions. There-fore, for reliable longitudinal data, the rowing er-gometer is still the best apparatus for testing theperformance parameters of rowers.

In summary, aerobic and anaerobic capacitiesboth seem to be important parameters in competitiverowing, despite factors such as the level, sex, andbody mass. Also, both capacities are important tomeasure to better understand the performance of arower. For anaerobic threshold level, the LTLOGmethod may represent the threshold intensity betterthan the comttionly used 4 mmol/L blood lactateconcentration. It should be considered that a 2000mrowing ergometer performance is more suitable for

1 Dmax is the point on the blood lactate concentration curve that yields the maximal perpendicular distance to thestraight line formed by the iwo end datapoints.l''*''2 LTLOG is ihe power output at which the blood lactate begins to increase when the log (hlood lactate) is plotted againstthe log (power '' '*'

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rowers who compete in big boats such as fours and/or eights, to ensure a similar performance lime.When performance of rowers in small boats is mea-sured, a 2500m ergometer distance appears to moreclosely reflect the metabolic effort of on-water row-ing on singles and doubles.l -"- - - -'

2. Characteristics of Rowing Training

During rowing competition, anaerobic alacticand lactic as well as aerobic capacities are stressedto their maximum.I'^i Therefore, the training of suc-cessful rowers has to be built up with a focus onaerobic training with the proper relationship ofstretigth training and anaerobic training.

Endurance training (training at blood lactate con-centration of 2-4 mmol/L) is the mainstay of suc-cess in rowing.''•*'' ''''-'' "''- 5 Training of successfulathletes is characterised by extensive as well asintensive endurance training with approximately70-80% of the time spent on the water.'"""' Intenseendurance training above the anaerobic thresholdmay be important for improvement of V02nia\ dur-ing the competitive season, but should not amount to>10% of the training volume.''"^i Over a year, thepercentage of specific rowing training time on thewater is approximately 52-55% for an IK-year-old,55-60% for a 21-year-old, and up to 65% for theolder athlete.'™i However, the amount of time ofspecific rowing training must increase together withthe qualification of a rower. Strength training isapproximately 20% for an 18-year-oId and 16% foran adult athlete, and general athletic training is in therange of 26-33%,''**' It is important to increasespecific rowing training with increased training ex-perience.'"*'

The preparation period of rowers usually starts inOctober, where the main goal of training is to huildup a base through extensive aerobic endurance train-ing (90% of the total training time).'™' It appearsthat during the preparation period, rowers should de-emphasise resistance training at low velocities andemphasise power development at higher velocities(i,e, train more specifically for the types and veloci-ties of movements used in the rowing technique andat speeds necessary to mimic the competitive

' The main period for developing strength-endurance is from January to March. The competi-tive period usually starts in March or April andculminates for elite rowers in late August or early inSeptember with the World Championships. Duringthe competition period, aerobic training is still themost important (about 70% of total training). Ap-proximately 25% of the training during the competi-tive season is aerobic-anaerobic (blood lactate con-centration 4-8 mmoI/L) training and the rest is pure-ly anaerobic (blood lactate concentration >8 mmol/L) training.'^''' Steinacker et al.'"' investigated thetime course of rowing velocity and ergometer resultsof a coxed eight during the training camp before theJunior World Championships in 1995. Such a pre-paratory training programme typically has a dura-tion of approximately 4 weeks: 2 weeks high-inten-sity/high-volume training, tapering for 1 week andin the last week special preparation for the finals.The slowest boat speed of the 2()()0m distance wasobserved during the high-volume/high-intensitytraining, and the fastest boat speed was observedafter the tapering period and at the World Champi-onships, indicating that the rowers had overcome theover-reaching state after the high-intensity periodand realised their performance capacity, indicatingno overtraining.

In rowing, the problem with studying trainingeffects is the complexity of the goals of trainingbecause different capacities (aerobic, anaerobic,power, strength, tactical skills) have to be im-proved."*"' This causes timing problems becauseseveral capacities cannot be developed at the sametime. For example, endurance and sprint training arenot appropriate to develop in the same training ses-sion. For rowers, one of the most important tasks isthe maintenance of strength gains while training toenhance aerobic endurance simultaneously,'**"' as re-sistance training is one physical performance factorof a complete annual training programme."-*'^' Re-.search has shown that a sequence of resistance train-ing prior to endurance training may be preferred forthe off-season of rowing."*'"' Bell et al.'^"' foundsignificant strength gains with a training frequencyof three times per week for K) weeks and was

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604 Miiestu et ai

maintained for at least 6 weeks where the main goalwas to develop aerobic endurance, and strengthtraining was conducted only once or twice perweekJ^"' Whether strength gains can be maintainedbeyond 6 weeks while performing endurance train-ing is not known'**"' and needs further research. Bellet al.'*"' also showed that organising strength andendurance training into sequential programmes caninfluence the physiological adaptation to training inrowers.

Most rowers also use unspecific and cross train-ing to increase training tolerance and to avoid over-training. During cross training, different musclegroups are recruited, which may allow partial recov-ery of other muscle groups and. therefore, the ad-vantages of cross training seems to be 'peripheral"effects, enhancing or maintaining strength in powertraining and 'central' effects by decreasing the mo-notony of training.''^'

3. Selected Biochemical Indices ofMonitoring Troining in Rowing

In the world of training and coaching, differentbiochemical indices in blood are measured to pre-vent and to diagnose overtraining syndrome as anunwanted result of an athlete's training regimen.However, to date there are still no valid diagnostictools that would help us to prevent overtraining.Different hormonal responses were often proposedfor monitoring overreaching and overtraining situa-tions and also for the recovery period.' • • ""*' '''**''* 'Endogenous hormones are essentially involved inexercise-induced short- or long-term adaptationsand influence the regeneration phase through themodulation of anabolic and catabolic processes afterexercise.f* ' Hormonal mechanisms that help medi-ate both short-term homeostatic control and long-term cellular adaptations to any type of stress areimposed on humans. For example, cortisol andgrowth hormone exert an essential role both inshort-term (control of utilisation of energy sub-strates, mobilisation of protein resources) and pro-longed stable (amplification of the translation pro-cess, supply of protein synthesis by 'building mater-ials') adaptation to exercises.i * '

When planning the hormone sampling, the tim-ing of sampling must always be considered becausemost of the hormones exhibit circadian rhythms anddifferent aspects may have an influence on the re-sult.'^"^-' Numerous investigations have studied theeffects that different types of prolonged physicalstress have on the hormones of hypothalanius-pitui-tary-adrenocortical axis.''''^^'"' Prolonged heavy en-durance training has been found to cause the in-crease and decrease in the morning basal levels ofcortisol and testosterone, respectively.'^'' Whileresting levels of cortisol have reported to be un-changed^^' or decreased'** ' after endurance trainingin male athletes.

In rowers, the further improvement of perform-ance capacity was associated with increased growthhormone and cortisol levels and elite rowers havehigher values of cortisol and growth hormone com-pared with national and medium performance levelrowers. ^ 1 These results are somewhat in contrast toSteinacker et al.J' ' who reported higher cortisolvalues for athletes who were not selected to theNational Junior team of Germany, indicating highercatabolic activity. At an early stage during the train-ing camp in 1996 in the German Junior Team whenthe training load was highest, basal cortisol levelsincreased by IH'yi and decreased slightly after-wards.'•''•'' Elevated basal cortisol levels are oftenseen as a normal stress response to high-intensitytraining.'"''"^'' For example, the increase in cortisollevel was found in junior rowers after anaerobictraining during the last days before blood sam-pling.i''*'' There were no changes in plasma cortisoland testosterone concentrations after 2 hours of row-ing at an intensity of 75% of anaerobic threshold.'''^'

Steinacker et al.'^' found a 10% increase inhuman growth hormone from baseline during ahigh-load training phase (training load approximate-ly 180 min/day for 2 weeks), and a decrease of 30%during the tapering phase where training volumewas reduced for about 30%, while the intensity wasmaintained. The fact that not only the training inten-sity but also the volume may alter testosterone andgrowth hormone levels was supported in a study byMaestu et al.'"''' This study showed that almost

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doubling the training volume caused significant in-creases in fasting testosterone and growth hormoneconcentrations, which returned to the pre-stress lev-el after the second tapering week, indicating a lagperiod. In summary, the results of these studies maysuggest that the hormone responses of the hypothal-amus-pituitary-adrenocortical axis are not specificand do not exactly mirror the amount of physicalstress in rowing.

Adiercreutz et al.!*"*! and Harkonen et al.''"' ! statedthat a condition of overstrain might exist in anathlete if at least one of the following two criteria arefulfilled: (i) free testosterone/cortisol ratio lowerthan 0.35 x 10"^; and/or (ii) a decrease in the freetestosterone/cortisol ratio of >30%. During a rowing.season, no .significant relationships were found be-tween the free testosterone/cortisol ratio and rowingergometer performance parameters in male row-ers.''"' However, a decrease in the free testosterone/cortisol ratio was observed after the training camp(range 4-409^). but these changes were not signifi-cantly related to performance parameters.''"' Theauthors concluded that the criterion of a decrease inthe free testosterone/cortisol ratio of >309r or thefree testosterone/coitisol ratio lower than 0.35 x10"^ cannot be regarded as a first sign of overtrain-ing.''"' In contrast, a significant decrease in the freetestosterone/cortisol ratio as a result of an intensivetraining period and a slight increase after reductionof training intensity was observed in international-level junior rowers.''"'' Meanwhile, the rowing er-gometer performance was improved. Therefore, thefree testosterone/cortisol ratio seems to be moreuseful as an indicator for a status of insufficient timeto recover from training.''"'

Catecholamines stimulate cardiovascular andmetabolic reactions and indicate physical and psy-chological stress.'""'"'"-^'All-out rowing is associatedwith extretnely high plasma catecholamine levels:19 nmol/L and 74 nmol/L for adrenaline andnoradrenaline, respectively.'"'^'"''' Higher nora-drenaline concentrations were noted during endur-ance training al similar heart rate on the Gjessingergometer compared with rowing in the boat,' "" '' butadrenaline values were not statistically different.

The authors concluded that, because of the highersympathoadrenergic activation when exercising onthe ergometer, the intensity of ergometer rowingshould be set carefully.''"^'

The plasma leptin level is identified as an adipo-cyte-derived hormone and its receptor has highlight-ed the regulation of appetite, therniogenesis andmetabolism.'""' For a review see Friedman andHalaas,'""' and Flier.'""^' However, it has becomeevident that leptin does not act only as an "adipostat-ic hormone',''"'*' but it also profoundly affects hypo-thalamic neuroendocrine function as a result of neg-ative energy Hux.' ''' Several studies showed thatendurance exercise sessions decrease the plasmaleptin concentration after 48 hours, in associationwith a preceding decrease in insulin,'''"' while short-term exhaustive exercise has no immediate ordelayed effect on circulating leptin concentra-tion.''"' However, it has been recently demon.stratedthat a 30-minute all-out rowing ergometer testcaused an immediate decrease in plasma leptinlevels, probably by the involvement of all majormuscle groups of the human body.'"-^' In the litera-ture, the responses of plasma leptin to training arecontroversial. It has been suggested that fastingplasma leptin is not regulated in a dose-responsemanner in competitive male athletes,'"^'while it hasshown to be decreasing in heavy training in highlytrained rowers'** ""*' and increasing when trainingload is decreased. These differences could be ex-plained by the differences in physical stress, as thetraining regimen of the swimmers in the Noland etal.' '"' study was intensive interval training, while inMaestu et al.'""^' it was low-intensity high-volumetraining. Accordingly, it could be suggested thatfasting plasma leptin response during prolongedheavy training stress may depend on the totalamount of the physical stress.'""*'

Jurimiieet al.'"^'demonstrated a significant rela-tionship between plasma leptin and training volumewithout changes in body mass. Furthermore, Simschet al.' * ' demonstrated a positive relationship be-tween leptin levels and rowing pertbrmance. Theseresults are in contrast to those of Petibois et al.'"'"'who argued that plasma leptin levels in top-level

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606 Maestu et al.

athletes parallel the changes in body fat and are notsensitive to an increase in training volume lortrained individuals. Desgorces et al.'"^' showed nochanges in fasting plasma leptin concentration after36 weeks of training. However, training volumemight have been too low (i.e. 45 min/day in session1 and 77 min/day in session 2) to induce a change infasting leptin concentration. However, they showedthe changes in post-exercise leptin concentrations,suggesting an improved regulation of energetic sta-tus after training (i,e, the better lipid availability).The hypothesis exists that leptin expression in theadipocyte is related to energy flux and triglycerideloss.'"**' Further studies are needed to investigate therole of plasma leptin in highly trained athletes as amarker of training stress or overtraining. In additionto leptin, we have recently demonstrated that adi-ponectin could also be another adipocytokine to useas a marker of training stress in rowers.'"'''-"i

Recently, Urhausen and Kindermanni'-'l sug-gested that instead of resting hormone concentra-tions, maximal exercise-induced hormonal re-sponses during and after a period of training over-load should be studied to a,ssess the adaptivity of theathletes, The elevation of hormone levels after row-ing exercises performed at the maximal possible ratemay be an overall expression of the dependence ofhormone changes on the exercise intensity.'"'' ' Thismeans that there should be a wide reserve to increasethe hormone responses to exercise. Only a sufficientperformance capacity has to be achieved to evoke acorrespondingly large rise in hormone concentra-

Despite the episodic character of growth hor-mone secretion, its response during exercise ischaracterised by a continuous increase of blood lev-el during the exercise.I'--' Growth hormone re-sponse to submaximal exercise has been found todecrease or disappear as a result of training.'''-''-'*'There is also a possibility that fatigue may modulategrowth hormone response.''--' For example.Urhausen et al.' ' demonstrated a decrease in exer-cise-induced rise of growth hormone in cyclists,while Lehmann et al.'"'' and Maestu et al.'"^*'-^'found no change in resting nor exercise-induced

values of growth hormone in runners and rowers,respectively. Therefore, the exercise-inducedchanges in growth hormone concentrations mayhave practically less value of training monitoring inrowers. However, in these studies, different exerciseprotocols and subjects were used and so they are notexactly cotnparable.

In the state of overtraining and overreaching, anintra-individually decreased maximum rise of cor-JJ Q]I115.126] ^j^j Insulin''-^' has been found after astandardised exhaustive exercise test. Moreover,JiJrimae et al.'"^' also demonstrated a significantdecrease of exercise-induced (2000m all-out rowingergometer test) leptin concentrations after a high-load training cycle in rowers. These studies mayindicate that if hypothalamic downregulation existsduring overreaching, analysis of exercise-inducedcortisol and leptin concentrations may provide valu-able information for detecting signs of overreaching,because in a state of fatigue the hypothalamicdownregulation may be more sensitively detected.However, this is an area for future, well controlledresearch.

For several years, serum creatine kinase activityhas been measured as a parameter of muscular stressin training-associated studies. A particularly impor-tant consideration relating to the use and interpreta-tion of creatine kinase activity values in the sportssector is the dependence of this parameter on thenature of the stress,''-'^' Creatine kinase activity re-flects training intensity and muscular strain only atthe beginning of a training pha,se, decreasing crea-tine kinase activity levels suggest a muscular adap-tation to training.''"*-"**''' Morning levels of creatinekinase activity mainly represent its release duringthe previous day and are also influenced by creatinekinase activity clearance (50-80% per day),''"''Steinacker et al.'''^' also found higher creatine kinaseactivity values in the junior rowers who were notselected for the national team despite their lowerphysical power.

In summary, it seems that there are a lack of validbiochemical markers of training stress in rowing.However, some recent studies'^^""*"^' have report-ed the decrease of leptin in high-load training

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phases. Il could be suggested that the maximal exer-cise-induced changes in leptin values may represenithe more sensitive marker of overreaching for

rowers.[1151

4. Selected Psychometric Instruments ofMonitoring Training in Rowing

In addition to clinical findings, metabolic andhormonal values, the level of psychologically relat-ed stress and recovery seems to reflect well theclinical state of athletes.'--''' Furthermore, mood state(e.g. motivatit)n and striving for success) seems tobe closely related to actual performance.'-•'' •'-**"'" ''To date, the most common psychometric instru-ments used are: the one-item Borg ratio scalej'^'''which was developed to subjectively measure theintensity of the exercise; the Profile of Mood States(POMS)."^"' which measures only current stress;and the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire fur Athletes(RESTQ-Sport).""' which allows measuring bothsubjectively perceived stress and recovery.

Marriot and Lamb''^-' found a highly consistentrelationship between Borg ratio scale perceptions ofexertion on a rowing ergometer and heart rate. Whenthe rating of perceived exertion was used as a meansof producing an appropriate training heart rate, itwas satisfactory but only at the higher intensities ofeffort (ratings 15 and above). Urhausen et al. ' '" 'found significantly higher ratings of subjective exer-tion during the 'stress test" at the intensity of 1 \09(of individual anaerobic threshold until exhaustion inovertrained endurance athletes. However, the one-item construction of the Borg ratio scale cannotassess different aspects of recovery and stress.''"'Moreover, it is difficult to interpret what causes thechange of the scale after standardised exercise and,therefore, proper intervention is complicated. Thus,the Borg ratio scale is not suitable for monitoringtraining in highly trained athletes.

There is convincing evidence that athletes can bedistinguished on the basis of psychological skillsand emotional competencies."^"*' POMS was initial-ly developed as an economical method of identify-ing and assessing transient, fluctuating affectivestate."^°' POMS consists of 65 items and it yields a

global measure of mood, consisting of: tension, de-pression, anger, vigour, confusion and fatigue. Anoverall score is computed by summarising the fivenegative mood states and subtracting the positivemood state (vigour). POMS has been used to mea-sure the mood state of rowers,'^ • ' swimmers''-^' andrunners.'"^' During a training programme, moodstate (the POMS was used three times during tbeseason) did not differ between those who adhered tothe training programme and the dropouts; however,those who remained in training had higher self-motivation.'""'' During training, mood state in-creased, but surprisingly remained elevated in thosewho did not make the team and decreased in thosewho were successful.'""'' Verde et al.'"^' concludedthat resting heart rate, sleep patterns and hormonalchanges do not provide a useful early warning thatthe peak of the performance has been passed, but thePOMS does sbow a consistent pattern of loss ofvigour and fatigue during heavy training for 3 weeksin runners. Morgan et al."-'*' measured mood statesof swimmers throughout the season. At the begin-ning, the swimmers exhibited the 'iceberg profile',an indicator of a mentally healthy state. In the high-load phase, mood disturbances increased and a pro-file reflected poor mental health. After reducing tbeintensity, the swimmers demonstrated the 'icebergprofile' again. However, it should be stated that fiveof the six scales of POMS measure the negativemood characteristics of tension, anger, fatigue, de-pression and confusion and, therefore, POMS onlyvaguely reflects recovery processes. Berger andMotl''^^' argued that a decrea.se in a negative moodstate may not necessarily indicate mood benefits.Thus, when using POMS as the psychometric tool tomonitor the mood states of athletes, the main focusis on stress-related behaviour and it might be notappropriate to evaluate the recovery of athletes.

Restricting the analysis to tbe stress dimensionalone is insufficient, especially in high-perfonnanceareas, since the management of training intensityand volume is tightly linked to outstanding perform-ance.'•' ' A psychometrically based instrument to as-sess the recovery-stress state is the RESTQ-Sport.''-" The recovery-stress state indicates the

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608 et al.

extent to which persons are physically and/or men-tally stressed, whether or not they are capable ofusing individual strategies for recovery as well aswhich strategies are used.'^' This questionnaire wascreated to get distinct answers to the question "Howure you?"'"'! and addresses physical, subjective,behavioural and social aspects using a seU'-reportapproach.l-l The theory behind the questionnaire isthat an accretion of stress in everyday lite, coupledwith weak recovery potential, will cause a variationof the psychophysical general state.I'"' A Likert-typescale is used with values ranging from 0 (never) to 6(always), indicating how often the respondent par-ticipated in various activities during the past .1 days/nights. The mean of each scale can range from 0 to6, with high scores in the stress-associated activityscales reflecting intense subjective strain, whereashigh scores in the recovery-oriented scales mirrorplenty of recovery activities.'^1 However, it has to beconsidered that the RESTQ-Sport and the POMS arenot direct measures of physiological states of theorganism, both instruments reflect the subjectiverepresentation of these states.'-'

Several studies with rowers have showed that thePOMS scales of depression, anger and fatigue arenegatively correlated with recovery-associatedscales of RESTQ-Sport, at the same time vigour ispositively correlated and vice versa, A positive rela-tionship exists between the stress-related scales ofRESTQ-Sport and depression, anger and fatigue,while vigour appears to be negatively correlatedwith stress scales.'• •' •'-' J Longitudinal studies inathletes have shown that the RESTQ-Sport can sen-sitively monitor stress and recovery processes intraining camps and throughout the season, and the19 scores of the RESTQ-Sport have acceptablelevels of reliability.'-•• • •'' •'-'**l Moreover, a dose-re-sponse relationship was demonstrated betweentraining volume (daily rowed kilometres) and thesomatic components of stress and recovery.l ' iThese results together indicate that RESTQ-Sportcould be a potential tool for monitoring the trainingof elite athletes using subjective stress and recoveryindices. However, .so far. RESTQ-Sport has mainlyheen used in German and American athletes, thus it

would be beneficial if this questionnaire could betranslated and modified into other languages to takeinto account the quiddity of the nation. The Estonianversion of RESTQ-Sport has successfully been usedon rowers during different training periods."'" '""'I

In summary, through utilisation of the RESTQ-Sport. coaches and athletes can be informed of theimportance of daily activities and how these activi-ties are related to the recovery-stress state of anathlete compared with the frequently used one-itemBorg scale or POMS, which generally measure thestress-related behaviour and. therefore, could not besufficient in high-performance areas. Previous stud-iesi4.iy. '.H-M.'8.i.'>»i utilising RESTQ-Sport suggestthat it is appropriate to measure recovery-stress statechanges during rowing training in highly trainedmale athletes.

5. Studies on Monitoring Trainingin Rowing

In the literature, there are not very many longitu-dinal studies that deal with training monitoring ofrowers (table III). Most of them are 3-5 weeks induration, i.e. one microcyele. Only some ofthem ' •*'' "- '1 are longer than one microcyele. How-ever, these longer studies tend to monitor only onespecific pattem or the time interval between twodifferent testing batteries is too long, making theanalysis more difficult.

Recently, a study reporting the changes in train-ing and performance of top Norwegian rowers overthe last 30 years was published."""' They reported a20% increase in training volume and nowadays theirinternational medal winners train 1100-1200 hours/year.

There is also a lack of studies that deal withrowing performance and resistance training. Bell et1 180-821 j gyg investigated high-velocity resistance

training (HVRT) in relation to rowing training.However, they have compared HVRT to anaerobicpower and reported no significant changes in anaer-obic power after different training programmes."''-IHigh-intensity resistance training was also used inthe study of Simseh et al.''*"'' and the stagnation inperformance of an incremental ergometer test was

® 2005 Adis Data information BV. All rights reBerved, Sports Med 2005, 35 <7)

Monitoring of Ferformance and Training in Rowing 609

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delected; however, the performance increased sig-nificantly after endurance training. It is known thatbuilding up the sirengih-cndurance capacity duringthe off-season is one part of a rower's winter train-ing programme. The impact of low-velocity resis-tance training (e.g. frequency, intensity) on rowingperformance during the off-season needs some fur-ther research.

Achieving the maximal result during competi-tions is the major purpose of athletic training. Arower is not always in his or her hest shape duringmajor competitions, therefore, valuahle infonnationcould he obtained from studies that deal with specif-ic preparation for competitions at different levels ofrowers. However, it has to be stated that these stud-ies must not be case studies, but controlled ones(control group would benefit), which are difficult toprepare because most athletes do not want to experi-ment with their training prior to competition. Fur-thermore, the competition results are always diffi-cult to analyse because they depend on factors suchas the effects of counterparts and weather condi-tions.

6. Multi-Level Approach ofTraining Monitoring

The evaluation of the clinical stale of an athlete,i.e. of current trainability and of the diagnosis ofoverload and overtraining, is already one of the mostcomplicated tasks in sports medicine.i''""'*^'"'^'There is a cascade of various responses to prolongedtraining that can be used in training monitoring. It isalso evident that only some of the parameters arereliable and specific enough. One should also distin-guish between parameters in which the inter-indi-vidual response differs, such as creatine kinase ac-tivity, hormonal parameters or mood state, and pa-rameters that are hard to tolerate, such as physicalperformance.'^*' The hypothalamus acts as the cen-tral integrator of all afferent signals to the brain andhas an important role in the regulation of the centralresponses to stress and training.'""*' Such integrationinvolves information from autonomic ner\'e systemafferents. direct metabolic effects, hormones and

as 3005 Adis Data tnlatmafton BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2005: 35 (7)

612 Maestu et al.

also different information from different brain cen-tres.

There is experimental evidence that al! metabolichormones have hypothalamic receptors.''•*"'l Leptinand insulin depress the aclivity of excitatory neuronsin the lateral hypothalamus''* -'*-'"*''' and have effectson energy expenditure, body mass control and sym-pathetic activity.'""^' High levels of leplin have beenfound to inhibit activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adenocortical axis and inhibit cortisol re-lease.''•^ ' Therefore, studying the effects of leptinmay have the advantage of knowing the amount ofstress affecting the organism.

In the high-load training phases, which are essen-tial lo achieve improvements in performancethrough overreaching, decreases of steroid hor-mones could be observed," -'''-9- - - 8'"'8.i- 9| sug-gesting that hypothalamic downregulation wit! oc-cur in a stale of overreaching. This was also demon-strated in experimental training by Lehmann etal."^"' and Barron et al.^''''' At present, the mecha-nism by which the hypothalamus senses metabolicimbalance and fatigue in athletes is speculative.

Using 11 elite rowers during their preparation forthe 1996 Atlanta Olympics, Kellmann and Gun-iher'"*! found that the alteration of extensive endur-ance training was well reflected in psychologicalmeasures using RESTQ-Sporl. High duration wasindicated by elevated levels of stress and simultane-ously lowered levels of recovery. Moreover, thescales 'somatic complaints', 'lack of energy', "fit-ness/injury" and 'fitness/being in shape' describedthe dose-response relationship with the trainingload. However, the different trends in the RESTQ-Sport scales may be explained by the different timecourses of hormones and corresponding scales.'''''For example, 'somatic complaints" were highestwith the highest training load and eievaled cortisolconcentrations as well as creatine kinase activity.

Steinacker et al.'''' found disturbance of the ho-meostasis after high-intensity, high-volume trainingfor 3.2 hours/day after 18 days in male juniorrowers. This disturbance was also reflected in psy-chometric scales, in performance, metabolic andhormonal parameters (depression of peripheral and

steroid hormones), and was restored and supercom-pensated after tapering as indicated by the boatspeed.'^' Therefore, psychometric scales, in whichchanges bave known to be related to blood hormoneconcentration changes, may be an alternative mea-sure of an athlete's current state.

Monitoring the current levels of both stress andrecovery has the possible advantage that problemsmay be detected before symptoms of overtrainingare likely to appear.'-'' Steinacker et al.'^' found thatboth pertormance and hon-nonal indices of trainingwere reflected by the scores of the RESTQ-Sport.One week of a heavily increased training volume(100% compared with previous week) indicated in-creased levels of stress and decreased level of recov-ery-associated activities with a signiFieant changesin fatigue and social relaxation in male juniorrowers.''-'*'''

For monitoring, it is also important that mood iscorrelated to physical performance ability, hormonalparameters and metabolic data.'''^''"'^ Naessens etal.''^-' demonstrated a U-shaped relationship be-tween subjective fatigue ratings and sympathetictone (basal noradrenaline excretion). RESTQ-Sportallows monitoring of mood state in athletes, butdifferent scales of RESTQ-Sport have different timecourses that have to be taken into account.'-' Physi-cal complaints, fatigue, and general stress'^ ' '*' aswell as conflicts/pressure''^*^' were highest withhighest training load, elevated cortisol concetitra-tlons and high creatine kinase activity.'''^' Sleepquality, personal accomplishment, self-efficacy andgeneral well-being were lowest with the highesttraining volume.''•' •'-'' ' Moreover, cortisol wasfound to be related to all of the stress scales (exceptdisturbed breaks) of RESTQ-Sport after 3 weeks ofhigh-volume training in male rowers.'' ^1 Fatiguehas also been found to peak together with sympa-thetic activation (noradrenaline secretion).'^-'' Fromthe perspective of a biopsychological stressmodel.'''-' ''' ' recovery and stress should be treatedusing a multi-level approach dealing with psycho-logical, emotional, cognitive behavioural/perform-ance, and social aspects of the problem, consideringthese aspects both separately and together.'^'

© 2005 Adls Dota Information BV. All rights reserved. ^ o r t s Med 2005: 35 (7)

Monitoring of Performiince and Training in Rowing 613

In summary, it is suggested thai investigatingphysiological and psychological aspects of rowersare an advantage of more effective training monitor-ing in highly trained rowers.

7. Future Investigationsand Recommendations

To date, most of the studies on training monitor-ing in rowers have investigated only one microcycleand the following recovery period. To our knowl-edge, only the study of Simsch et al.' - ' has used twoconsecutive microcycles and the recovery periodbetween them. However, these two microcycleswere different from each other. During the firsttraining cycle the focus was mainly on resistancetraining and during the other microcycle the focuswas on endurance training. In the future, the studieswith two or more training cycles and recovery peri-ods between them, could possibly provide the ad-vantage of learning more about sustainable trainingload and different markers of monitoring in rowingtraining. However, these studies are difficult to con-trol and are usually costly. Recent studies also con-flnn that recovery and stress should be monitoredsimultaneously in high performance areas to preventathletes from overtraining.'"''^'''*-"-'-"'•'"'

In addition, studies with individual analysis mayhave an advantage of so far used cluster analysesbecause athletes respond differently lo similar train-ing loads. For example, if after a high-load trainingcycle, some of the subjects show no change inperformance, some of them improve and the resthave worsened performance. In this situation, theresults of athletes with worsened performance, whomay experience overreaching or even overtrainingsyndrome, disappear into the whole cluster, makingthe final analysis difficult and more speculative.

The main principle of testing is minimum te.sling- maximum reliable information. The more directthe link between a parameter and a specific perform-ance, the more value the testing has."^-' As men-tioned in section I, testing a rower is a complex task.As it is known from the literature, rowers withsimilar V02max may have different rowing perform-ance.''•*' It appears that the V02[nax is not the best

predictive parameter for rowers, but an ability tosustain high VO2 during competition (i.e. endurancecapacity). Therefore, it is advisable to determine theVO2 during Ihe simulated rowing ergomeler race,either on 2000 or 25(X)m all-out rowing, and theaverage VO2 should be recorded.

8. Conclusions

Training monitoring studies in rowers should be-come more specific in their nature. There appears tobe no single marker of training monitoring andpossible overtraining in rowers. In ihe future, studiesshould focus on different fasting blood biochemicalmarkers during different training periods. For exam-ple, some studies" "*^ ' indicate that the plasma leptincould be used as a marker of training stress duringlow-intensity training in rowers, while maximal ex-ercise-induced stress hormone changes may indicateearly signs of overreaching."-'' There are also sup-portive studies'''^'"'"''''^'*'-*-' that indicate psycho-metric data for training monitoring.

Acknowledgements

No sources of funding were used lo assist in the prepara-lion ot this review. The authors have no conflicts of interestthat are directly relevant to the content ot" this review.

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