Monitoring of Performance and Training in...

Sports Med 2005; 35 (7): 597-617REVIEW ARTICLE 0112-1642/05/0007-0597/$34.95/0

2005 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.

Monitoring of Performance andTraining in RowingJarek Maestu, Jaak Jurimae and Toivo Jurimae

Institute of Sport Pedagogy and Coaching Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia

ContentsAbstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5971. Characteristics of Rowing Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5982. Characteristics of Rowing Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6033. Selected Biochemical Indices of Monitoring Training in Rowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6044. Selected Psychometric Instruments of Monitoring Training in Rowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6075. Studies on Monitoring Training in Rowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6086. Multi-Level Approach of Training Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6117. Future Investigations and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6138. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613

Rowing is a strength-endurance type of sport and competition performanceAbstractdepends on factors such as aerobic and anaerobic power, physical power, rowingtechnique and tactics. Therefore, a rower has to develop several capacities in orderto be successful and a valid testing battery of a rower has to include parametersthat are highly related to rowing performance. Endurance training is the mainstayin rowing. For the 2000m race, power training at high velocities should bepreferred to resistance training at low velocities in order to train more specificallyduring the off-season. The specific training of the international rower has to beapproximately 70% of the whole training time. Several studies have reporteddifferent biochemical parameters for monitoring the training of rowers. There issome evidence that plasma leptin is more sensitive to training volume changesthan specific stress hormones (e.g. cortisol, testosterone, growth hormone). Inrowing, the stress hormone reactions to training volume and/or intensity changesare controversial. The Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes measures bothstress and recovery, and may therefore be more effective than the previously usedBorg ratio scale or the Profile of Mood States, which both focus mainly on thestress component. In the future, probably the most effective way to evaluate thetraining of rowers is to monitor both stress and recovery components at the sametime, using both psychometric data together with the biochemical and perform-ance parameters.

In the world of sport, athletes and coaches push best results in competition. However, by increasingthemselves harder and harder in order to achieve the either the frequency, duration or intensity of train-

598 Maestu et al.

ing, they risk creating excessive fatigue that may ing).[10,11] The term ‘staleness’, is the unwanted endresult of overtraining,[11] and ‘overtraining syn-lead to functional impairment, described as ‘over-drome’ should have the same meaning.[10]training syndrome’, ‘staleness’ or ‘burnout’.[1] The

aim of sport training is to accustom the human body Repetition of a training stimulus will result in aweaker response and, after a time, responses tothrough different training loads and competitions, attraining will asymptotically reach a limit. Furtherthe same time minimising the risk of illness, injuryincreases in performance can be reached by increas-and fatigue in the period leading up to the competi-ing intensity and/or duration of training.[12] Fortion. Thus, an athlete’s body must become accus-rowers, it has been demonstrated that trainingtomed to training loads that are intense enough tokilometres rowed are positively related to success indisplace the homeostasis of an athlete. Once thechampionships.[13,14] However, the risk of overtrain-adaptation to a certain training load has occurred, aing increases with training volume, particularly withgreater load must be applied to get further improve-monotonous training.[6,8,15]ment and stressful high-intensity training periods

A problem in studying training effects is theare necessary to obtain high performance incomplexity of the goals of training, because differ-sports.[2] It has been shown that systematic recoveryent capacities (e.g. aerobic, anaerobic, strength) ofperiods in the training process are necessary to pre-the athlete have to be developed and improved,[5,16]vent an overtraining syndrome and/or staleness.[3]

so it also makes the monitoring process complicat-Training should be organised in periods of stressfuled. As a typical power endurance sport, rowers needheavy training to induce sufficient training responsephysical strength to achieve high power per stroke,followed by a period of reduced load to allow recov-endurance to sustain this power for 2000m, as wellery and an increase in performance.[4,5] A problemas special motoric and tactical skills.[13,16-18] Moodfor coaches is that athletes respond differently to thestate also seems closely related to perform-same training loads. A load that is too high for oneance.[4,17,19]

athlete may have no training effect at all to another.Evaluation of the actual trainability and diagnosisIt is evident, however, that underestimation or over-

of possible overload and overtraining are alreadyestimation of performance level, trainability andamong the most complicated tasks in sportsinsufficient recovery will lead to: (i) inappropriatemedicine and sports psychology.[6,7,20,21] The moni-training response of the athlete; or (ii) overreachingtoring process is effective if it has profound scientif-and eventually staleness, burnout syndrome or over-ic foundations. The aim of the current review articletraining.[6-8] Hoffman et al.[9] pointed out that peakis to give an overview of the methods used toathletic performance depends on the proper manipu-monitor training in rowing and to provide somelation of training volume and intensity as well asfuture suggestions to make the training monitoringproviding adequate rest and recovery between prac-process more effective and achieve better perform-tice sessions.ance results during competitions.

Overtraining is a state of overexertion, whichmay be attained when the training load and the 1. Characteristics ofassociated disturbances in homeostasis are not Rowing Performancematched by recovery.[5] The first phase of overtrain-ing is quickly reversible and is referred as ‘over- Rowing is primarily a strength-endurance type ofreaching’.[10,11] Overreaching is characterised by un- sport. The typical rowing competition takes place onderperformance, which is reversible within a a 2000m course and lasts, depending on a boat typeshort-term recovery period of 1–2 weeks and can be and weather conditions, 5.5–7.0 minutes. During arewarded by a state of supercompensation (an in- race, muscle contraction is relatively slow and aboutcrease in performance ability allowing 1–2 weeks of 32–38 duty cycles per minute are used. In interna-regeneration after a short-term phase of overtrain- tional rowers, the power per stroke may reach as

2005 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2005; 35 (7)

Monitoring of Performance and Training in Rowing 599

high as 1200W and the average power per race is wind, water currents and temperature may influenceabout 450–550W.[14] During competition, a rower the result. Furthermore, a need may exist to evaluatedepends mainly on his or her aerobic metabolism the individual contribution to a boat, including asbecause energy stores and glycolysis are limited to many as eight rowers.[22] Accordingly, rowing er-cover the energy demand only for approximately gometers are commonly used to measure individual1.5–2.0 minutes.[14] Aerobic power can be defined as performance parameters in rowers and trainingthe maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) as esti- changes. Although rowing an ergometer does notmated during a performance that lasts from 2 to 10 require the same skills as on-water rowing, it hasminutes.[22] Aerobic and anaerobic energy contribu- been observed that the ergometer simulates the bi-tions on a 2000m rowing race in different studies are omechanical and metabolic demands of on-waterpresented in table I. According to Roth et al.,[23] the rowing.[31] The dynamic rowing ergometer Rowper-energy of the 2000m race was provided 67% aerobi- fect seems to more closely reflect the on-water row-cally and 33% anaerobically, 21% alactic and 12% ing technique than the commonly used Concept IIlactic. Secher et al.[24] found that the aerobic energy rowing ergometer.[32] Stroke angle/length, which didcontribution may be up to 86%. not vary with rate, was similar for both forms of

Many factors affect physical performance during rowing. The mean trunk, thigh and lower leg anglesrowing. Power depends on aerobic and anaerobic at the catch and finish of the stroke were also similarenergy supplies balanced by efficiency or tech- across the stroke rates.[32] However, rowing tech-nique.[22] Efficiency is expressed as the relationship nique is a very complex task and consists of compo-between energy expenditure and boat velocity and it nents such as balance, efficiency, and maintainingdepends on the technical skill of the rower. Efficien- the boat speed during the recovery phase, whichcy varies from as much as 16% to 21%, even during cannot be measured on an ergometer. Thus, estimat-ergometer and tank rowing.[29,30] Differences in effi- ing rowing technique as a complex on a rowingciency between rowers and non-rowers have been ergometer is of little value in analysing on-waterdemonstrated, while no differences were observed technique.between elite lightweights selected for the World

Rowing ergometers should be considered valua-Championships team compared with those who did

ble tools in testing, but they should be used with carenot make the team.[30] This indicates that efficiency

when developing endurance during the preparationon an ergometer is only a rough estimate of tech-

period because they may seriously affect the tech-nique in the boat.[22]

nique of on-water rowing.Testing an athlete is an attempt to evaluate his or

Many researchers (see table II) have found per-her sport-specific performance. The easiest way offormance-predictive parameters for rowers to pre-doing this is to measure the shortest time needed todict 2000m rowing ergometer performance[28,33-39]cover a particular rowing distance. However, this isand two of them[35,36] also developed performance-rather complicated, because external factors such aspredictive parameters for 2000m single scull dis-tance. These studies used rowers of different levels,classification (i.e. scullers, sweep rowers) and sex.This may be a reason why each study had differentequations of performance-predictive parameters.However, all these studies reported either VO2max inL/min or maximal aerobic power (Pmax) in W ob-tained on incremental test to exhaustion,[33-39] orduring standardised 2000m all-out rowing ergome-ter test,[28] to be an important parameter in predictingperformance over a 2000m rowing ergometer dis-

Table I. Mean contribution of aerobic and anaerobic energy duringrowing in different studies using elite heavyweight male rowers

Studies No. of Aerobic Anaerobicsubjects energy (%) energy (%)

Hagerman et al.[25] 310 70 30

Messonnier et al.[26] 13 86 14

Mickelson and 25 72 28Hagerman[27]

Roth et al.[23] 10 67 33

Russell et al.[28] 19 84 16

Secher et al.[24] 7 70–86 14–30


600 Maestu et al.

Table II. Performance predictive parameters for rowers on 2000m ergometer distance in different studies

Study Classification Parameters SEE Comments

Cosgrave et al.[33] 13 M college level rowers VO2max 0.87 May be due to homogenous group.Lactate 5 min after 2000m Rowing economy was not found to beergometer all-out an important predictor to rowing success

Ingham et al.[34] 41 M and F international Pmax 0.98 May be not specific enough becauselevel. Also lightweights VO2 at 4 mmol/L both M and F and also lightweights

Power at 4 mmol/L were usedMaximal power

Jurimae et al.[36] 10 M national rowers Pmax 0.99 Compares on-water and rowingLa350W ergometer performance parametersCSA of thighHeightMuscle mass

Riechman et al.[38] 12 F international level Power of 30 sec all-out 0.96 A 30-sec Wingate test, with fatigueVO2max measure was developed to predictFatigue 2000m rowing performance

Russell et al.[28] 19 elite schoolboys Height 0.78 Sweep rowers were used, who areBody mass known to be taller and heavier thanSkinfolds scullers

Womack et al.[39] 10 M college rowers VO2max 0.81 The rest period in the incremental testPeak velocity could have too an big influence on theVelocity at 4 mmol/L VO2max valueVO2 at 4 mmol/L

CSA = cross-sectional area; F = female; La350W = lactate concentration corresponding to power at 350W; M = male; Pmax = maximalaerobic power; SEE = standard error of estimate; VO2m = oxygen consumption; VO2max = maximum oxygen consumption.

tance. For example, Ingham et al.[34] and Womack et tory testing. Presently, the testing procedures ofal.[39] found that VO2max, Pmax, and oxygen con- rowers in their natural environment are conductedsumption (VO2) at a power eliciting a blood lactate by our laboratory and are focused mostly on anaer-concentration of 4 mmol/L were closely related to obic threshold and VO2max differences between er-the 2000m ergometer performance time. In contrast, gometer and on-water rowing.Riechman et al.[38] found that 2000m rowing ergom- Jurimae et al.[36] compared ergometer rowingeter performance time is best characterised by the with on-water rowing and found that from differentmean power of an all-out 30-second ergometer test anthropometric and body composition characteris-(i.e. a measure of anaerobic lactic power) and tics only muscle mass was correlated to 2000mVO2max. Similar results were obtained by Jurimae et single scull distance time, while almost every an-al.,[36] who reported Pmax and mean power of 40 thropometric variable was related to 2000m rowingseconds of work (i.e. a measure of anaerobic lactic ergometer distance time. Similarly, Russell et al.[28]

power) to be the best predictive parameters of reported that anthropometric parameters predicted2000m rowing ergometer performance. the 2000m rowing ergometer distance best when

It is now possible to determine aerobic capacity compared with metabolic parameters and a combi-on the water due to solid-state portable measurement nation of categories. Thus, care should be takenequipment, but to our knowledge there are no stud- when interpreting the rowing ergometer results toies of the use of this type of apparatus in rowing. predict on-water rowing performance, because an-These results, in a rower’s natural environment can thropometric variables may have too big an influ-be interesting, e.g. how high can VO2max be on ence on the result. In smaller and lighter rowers, on-water compared with ergometer testing? However, water rowing speed is usually compensated bythese tests are logistically difficult to organise and higher physiological parameters, which is clearlythey are probably more time consuming than labora- indicated by the fact that in international regattas



some lightweights may easily compete with their changes in rowing ergometer performance overheavier peers. 2000m after heavy training periods. This is sup-

ported by the study of Smith,[44] who found noThe accurate analysis and assessment of variouschanges in 500m rowing ergometer time nor powercomponents of performance within the training con-after 3 weeks of overload training with a 33% in-text is an important process for coaches and sportcrease in the frequency and a 30% increase in train-scientists to include as an integral aspect of theing volume and the following tapering week intraining and competition programme of a rower.international male and female rowers. This may beDeterminants of competitive success include vari-explained by the fact that anaerobic energy produc-ous psychological attributes such as self-motiva-tion may have too big an influence on the test resultstion,[40] technical skills (including balance),[41] coor-and it is well known that in successful rowers anaer-dination with other crew members,[42] in addi-obic capacity trainings are <10% of the whole train-tion to the physiological characteristics of muscularing time.[14]endurance, aerobic power, anaerobic power and

strength.[43] It is difficult to rate these parameters, Endurance capacity is an important result ofalthough everything depends on appropriate physio- training and regeneration.[16,27] Higher performancelogical characteristics. Some of these parameters

at a fixed or individual lactate threshold meanscan be compensated with others, for example, good

higher maximum performance, but there is a widetechnique may compensate for lower physiological

scattering of individual data of rowers. In successfulparameters. If a rower has no coordination with team

rowers, the 4 mmol/L lactate threshold is in themembers he/she can still be a good single sculler.range of 75–85% of their Pmax.[14,17] It should beThese parameters must be viewed together to allowtaken into account that different testing protocolsbetter understanding of a rower’s state. Therefore, aand different types of ergometers used may contrib-good testing battery for a rower needs to consist ofute different levels of 4 mmol/L blood lactate levels.several parameters to determinate his or her per-For example, Lormes et al.[51] found higher lactateformance and to make the selection process morelevels for a given heart rate on the Gjessing than oneffective. A key aspect to consider regarding a phys-the Concept II rowing ergometer, possibly becauseiological test is the extent to which it is actuallyof power losses in the transmission system of thecorrelated with rowing performance.[44]

Gjessing rowing ergometer. Maximal lactate valuesChanges in performance capacity can be anal-

decrease with higher lactate threshold, as an indica-ysed during all-out rowing tests in a rowing boat

tor of increased endurance capacity.[14] However,over various distances or on a rowing ergometer.

using fixed or individual lactate threshold valuesPmax during a standardised test (e.g. 2-, 6- and 7-measured on a rowing ergometer as guidelines forminute all-out, 500, 2000, 2500 and 6000m all-outtraining intensity must be viewed with caution be-tests) can be used for evaluation of the exercisecause they do not exactly mirror the blood lactate atcapacity.[22,25,26,35,36,39,44-50] However, Steinacker etsteady-state for rowers.[52] Lactate threshold andal.[20] argued that Pmax is subject to motivation of themaximum lactate values are also influenced by pre-rower tested and, therefore, may not be sensitiveceding exercise and muscle glycogen stores.[14]

enough to monitor a complete rowing season. AThus, all variables must be standardised before test-question was then raised by the authors that moreing the athlete to avoid difficulties in interpretationreliable test programmes, such as fast ramp testsof the test results. In a glycogen-deficient state,could be used for measuring rowing performance,maximum lactate and performance are depressedbecause they may fit into a training programmeand lactate threshold virtually increased, but in themore easily. However, our experience (unpublishedstate of overreaching or overtraining without glyco-data) has showed that 1 minute of maximal rowing

on a rowing ergometer has no relationship with gen deficit, maximum lactate and performance ca-


602 Maestu et al.

pacity, and lactate threshold are decreased or lactate obic threshold value to be 3.7 mmol/L determinedthreshold unchanged.[16,20,53] by the LTLOG method, which was lower than the

suggested 4 mmol/L value by different au-Nowadays, the blood lactate response to exercisethors[14,52,64] and may therefore be a better indicatoris a commonly accepted tool for performance as-for selecting training intensities without accumula-sessment and training prescription.[14,53] The bloodtion of blood lactate. The authors concluded thatlactate response has been thoroughly investigatedLTLOG represented the 2000m all-out rowing er-and described using variety of terms and defini-gometer performance best. Moreover, a deflectiontions.[54,55] The anaerobic threshold has been one ofpoint using the LTLOG method was very easilythe most commonly used terms for describing thedetected, allowing more accuracy for each athlete.blood lactate response. Anaerobic threshold can beThus, the LTLOG value, which detects the anaerobicdefined as the workload that can be performed bythreshold with less subjectivity, may be a morethe oxidative metabolism and at which blood lactateappropriate measure of training modality in rowing;production and release are balanced during continu-however, it must be still confirmed in future studies.ous exercise.[14,54-56]

Coen et al.[71] described an on-water graded exer-To determine anaerobic threshold, numerouscise test battery to measure individual anaerobicconcepts and definitions have been published in thethreshold and sport-specific performance on coxlesslast decades.[57-63] However, although a number ofpairs. The results of the study indicated that heartcompeting models exist to fit blood lactate concen-rates and performance on individual anaerobictration data during incremental exercise, there hasthreshold were significantly related between ergom-been little comparison between different concepts ineter and on-water rowing. Furthermore, a gradedrowers.incremental exercise test on water was strongly re-Steinacker[14] and Wolf and Roth[64] have report-lated to competition results over 2000m, especiallyed that the submaximal aerobic capacity measuredwhen seat positions were considered,[71] whichas the power that elicits a blood lactate level of 4.0seems expected. However, performing on-watermmol/L is the most predictive parameter of compe-graded incremental exercise was extremely timetition performance in trained rowers, especially inconsuming and the weather conditions may have toosmall boats such as singles and doubles. However,big an influence to make proper conclusions. There-some authors have questioned the physiological sig-fore, for reliable longitudinal data, the rowing er-nificance of a fixed blood lactate value of 4.0 mmol/gometer is still the best apparatus for testing theL, which does not take into account the individualperformance parameters of rowers.kinetics of the lactate concentration curve.[65,66]

Moreover, power at a blood lactate level of 4.0 In summary, aerobic and anaerobic capacitiesmmol/L has not been reported to represent a steady- both seem to be important parameters in competitivestate workload in rowing.[52,67] Different anaerobic rowing, despite factors such as the level, sex, andthreshold concepts (fixed blood lactate values of 2, 3 body mass. Also, both capacities are important toand 4 mmol/L, Dmax,1 modified Dmax, LTLOG,2 measure to better understand the performance of aincreases of 1 mmol/L and over the resting level [for rower. For anaerobic threshold level, the LTLOGfurther explanation see Jurimae et al.[70]]) and their method may represent the threshold intensity betterrelationships to rowing performance were studied than the commonly used 4 mmol/L blood lactateby Jurimae et al.[70] using 21 male national standard concentration. It should be considered that a 2000mrowers. The results of this study indicated the anaer- rowing ergometer performance is more suitable for

1 Dmax is the point on the blood lactate concentration curve that yields the maximal perpendicular distance to thestraight line formed by the two end datapoints.[68]

2 LTLOG is the power output at which the blood lactate begins to increase when the log (blood lactate) is plotted againstthe log (power output).[69]



rowers who compete in big boats such as fours and/ pace).[46] The main period for developing strength-or eights, to ensure a similar performance time. endurance is from January to March. The competi-When performance of rowers in small boats is mea- tive period usually starts in March or April andsured, a 2500m ergometer distance appears to more culminates for elite rowers in late August or early inclosely reflect the metabolic effort of on-water row- September with the World Championships. Duringing on singles and doubles.[22,26,36,72] the competition period, aerobic training is still the

most important (about 70% of total training). Ap-2. Characteristics of Rowing Training proximately 25% of the training during the competi-

tive season is aerobic-anaerobic (blood lactate con-During rowing competition, anaerobic alactic centration 4–8 mmol/L) training and the rest is pure-

and lactic as well as aerobic capacities are stressed ly anaerobic (blood lactate concentration >8 mmol/to their maximum.[16] Therefore, the training of suc- L) training.[79] Steinacker et al.[53] investigated thecessful rowers has to be built up with a focus on time course of rowing velocity and ergometer resultsaerobic training with the proper relationship of of a coxed eight during the training camp before thestrength training and anaerobic training. Junior World Championships in 1995. Such a pre-

Endurance training (training at blood lactate con- paratory training programme typically has a dura-centration of 2–4 mmol/L) is the mainstay of suc- tion of approximately 4 weeks: 2 weeks high-inten-cess in rowing.[14,17,47,73-75] Training of successful sity/high-volume training, tapering for 1 week andathletes is characterised by extensive as well as in the last week special preparation for the finals.intensive endurance training with approximately The slowest boat speed of the 2000m distance was70–80% of the time spent on the water.[75-77] Intense observed during the high-volume/high-intensityendurance training above the anaerobic threshold training, and the fastest boat speed was observedmay be important for improvement of VO2max dur- after the tapering period and at the World Champi-ing the competitive season, but should not amount to

onships, indicating that the rowers had overcome the>10% of the training volume.[14] Over a year, the

over-reaching state after the high-intensity periodpercentage of specific rowing training time on the

and realised their performance capacity, indicatingwater is approximately 52–55% for an 18-year-old,

no overtraining.55–60% for a 21-year-old, and up to 65% for the

In rowing, the problem with studying trainingolder athlete.[78] However, the amount of time ofeffects is the complexity of the goals of trainingspecific rowing training must increase together withbecause different capacities (aerobic, anaerobic,the qualification of a rower. Strength training ispower, strength, tactical skills) have to be im-approximately 20% for an 18-year-old and 16% forproved.[16] This causes timing problems becausean adult athlete, and general athletic training is in theseveral capacities cannot be developed at the samerange of 26–33%.[78] It is important to increasetime. For example, endurance and sprint training arespecific rowing training with increased training ex-not appropriate to develop in the same training ses-perience.[16]

sion. For rowers, one of the most important tasks isThe preparation period of rowers usually starts inthe maintenance of strength gains while training toOctober, where the main goal of training is to buildenhance aerobic endurance simultaneously,[80] as re-up a base through extensive aerobic endurance train-sistance training is one physical performance factoring (90% of the total training time).[79] It appearsof a complete annual training programme.[13,17] Re-that during the preparation period, rowers should de-search has shown that a sequence of resistance train-emphasise resistance training at low velocities anding prior to endurance training may be preferred foremphasise power development at higher velocitiesthe off-season of rowing.[81,82] Bell et al.[80] found(i.e. train more specifically for the types and veloci-significant strength gains with a training frequencyties of movements used in the rowing technique andof three times per week for 10 weeks and wasat speeds necessary to mimic the competitive


604 Maestu et al.

maintained for at least 6 weeks where the main goal When planning the hormone sampling, the tim-was to develop aerobic endurance, and strength ing of sampling must always be considered becausetraining was conducted only once or twice per most of the hormones exhibit circadian rhythms andweek.[80] Whether strength gains can be maintained different aspects may have an influence on the re-beyond 6 weeks while performing endurance train- sult.[90-92] Numerous investigations have studied theing is not known[80] and needs further research. Bell effects that different types of prolonged physicalet al.[81] also showed that organising strength and stress have on the hormones of hypothalamus-pitui-endurance training into sequential programmes can tary-adrenocortical axis.[5,83,93] Prolonged heavy en-influence the physiological adaptation to training in durance training has been found to cause the in-rowers. crease and decrease in the morning basal levels of

Most rowers also use unspecific and cross train- cortisol and testosterone, respectively.[93] Whileing to increase training tolerance and to avoid over- resting levels of cortisol have reported to be un-training. During cross training, different muscle changed[94] or decreased[95] after endurance traininggroups are recruited, which may allow partial recov- in male athletes.ery of other muscle groups and, therefore, the ad- In rowers, the further improvement of perform-vantages of cross training seems to be ‘peripheral’ ance capacity was associated with increased growtheffects, enhancing or maintaining strength in power hormone and cortisol levels and elite rowers havetraining and ‘central’ effects by decreasing the mo- higher values of cortisol and growth hormone com-notony of training.[16]

pared with national and medium performance levelrowers.[49] These results are somewhat in contrast to

3. Selected Biochemical Indices of Steinacker et al.,[96] who reported higher cortisolMonitoring Training in Rowing values for athletes who were not selected to the

National Junior team of Germany, indicating higherIn the world of training and coaching, different

catabolic activity. At an early stage during the train-biochemical indices in blood are measured to pre-

ing camp in 1996 in the German Junior Team whenvent and to diagnose overtraining syndrome as anthe training load was highest, basal cortisol levelsunwanted result of an athlete’s training regimen.increased by 18% and decreased slightly after-However, to date there are still no valid diagnosticwards.[53] Elevated basal cortisol levels are oftentools that would help us to prevent overtraining.seen as a normal stress response to high-intensityDifferent hormonal responses were often proposedtraining.[16,96] For example, the increase in cortisolfor monitoring overreaching and overtraining situa-level was found in junior rowers after anaerobictions and also for the recovery period.[7,8,20,49,53,83-87]

training during the last days before blood sam-Endogenous hormones are essentially involved inpling.[96] There were no changes in plasma cortisolexercise-induced short- or long-term adaptationsand testosterone concentrations after 2 hours of row-and influence the regeneration phase through theing at an intensity of 75% of anaerobic threshold.[97]

modulation of anabolic and catabolic processes afterSteinacker et al.[5] found a 10% increase inexercise.[88] Hormonal mechanisms that help medi-

human growth hormone from baseline during aate both short-term homeostatic control and long-high-load training phase (training load approximate-term cellular adaptations to any type of stress arely 180 min/day for 2 weeks), and a decrease of 30%imposed on humans. For example, cortisol andduring the tapering phase where training volumegrowth hormone exert an essential role both inwas reduced for about 30%, while the intensity wasshort-term (control of utilisation of energy sub-maintained. The fact that not only the training inten-strates, mobilisation of protein resources) and pro-sity but also the volume may alter testosterone andlonged stable (amplification of the translation pro-growth hormone levels was supported in a study bycess, supply of protein synthesis by ‘building mater-

ials’) adaptation to exercises.[89] Maestu et al.[84] This study showed that almost



doubling the training volume caused significant in- The authors concluded that, because of the highercreases in fasting testosterone and growth hormone sympathoadrenergic activation when exercising onconcentrations, which returned to the pre-stress lev- the ergometer, the intensity of ergometer rowingel after the second tapering week, indicating a lag should be set carefully.[106]

period. In summary, the results of these studies may The plasma leptin level is identified as an adipo-suggest that the hormone responses of the hypothal- cyte-derived hormone and its receptor has highlight-amus-pituitary-adrenocortical axis are not specific ed the regulation of appetite, thermogenesis andand do not exactly mirror the amount of physical metabolism.[107] For a review see Friedman andstress in rowing. Halaas,[107] and Flier.[108] However, it has become

Adlercreutz et al.[98] and Harkonen et al.[99] stated evident that leptin does not act only as an ‘adipostat-that a condition of overstrain might exist in an ic hormone’,[109] but it also profoundly affects hypo-athlete if at least one of the following two criteria are thalamic neuroendocrine function as a result of neg-fulfilled: (i) free testosterone/cortisol ratio lower ative energy flux.[85] Several studies showed thatthan 0.35 × 10–3; and/or (ii) a decrease in the free endurance exercise sessions decrease the plasmatestosterone/cortisol ratio of ≥30%. During a rowing leptin concentration after 48 hours, in associationseason, no significant relationships were found be- with a preceding decrease in insulin,[110] while short-tween the free testosterone/cortisol ratio and rowing term exhaustive exercise has no immediate orergometer performance parameters in male row- delayed effect on circulating leptin concentra-ers.[93] However, a decrease in the free testosterone/ tion.[111] However, it has been recently demonstratedcortisol ratio was observed after the training camp that a 30-minute all-out rowing ergometer test(range 4–40%), but these changes were not signifi- caused an immediate decrease in plasma leptincantly related to performance parameters.[93] The levels, probably by the involvement of all majorauthors concluded that the criterion of a decrease in muscle groups of the human body.[112] In the litera-the free testosterone/cortisol ratio of ≥30% or the ture, the responses of plasma leptin to training arefree testosterone/cortisol ratio lower than 0.35 × controversial. It has been suggested that fasting10–3 cannot be regarded as a first sign of overtrain- plasma leptin is not regulated in a dose-responseing.[93] In contrast, a significant decrease in the free manner in competitive male athletes,[113] while it hastestosterone/cortisol ratio as a result of an intensive shown to be decreasing in heavy training in highlytraining period and a slight increase after reduction trained rowers[85,114] and increasing when trainingof training intensity was observed in international- load is decreased. These differences could be ex-level junior rowers.[96] Meanwhile, the rowing er- plained by the differences in physical stress, as thegometer performance was improved. Therefore, the training regimen of the swimmers in the Noland etfree testosterone/cortisol ratio seems to be more al.[113] study was intensive interval training, while inuseful as an indicator for a status of insufficient time Maestu et al.[114] it was low-intensity high-volumeto recover from training.[93] training. Accordingly, it could be suggested that

fasting plasma leptin response during prolongedCatecholamines stimulate cardiovascular andheavy training stress may depend on the totalmetabolic reactions and indicate physical and psy-amount of the physical stress.[114]

chological stress.[100-103] All-out rowing is associatedwith extremely high plasma catecholamine levels: Jurimae et al.[115] demonstrated a significant rela-19 nmol/L and 74 nmol/L for adrenaline and tionship between plasma leptin and training volumenoradrenaline, respectively.[104,105] Higher nora- without changes in body mass. Furthermore, Simschdrenaline concentrations were noted during endur- et al.[85] demonstrated a positive relationship be-ance training at similar heart rate on the Gjessing tween leptin levels and rowing performance. Theseergometer compared with rowing in the boat,[106] but results are in contrast to those of Petibois et al.[116]

adrenaline values were not statistically different. who argued that plasma leptin levels in top-level


606 Maestu et al.

athletes parallel the changes in body fat and are not values of growth hormone in runners and rowers,respectively. Therefore, the exercise-inducedsensitive to an increase in training volume forchanges in growth hormone concentrations maytrained individuals. Desgorces et al.[117] showed nohave practically less value of training monitoring inchanges in fasting plasma leptin concentration afterrowers. However, in these studies, different exercise36 weeks of training. However, training volumeprotocols and subjects were used and so they are notmight have been too low (i.e. 45 min/day in sessionexactly comparable.1 and 77 min/day in session 2) to induce a change in

fasting leptin concentration. However, they showed In the state of overtraining and overreaching, anthe changes in post-exercise leptin concentrations, intra-individually decreased maximum rise of cor-suggesting an improved regulation of energetic sta- tisol[115,126] and insulin[126] has been found after atus after training (i.e. the better lipid availability). standardised exhaustive exercise test. Moreover,The hypothesis exists that leptin expression in the Jurimae et al.[115] also demonstrated a significantadipocyte is related to energy flux and triglyceride decrease of exercise-induced (2000m all-out rowingloss.[118] Further studies are needed to investigate the ergometer test) leptin concentrations after a high-role of plasma leptin in highly trained athletes as a load training cycle in rowers. These studies maymarker of training stress or overtraining. In addition indicate that if hypothalamic downregulation existsto leptin, we have recently demonstrated that adi- during overreaching, analysis of exercise-inducedponectin could also be another adipocytokine to use cortisol and leptin concentrations may provide valu-as a marker of training stress in rowers.[119,120] able information for detecting signs of overreaching,

because in a state of fatigue the hypothalamicRecently, Urhausen and Kindermann[121] sug-downregulation may be more sensitively detected.gested that instead of resting hormone concentra-However, this is an area for future, well controlledtions, maximal exercise-induced hormonal re-research.sponses during and after a period of training over-

load should be studied to assess the adaptivity of the For several years, serum creatine kinase activityathletes. The elevation of hormone levels after row- has been measured as a parameter of muscular stressing exercises performed at the maximal possible rate in training-associated studies. A particularly impor-may be an overall expression of the dependence of tant consideration relating to the use and interpreta-hormone changes on the exercise intensity.[49] This tion of creatine kinase activity values in the sportsmeans that there should be a wide reserve to increase sector is the dependence of this parameter on thethe hormone responses to exercise. Only a sufficient nature of the stress.[127] Creatine kinase activity re-performance capacity has to be achieved to evoke a flects training intensity and muscular strain only atcorrespondingly large rise in hormone concentra- the beginning of a training phase, decreasing crea-tions.[49] tine kinase activity levels suggest a muscular adap-

tation to training.[14,20,86] Morning levels of creatineDespite the episodic character of growth hor-kinase activity mainly represent its release duringmone secretion, its response during exercise isthe previous day and are also influenced by creatinecharacterised by a continuous increase of blood lev-kinase activity clearance (50–80% per day).[96]

el during the exercise.[122] Growth hormone re-Steinacker et al.[96] also found higher creatine kinasesponse to submaximal exercise has been found toactivity values in the junior rowers who were notdecrease or disappear as a result of training.[123,124]

selected for the national team despite their lowerThere is also a possibility that fatigue may modulatephysical power.growth hormone response.[122] For example,

Urhausen et al.[86] demonstrated a decrease in exer- In summary, it seems that there are a lack of validcise-induced rise of growth hormone in cyclists, biochemical markers of training stress in rowing.while Lehmann et al.[16] and Maestu et al.[114,125] However, some recent studies[85,114,115] have report-found no change in resting nor exercise-induced ed the decrease of leptin in high-load training



phases. It could be suggested that the maximal exer- global measure of mood, consisting of: tension, de-cise-induced changes in leptin values may represent pression, anger, vigour, confusion and fatigue. Anthe more sensitive marker of overreaching for overall score is computed by summarising the fiverowers.[115] negative mood states and subtracting the positive

mood state (vigour). POMS has been used to mea-4. Selected Psychometric Instruments of sure the mood state of rowers,[2,40] swimmers[128] andMonitoring Training in Rowing runners.[135] During a training programme, mood

state (the POMS was used three times during theIn addition to clinical findings, metabolic and season) did not differ between those who adhered to

hormonal values, the level of psychologically relat- the training programme and the dropouts; however,ed stress and recovery seems to reflect well the those who remained in training had higher self-clinical state of athletes.[2,5] Furthermore, mood state motivation.[40] During training, mood state in-(e.g. motivation and striving for success) seems to creased, but surprisingly remained elevated in thosebe closely related to actual performance.[2,17,128-130]

who did not make the team and decreased in thoseTo date, the most common psychometric instru- who were successful.[40] Verde et al.[135] concludedments used are: the one-item Borg ratio scale,[129]

that resting heart rate, sleep patterns and hormonalwhich was developed to subjectively measure the changes do not provide a useful early warning thatintensity of the exercise; the Profile of Mood States the peak of the performance has been passed, but the(POMS),[130] which measures only current stress;

POMS does show a consistent pattern of loss ofand the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes

vigour and fatigue during heavy training for 3 weeks(RESTQ-Sport),[131] which allows measuring both

in runners. Morgan et al.[128] measured mood statessubjectively perceived stress and recovery.

of swimmers throughout the season. At the begin-Marriot and Lamb[132] found a highly consistent ning, the swimmers exhibited the ‘iceberg profile’,

relationship between Borg ratio scale perceptions ofan indicator of a mentally healthy state. In the high-

exertion on a rowing ergometer and heart rate. Whenload phase, mood disturbances increased and a pro-

the rating of perceived exertion was used as a meansfile reflected poor mental health. After reducing the

of producing an appropriate training heart rate, itintensity, the swimmers demonstrated the ‘iceberg

was satisfactory but only at the higher intensities ofprofile’ again. However, it should be stated that five

effort (ratings 15 and above). Urhausen et al.[133]

of the six scales of POMS measure the negativefound significantly higher ratings of subjective exer-mood characteristics of tension, anger, fatigue, de-tion during the ‘stress test’ at the intensity of 110%pression and confusion and, therefore, POMS onlyof individual anaerobic threshold until exhaustion invaguely reflects recovery processes. Berger andovertrained endurance athletes. However, the one-Motl[136] argued that a decrease in a negative mooditem construction of the Borg ratio scale cannotstate may not necessarily indicate mood benefits.assess different aspects of recovery and stress.[10]

Thus, when using POMS as the psychometric tool toMoreover, it is difficult to interpret what causes themonitor the mood states of athletes, the main focuschange of the scale after standardised exercise and,is on stress-related behaviour and it might be nottherefore, proper intervention is complicated. Thus,appropriate to evaluate the recovery of athletes.the Borg ratio scale is not suitable for monitoring

Restricting the analysis to the stress dimensiontraining in highly trained athletes.alone is insufficient, especially in high-performanceThere is convincing evidence that athletes can beareas, since the management of training intensitydistinguished on the basis of psychological skillsand volume is tightly linked to outstanding perform-and emotional competencies.[134] POMS was initial-ance.[5] A psychometrically based instrument to as-ly developed as an economical method of identify-sess the recovery-stress state is the RESTQ-ing and assessing transient, fluctuating affectiveSport.[131] The recovery-stress state indicates thestate.[130] POMS consists of 65 items and it yields a


608 Maestu et al.

extent to which persons are physically and/or men- would be beneficial if this questionnaire could betranslated and modified into other languages to taketally stressed, whether or not they are capable ofinto account the quiddity of the nation. The Estonianusing individual strategies for recovery as well asversion of RESTQ-Sport has successfully been usedwhich strategies are used.[4] This questionnaire wason rowers during different training periods.[138-140]created to get distinct answers to the question “How

In summary, through utilisation of the RESTQ-are you?”[10] and addresses physical, subjective,Sport, coaches and athletes can be informed of thebehavioural and social aspects using a self-reportimportance of daily activities and how these activi-approach.[2] The theory behind the questionnaire isties are related to the recovery-stress state of anthat an accretion of stress in everyday life, coupledathlete compared with the frequently used one-itemwith weak recovery potential, will cause a variationBorg scale or POMS, which generally measure theof the psychophysical general state.[10] A Likert-typestress-related behaviour and, therefore, could not bescale is used with values ranging from 0 (never) to 6sufficient in high-performance areas. Previous stud-(always), indicating how often the respondent par-ies[4,19,53,85,138,139] utilising RESTQ-Sport suggestticipated in various activities during the past 3 days/that it is appropriate to measure recovery-stress statenights. The mean of each scale can range from 0 tochanges during rowing training in highly trained6, with high scores in the stress-associated activitymale athletes.scales reflecting intense subjective strain, whereas

high scores in the recovery-oriented scales mirror5. Studies on Monitoring Trainingplenty of recovery activities.[4] However, it has to bein Rowingconsidered that the RESTQ-Sport and the POMS are

not direct measures of physiological states of theIn the literature, there are not very many longitu-organism, both instruments reflect the subjective

dinal studies that deal with training monitoring ofrepresentation of these states.[2]

rowers (table III). Most of them are 3–5 weeks inSeveral studies with rowers have showed that the duration, i.e. one microcycle. Only some of

POMS scales of depression, anger and fatigue are them[33,49,50,93] are longer than one microcycle. How-negatively correlated with recovery-associated ever, these longer studies tend to monitor only onescales of RESTQ-Sport, at the same time vigour is specific pattern or the time interval between twopositively correlated and vice versa. A positive rela- different testing batteries is too long, making thetionship exists between the stress-related scales of analysis more difficult.RESTQ-Sport and depression, anger and fatigue, Recently, a study reporting the changes in train-while vigour appears to be negatively correlated ing and performance of top Norwegian rowers overwith stress scales.[4,19,137] Longitudinal studies in the last 30 years was published.[141] They reported aathletes have shown that the RESTQ-Sport can sen- 20% increase in training volume and nowadays theirsitively monitor stress and recovery processes in international medal winners train 1100–1200 hours/training camps and throughout the season, and the year.19 scores of the RESTQ-Sport have acceptable There is also a lack of studies that deal withlevels of reliability.[2,4,5,19,138] Moreover, a dose-re- rowing performance and resistance training. Bell etsponse relationship was demonstrated between al.[80-82] have investigated high-velocity resistancetraining volume (daily rowed kilometres) and the training (HVRT) in relation to rowing training.somatic components of stress and recovery.[4,5] However, they have compared HVRT to anaerobicThese results together indicate that RESTQ-Sport power and reported no significant changes in anaer-could be a potential tool for monitoring the training obic power after different training programmes.[142]

of elite athletes using subjective stress and recovery High-intensity resistance training was also used inindices. However, so far, RESTQ-Sport has mainly the study of Simsch et al.[85] and the stagnation inbeen used in German and American athletes, thus it performance of an incremental ergometer test was


Monitoring of Perform

ance and T

raining in Row

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Table III. Studies involving training monitoring in rowers studies

Study Subjects Period Design Performance Blood parameters Mood state Conclusions

Hagerman and 9 M Changes from off-season Ve ↑, VO2 ↑, Pmax Although seasonal effects wereStaron[13] to in-season. Pmax 6 min ↑14%, HR ↔, leg expected, the unusually large

all-out strength ↑ from off- differences in metabolic andseason to in-season strength capacities between IS

and OS reflect a high degree oftraining specificity

Jurimae et 10 M 1wk 100% ↑ in load 2000m time ↓ C ↑10.4% Fatigue ↑ Overreaching state of rowersal.[139] 2000m all-out (at the Social relaxation after 6d heavy training was

beginning and in the ↑ reflected by similar change inend) perceived fatigue and catabolicRESTQ-Sport stress hormones

Kellmann and 9 M 3wk RESTQ-Sport 4 times High training vol. A dose-response relationshipGunther[4] 2 F is indicated by exists between the training vol.

increased levels and the subjective assessment ofof stress and stress and recoverydecreased levelsof recovery

Maestu et al.[84] 12 M 6wk 1 ref wk, 3wk high load Tend to ↓ after high load C tend to ↓ L ↓ in high Plasma leptin was the most(100%), 2wk taper (load and tend to ↑ after taper load and ↑ after taper, sensitive hormone measured to90% of ref wk) GH and T ↑ in high load reflect changes in training vol. APmax 2000m all-out and ↓ after taper dose-response relationship was

detected

Simsch et al.[85] 6 M 6wk 3wk RT 16.6 h/wk (55% AT4 tend to ↓ in RT and L ↓27%, C ↓30%, TSH The ↓ of TSH and the peripheralRT) ↑ in ET. VO2 tend to ↑. ↓23% in RT thyroid hormones could be3wk ET 14.3 h/wk Pmax ↑ in ET L tend to ↑, C tend to ↑, attributed to lower hypothalamusPmax incremental test TSH ↑22% in ET levels and is related to ↓ L

levels. L – possible director ofmonitoring training

Smith[44] 10 M 4wk 3wk high load (33%↑ in HR ↓30% in overload La ↑16% in tests 3 and If an individual’s 500m time was8 F frequency, 30%↑ in vol., F: 1% ↓ in Pmax during 4 monitored regularly, such a

1wk taper (load ↓25%) overload and 2% ↑ in Ammonia ↓29% at the change (2% of recent time) mightPmax 500m all-out taper end of the study be noteworthy for that particular

M: Pmax ↔ athlete

Snegovskaya 35 M 20mo Pmax 7 min all-out in Pmax ↑14.6% Post-exercise levels of C Improvements in performanceand Viru[49] group A Feb, Jun, Oct. HR tend to increase and GH ↑ capacity was associated with

In group B March, Jan, increased GH and CJun

Continued next page

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Table III. Contd

Study Subjects Period Design Performance Blood parameters Mood state Conclusions

Steinacker et 10 M 5wk Vol. 56% in 2wk and Pmax ↑2.7%, Lamax In overload Hct ↔, C ↔, Somatic Overreaching was indicated byal.[5] 40% for 2wk (90% ↑3.3%, LaAT4 ↑8% DHEAS ↔, FT ↔, ALD complaints, decreases in Pmax and increases

extensive rowing) ↑, LU ↓10%, FSH ↓11%, general stress, in stress and deterioration inPmax incremental test GH ↑10%, ins ↓17% somatic recovery values in RESTQ-Sport.2000m rowing on 8+ In taper Hct ↔, C ↑, relaxation, self- This was also indicated byRESTQ-Sport DHEAS ↑, FT ↑10%, regulation, suppression of central and

ALD ↑, FSH ↑9%, GH fitness reveal a peripheral stress hormones↓30%, Ins ↑37% significant cubic

trend of thedependantvariables

Steinacker et 35 M 26d Pmax incremental test AT4 (W) ↑4.6% Load 128 min/day AT4 (W) 4.1% and Pmax 3.4%al.[96] AT4 and 6 min all-out FTCR ↑24%, T ↑20%, higher in national team rowers

16d aerobic 119.6 min, Urea ↑20.8%, CK ↑25% than non-selected rowersThr 6.5 min, anaerobic Load 90 min/day2.3 min C ↑23.5%, T ↑23.2%,10d aerobic 91.2 min, FTCR ↑7.9%, ureaThr 6.5 min, anaerobic ↓10.3%, CK ↓27%3.2 min

Urhausen et 6 M 7wk T, FTCR ↓, C ↔ The findings suggest an increaseal.[86] 3 F Urea ↑ in first 2wk and in catabolic activity in periods of

then ↓ intensive physical strain,including competitions.Regenerative phases of trainingseem to reduce the anabolic-catabolic imbalance

Vermulst et 6 F 9mo Testing int. 5wk AT4 ↑ if vol. ↑150% Not specified AT4 is a useful parameter foral.[50] 5 min at AT4, Pmax 2 (aerobic, submaximal measuring aerobic capacity of

min all-out intensity) the F rowers. Pmax does notAT4 ↓ if vol. ↔ (70–75% seem to give a valid estimationaerobic, emphasis on of the actual maximal power in Fintensive distance rowerstrainingPmax slight 5–10%increase

Vervoorn et 6 M 9mo Testing int. 5wk Pmax almost ↔ C, FT, FTCR almost ↔ 5wk of training does not induce aal.[93] 5 min at AT4, Pmax 2 min AT4 ↑12% if load ↑110% Int. training-FTCR ↓40%, change in La dynamics, when

all-out Heavy int. AT4 ↓8% taper-FTCR ↑60% comparing AT4 with precedingtest in highly trained rowers

Continued next page


detected; however, the performance increased sig-nificantly after endurance training. It is known thatbuilding up the strength-endurance capacity duringthe off-season is one part of a rower’s winter train-ing programme. The impact of low-velocity resis-tance training (e.g. frequency, intensity) on rowingperformance during the off-season needs some fur-ther research.

Achieving the maximal result during competi-tions is the major purpose of athletic training. Arower is not always in his or her best shape duringmajor competitions, therefore, valuable informationcould be obtained from studies that deal with specif-ic preparation for competitions at different levels ofrowers. However, it has to be stated that these stud-ies must not be case studies, but controlled ones(control group would benefit), which are difficult toprepare because most athletes do not want to experi-ment with their training prior to competition. Fur-thermore, the competition results are always diffi-cult to analyse because they depend on factors suchas the effects of counterparts and weather condi-tions.

6. Multi-Level Approach ofTraining Monitoring

The evaluation of the clinical state of an athlete,i.e. of current trainability and of the diagnosis ofoverload and overtraining, is already one of the mostcomplicated tasks in sports medicine.[7,8,53,85,143]

There is a cascade of various responses to prolongedtraining that can be used in training monitoring. It isalso evident that only some of the parameters arereliable and specific enough. One should also distin-guish between parameters in which the inter-indi-vidual response differs, such as creatine kinase ac-tivity, hormonal parameters or mood state, and pa-rameters that are hard to tolerate, such as physicalperformance.[53] The hypothalamus acts as the cen-tral integrator of all afferent signals to the brain andhas an important role in the regulation of the centralresponses to stress and training.[108] Such integrationinvolves information from autonomic nerve systemafferents, direct metabolic effects, hormones and


Tab

le I

II. C

ontd

Stu

dyS

ubje

cts

Per

iod

Des

ign

Per

form

ance

Blo

od p

aram

eter

sM

ood

stat

eC

oncl

usio

ns

FT

CR

may

be

a pa

ram

eter

of

early

hor

mon

al o

vers

trai

n w

ithin

terp

reta

tion

with

tra

inin

g lo

gs.

Dec

reas

e of

30%

is n

ot r

egar

ded

as o

vert

rain

ing

Wom

ack

et a

l.[39]

10 M

12w

kE

ach

wk

5 se

ts o

fP

max

↑, p

eak

velo

city

↔,

Not

spe

cifie

dC

hang

es in

VO

2 w

ere

not

row

ing

(wat

er,

VO

2↔

, H

R ↔

,si

gnifi

cant

ly r

elat

ed t

o ch

ange

s in

ergo

met

er)

and

3 se

tsve

loci

tyA

T4

↑, H

RA

T4↑

Pm

ax.

Pea

k ve

loci

ty d

urin

gR

Tin

crem

enta

l tes

ting

may

be

aP

max

200

0m a

ll-ou

tbe

tter

indi

cato

r of

cha

nges

inIn

crem

enta

l tes

tP

max

AL

D =

ald

oste

rone

; A

T4

= a

naer

obic

thr

esho

ld;

C =

cor

tisol

; C

K =

cre

atin

e ki

nase

; E

T =

end

uran

ce t

rain

ing;

F =

fem

ales

; F

SH

= f

ollic

ule

stim

ulat

ing

horm

one;

FT

= f

ree

test

oste

rone

; F

TC

R =

fre

e te

stos

tero

ne c

ortis

ol r

atio

; G

H =

gro

wth

hor

mon

e; H

ct =

hae

mat

ocrit

; H

R =

hea

rt r

ate;

HR

AT

4 =

hea

rt r

ate

at a

naer

obic

thr

esho

ld;

ins

= in

sulin

; in

t. =

inte

nsiv

e; IS

= in

-sea

son;

L =

lept

in; L

a =

lact

ate;

LaA

T4

= la

ctat

e on

ana

erob

ic th

resh

old;

LU

= le

uten

isin

g ho

rmon

e; M

= m

ales

; OS

= o

ff-se

ason

; Pm

ax =

max

imal

per

form

ance

;re

f =

ref

eren

ce;

RE

ST

Q-S

po

rt =

Rec

over

y-S

tres

s Q

uest

ionn

aire

for

Ath

lete

s; R

T =

res

ista

nce

trai

ning

; T

= t

esto

ster

one;

Th

r =

thr

esho

ld t

rain

ing;

TS

H =

thy

roid

stim

ulat

ing

horm

one;

Ve

= v

entil

atio

n; v

elo

city

AT

4 =

vel

ocity

at

anae

robi

c th

resh

old;

vo

l. =

vol

ume;

VO

2 =

oxy

gen

cons

umpt

ion;

W =

pow

er i

n w

atts

; ↑

indi

cate

s si

gnifi

cant

inc

reas

e; ↓

indi

cate

s si

gnifi

cant

dec

reas

e; ↔

indi

cate

s un

chan

ged.

612 Maestu et al.

also different information from different brain cen- steroid hormones), and was restored and supercom-tres. pensated after tapering as indicated by the boat

speed.[5] Therefore, psychometric scales, in whichThere is experimental evidence that all metabolicchanges have known to be related to blood hormonehormones have hypothalamic receptors.[144] Leptinconcentration changes, may be an alternative mea-and insulin depress the activity of excitatory neuronssure of an athlete’s current state.in the lateral hypothalamus[145,146] and have effects

on energy expenditure, body mass control and sym- Monitoring the current levels of both stress andpathetic activity.[108] High levels of leptin have been recovery has the possible advantage that problemsfound to inhibit activation of the hypothalamus- may be detected before symptoms of overtrainingpituitary-adenocortical axis and inhibit cortisol re- are likely to appear.[2] Steinacker et al.[5] found thatlease.[147] Therefore, studying the effects of leptin both performance and hormonal indices of trainingmay have the advantage of knowing the amount of were reflected by the scores of the RESTQ-Sport.stress affecting the organism. One week of a heavily increased training volume

In the high-load training phases, which are essen- (100% compared with previous week) indicated in-tial to achieve improvements in performance creased levels of stress and decreased level of recov-through overreaching, decreases of steroid hor- ery-associated activities with a significant changesmones could be observed,[16,91,93,96,98,148,149] sug- in fatigue and social relaxation in male juniorgesting that hypothalamic downregulation will oc- rowers.[139]

cur in a state of overreaching. This was also demon-For monitoring, it is also important that mood is

strated in experimental training by Lehmann etcorrelated to physical performance ability, hormonal

al.[150] and Barron et al.[151] At present, the mecha-parameters and metabolic data.[53,140] Naessens et

nism by which the hypothalamus senses metabolical.[152] demonstrated a U-shaped relationship be-

imbalance and fatigue in athletes is speculative.tween subjective fatigue ratings and sympathetic

Using 11 elite rowers during their preparation for tone (basal noradrenaline excretion). RESTQ-Sportthe 1996 Atlanta Olympics, Kellmann and Gun- allows monitoring of mood state in athletes, butther[4] found that the alteration of extensive endur- different scales of RESTQ-Sport have different timeance training was well reflected in psychological courses that have to be taken into account.[2] Physi-measures using RESTQ-Sport. High duration was cal complaints, fatigue, and general stress[5,138] asindicated by elevated levels of stress and simultane- well as conflicts/pressure[139] were highest withously lowered levels of recovery. Moreover, the highest training load, elevated cortisol concentra-scales ‘somatic complaints’, ‘lack of energy’, ‘fit- tions and high creatine kinase activity.[53] Sleepness/injury’ and ‘fitness/being in shape’ described quality, personal accomplishment, self-efficacy andthe dose-response relationship with the training general well-being were lowest with the highestload. However, the different trends in the RESTQ- training volume.[138,139] Moreover, cortisol wasSport scales may be explained by the different time found to be related to all of the stress scales (exceptcourses of hormones and corresponding scales.[53]

disturbed breaks) of RESTQ-Sport after 3 weeks ofFor example, ‘somatic complaints’ were highest high-volume training in male rowers.[138] Fatiguewith the highest training load and elevated cortisol has also been found to peak together with sympa-concentrations as well as creatine kinase activity. thetic activation (noradrenaline secretion).[53] From

the perspective of a biopsychological stressSteinacker et al.[5] found disturbance of the ho-model,[53,153] recovery and stress should be treatedmeostasis after high-intensity, high-volume trainingusing a multi-level approach dealing with psycho-for 3.2 hours/day after 18 days in male juniorlogical, emotional, cognitive behavioural/perform-rowers. This disturbance was also reflected in psy-ance, and social aspects of the problem, consideringchometric scales, in performance, metabolic andthese aspects both separately and together.[5]hormonal parameters (depression of peripheral and



In summary, it is suggested that investigating predictive parameter for rowers, but an ability tophysiological and psychological aspects of rowers sustain high VO2 during competition (i.e. enduranceare an advantage of more effective training monitor- capacity). Therefore, it is advisable to determine theing in highly trained rowers. VO2 during the simulated rowing ergometer race,

either on 2000 or 2500m all-out rowing, and theaverage VO2 should be recorded.7. Future Investigations

and Recommendations8. Conclusions

To date, most of the studies on training monitor-Training monitoring studies in rowers should be-ing in rowers have investigated only one microcycle

come more specific in their nature. There appears toand the following recovery period. To our knowl-be no single marker of training monitoring andedge, only the study of Simsch et al.[85] has used twopossible overtraining in rowers. In the future, studiesconsecutive microcycles and the recovery periodshould focus on different fasting blood biochemicalbetween them. However, these two microcyclesmarkers during different training periods. For exam-were different from each other. During the firstple, some studies[84,85] indicate that the plasma leptintraining cycle the focus was mainly on resistancecould be used as a marker of training stress duringtraining and during the other microcycle the focuslow-intensity training in rowers, while maximal ex-was on endurance training. In the future, the studiesercise-induced stress hormone changes may indicatewith two or more training cycles and recovery peri-early signs of overreaching.[121] There are also sup-ods between them, could possibly provide the ad-portive studies[3,4,11,19,121,139,142] that indicate psycho-vantage of learning more about sustainable trainingmetric data for training monitoring.load and different markers of monitoring in rowing

training. However, these studies are difficult to con-Acknowledgementstrol and are usually costly. Recent studies also con-

firm that recovery and stress should be monitored No sources of funding were used to assist in the prepara-tion of this review. The authors have no conflicts of interestsimultaneously in high performance areas to preventthat are directly relevant to the content of this review.athletes from overtraining.[4,5,19,53,137-139]

In addition, studies with individual analysis mayReferenceshave an advantage of so far used cluster analyses

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