Military Leadership and its

Consequences on Leadership in

Civil Organizations

Authors: Ivan Malkov &

Evgenii Sobolev

Tutor: Pr. Dr. MaxMikael

Wilde

Examiner: Pr. Dr. Philippe

Daudi

Date: 29.05.2014

Subject: Business

Administration

Program: Leadership and

Management in

International

Contexts

Level: Maste ’s Thes s

Course code: EALM1

Master thesis

Malkov & Sobolev 2

Ack ow ed me t

We would like to express our appreciation and gratitude to Professor Philippe Daudi, Professor

e ke, Professor Mikael Lundgren, and ou tuto P ofesso MaxM kae W de .

At the beginning of work on our thesis Professor Daudi has helped us to determine the topic of

our study and find very interesting area for science research.

During our work on thesis P ofesso W de has always been with us. His ideas and tips

have had a huge impact on us, he helped to finish our thesis and achieve research goals.

Professor Bjerke helped us to choose methods to analyze empirical data. His participation was

invaluable. We would like to express special gratitude for Professor Mikael Lundgren. We are

grateful for his strictness, constructive criticism, not indifferent attitude to our work and,

especially, the scientific literature, which he gave us.

Furthermore, we would like to thank all respondents who participated in this study, and all

people who helped us in the course of work on our thesis.

Malkov & Sobolev 3

Abst act

The military leadership is a specific type of activity, presenting motivational, emotional and

intellectual challenges to the character of a military leader. The United States Army defines

eade sh p as ‘the p ocess of f ue c people by providing purpose, direction, and motivation

wh e ope at to accomp sh the m ss o a d mp ov the o a zat o ’ (Depa tme t of the

Army 2006, pp. 1–2). The United States Air Force (USAF) has the similar definition of

leadership: ‘the a t a d sc e ce of f ue c a d d ect peop e to accomp sh the ass ed

m ss o ’ (Depa tme t of the A Fo ce 2006, p.1). In these two definitions we can quite clearly

highlight two important elements, which are inherent to the leadership process; it is the mission

to lead people and followers who should perform delivered tasks.

In our opinion, the army has achieved a big success in the development of leadership unlike

other organizations, because the issue of leadership was arisen in the military sphere much

earlier than in civil organizations. In proof of this position, we can recall scientific works, which

were written by such great people as Sun Tzu (The Art of War, about 500-600 B.C), Maurice

(The Strategikon, 6th or 7th century A.D) and Carl von Clausewitz (On War, published in 1832).

Key Words: military leadership, military leader, military experience, army, military officer,

personality, moral core, soft skills, soft leadership, transformational leadership, personal

development, positive and negative sides.

Malkov & Sobolev 4

Tab e of co te ts

Acknowledgment .......................................................................................................................................... 2

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 3

Table of contents ........................................................................................................................................... 4

List of tables .................................................................................................................................................. 7

List of figures ................................................................................................................................................. 8

1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 9

1.1. A personal approach to study ............................................................................................................. 9

1.2. The influence of the Soviet military past on an organizational structure of the modern Russian

Army and Military Leadership .................................................................................................................. 9

1.3. Current issues related to leadership through the Army .................................................................... 11

1.4. Research Field .................................................................................................................................. 12

1.5. Research Focus and Research Question ........................................................................................... 13

2. Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 13

2.1. Qualitative researchers: our perception of the research problem ..................................................... 14

2.2. A qualitative approach ..................................................................................................................... 14

2.3. Grounded Theory ............................................................................................................................. 16

2.4. Analysing our data: comparative analysis ........................................................................................ 18

2.4.1. Open coding .............................................................................................................................. 18

2.4.2. Axial coding............................................................................................................................... 20

2.4.3. Selective coding ......................................................................................................................... 20

2.4.4. Memos ....................................................................................................................................... 20

2.5. Data collection ................................................................................................................................. 20

2.5.1. Primary Data: Face-to-Face Research ..................................................................................... 20

2.5.2. Secondary data .......................................................................................................................... 22

3. Leadership in civil organizations ................................................................................................... 23

3.1. Organizational hierarchy .................................................................................................................. 23

3.2. Principles of management (H. Fayol) .............................................................................................. 25

3.3. Leadership style ............................................................................................................................... 26

Malkov & Sobolev 5

3.3.1. Transactional leadership ........................................................................................................... 26

3.3.2. Transformational leadership ..................................................................................................... 27

3.3.3. Directive leadership .................................................................................................................. 28

3.3.4. Empowering leadership ............................................................................................................. 29

3.3.5. Charisma ................................................................................................................................... 29

3.3.6. Leadership approaches ............................................................................................................. 30

3.3.7. Diminisher/multiplier style ........................................................................................................ 31

3.3.8. Soft leadership ........................................................................................................................... 32

3.3.9. Followership.............................................................................................................................. 33

3.3.10. The dark side of leadership ..................................................................................................... 34

4. Leadership in the Army ................................................................................................................ 36

4.1. The Army as a Contemporary Organization .................................................................................... 36

4.1.1. Combat Actions ......................................................................................................................... 37

4.2. The Nature of Military Leadership ................................................................................................... 38

4.3. Features of Military Leadership ....................................................................................................... 39

4.3.1. Training of the Military Leaders ............................................................................................... 39

4.3.2. Up or Out policy ........................................................................................................................ 39

4.3.3. Dangerous Environment ........................................................................................................... 40

4.3.4. Moral core of the Military Leaders ........................................................................................... 41

4.3.5. Key traits in character of the Military Leaders ......................................................................... 42

4.3.6. Toxic Leadership in the Army ................................................................................................... 45

5. Analyzing Our Findings ................................................................................................................. 47

5.1. Open Coding .................................................................................................................................... 48

5.2. Axial coding ..................................................................................................................................... 55

5.2.1. The image of the Military Leader .............................................................................................. 55

5.2.2. The positive influence of the military experience ...................................................................... 57

5.2.3. The negative influence of the military experience ..................................................................... 59

6. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 61

7. Discussion .................................................................................................................................... 64

Malkov & Sobolev 6

References ...................................................................................................................................... 65

Appendix ......................................................................................................................................... 71

Malkov & Sobolev 7

L st of tab es

Table 1. The number of servicemen in Soviet and Russian Armies.............................................. 10

Table 2. Types of hierarchical organizations and their formal hierarchy ...................................... 24

Table 3. The 14 principles of management: then and now ............................................................ 27

Table 4. Significant warfares in the world history from 1990 till 2010 ........................................ 37

Table 5. Descriptive results for military environment ................................................................... 41

Table 6. Descriptive results for characteristics of military leaders .............................................. 43

Table 7. Descriptive results for military leadership benefits ......................................................... 43

Table 8. Leadership qualities ......................................................................................................... 44

Malkov & Sobolev 8

L st of f u es

Figure 1. Grounded theory in our thesis ........................................................................................ 19

F u e 2. Leve s of k ow ed e comp ehe s o e at ve to Koh be ’s s x sta es of mo a

development ................................................................................................................................. 42

Figure 3. Proposed summary of military Off ce ’s Pe so a Qua t es ......................................... 44

Figure 4. The effectiveness of civil leadership .............................................................................. 62

Malkov & Sobolev 9

1. I t oduct o

1.1. A personal approach to study

Whe we we e w t ou thes s, o e of the sou ces of ou sp at o was the thes s ‘The A ts:

An Experience What Leade s Ca Lea F om A t st c Catha s s’ (Reinisch & Weber, 2013)

written by previous students of our programme.

We, the authors, both Russians. We were born in Leningrad. During the Great Patriotic War, the

city-hero Leningrad was in besieged position and keeping the constant attacks of the enemy for

900 days and nights. Our grandfathers took part in the Great Patriotic War and contributed to the

common cause of the Victory. Our fathers were serving in the Soviet Army. Perhaps we will

wear military uniform and go to defend our motherland in the near future.

In our casual life we constantly communicate with people who have finished the military service

o off ce ’s pos t o s. The ma o ty of th s peop e a e ve y successfu . Afte the military service

they can find their place in life. They have stable families, faithful friends and well-paid jobs,

they are confident in themselves and in their power. We see how they perform the tasks

successfully, how they make decisions and communicate with subordinates. According to these

facts, we can define that the military education and training that they have received in the course

of the military service have some influence on them. We believe that the modern army and civil

organizations have a lot of similarities in common. We can compare managers in various

management positions with the military leaders on different commanding levels, the conditions

of modern business with battlefield. Moreover, we would like to mention that military

leadership, army traditions, mentality and people who come back from the military service

always play an important role in the history of the Soviet and later Russian state.

In our opinion, the army has achieved a big success in the development of leadership unlike

other organizations, because the issue of leadership was arisen in the military sphere much

earlier than in the civil organizations. In proof of this position, we can recall the scientific works,

which were written by such great people as Sun Tzu (The Art of War, about 500-600 B.C),

Maurice (The Strategikon, 6th or 7th century A.D) and Carl von Clausewitz (On War, published

in 1832).

Therefore, we sincerely believe that military leadership and military leaders have a great

experience, which can be useful when they work in civil organizations. In accordance of this

statement, we have decided to write our thesis about military leadership and its consequences in

civil organizations.

1.2. The influence of the Soviet military past on an organizational structure of

the modern Russian Army and Military Leadership

In our thesis we present interviews with former officers of Soviet and Russian armies. In order to

understand the importance and influence of military leadership for the society we would like to

make a short historical review.

On 8th

of December 1991 the collapse of the Soviet Union was happened. On the geopolitical

map of the world the new sovereign state, the Russian Federation, was formed. The official date

of the Foundation of the Armed Forces of Russian Federation is considered on 7th

of May 1992.

At the moment of creation the Russian Federation Armed forces consisted of 2 880 000

personnel. A new defensive doctrine and the difficult economic situation in the country

conducted large-scale reductions in the Armed Forces in 1990 and on 1st of January 2008 the

number of troops was 1 434 629 people. In according with the military reform in 2008 the

Malkov & Sobolev 10

number of ensigns and warrant officers were subjected to reduction, 170 thousand officers were

also liquidated from their posts. On 1st of January 2013 payroll number of troops was amounted

to 766 055 people. In order to systemize this information we put it on Table 1.

Table 1. The number of servicemen in Soviet and Russian Armies (Karamishev 2014, p. 41)

In accordance with Table 1 we can note that the Soviet and later Russian government has a

common tendency to reduce a number of servicemen. This information also means that the

number of military personnels in the Armed Forces and a high percentage of people who

completed the military service, but continued a professional career in the civil sphere was very

high in every time.

We believe that it will be interesting to provide examples of famous politicians, public figures

and businessmen who have experience of the service in the armed forces of the Russian

Federation and the Soviet Union and use acquired military skills in everyday life and work.

1. Vladimir Kolokolcev – the Interior Minister, the Colonel-General of police;

2. Dmitry Kozak – the Deputy Chairman of Government. He served in the special forces of

the Main Intelligence Directorate of the Russian Federation;

3. Sergei Ivanov – the Head of Administration of the President of the Russian Federation,

the Colonel-General in resignation;

4. Georgy Poltavchenko - the Governor of St. Petersburg, the Lieutenant-General of tax

police in resignation;

5. Vladimir Yakunin - the P es de t of “Russ a Ra ways”. He se ved the State Security

Committee of the USSR;

6. Vladimir Shamahov – the Director of the North-Western Institute of Management of the

Russian Federation Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public

Administration. It is the largest European Higher Educational Institution, which trains

state and municipal officials;

7. Alexey Efentiev - the head of the largest Agro-industrial complex in Russia, the Colonel

in retirement. He performed combat tasks in Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Kosovo.

As a particular example, we would like to demonstrate several big businessmen of the Russian

Fede at o , who have ’t bee off ce s, but eve the ess passed the urgent service in the ranks of

the Sov et a d Russ a a m es: O e De paska (the ow e of the “ as c E eme t compa y” a d

industrial comp ex the “Russ a A um um”), Su e ma Ke mov (co t o s f a c a a d

dust a oup the “Nafta Moscow” a d the ow e of the “A ” footba c ub), Roma

Ab amov ch (the head of the “Syb eft compa y” a d the ow e of the “Che sea” footba c ub),

Serge Ga tsky (the fou de a d ow e of the ma o eta etwo k “Ma t”, the P es de t of

Year Numberofservicemen,people

1945 11 000 000

1946 3 000 000

1960 3 623 000

1974 3 940 000

1991 2 880 000

2008 1 434 629

2013 766 000

Malkov & Sobolev 11

the footba c ub “K as oda ”), O e T koff (the fou de of the "T koff b a d”, the head of the

‘T koff. C ed t Systems’).

Here we would like to add, that retired officers were high-qualified experts because one of the

most ‘eff c e t the wo d p act ce t a system fo off ce s a d so d e s’ (Ka am shev 2014,

p 40) have been created in the Soviet Union and later in the Russian Federation.

The modern complex of a military training in the modern Russian Army uses many technologies

and systems of training, which have been using successfully in the Soviet Army. Also we want

to note that the Soviet Army always was distinguished by an effective organization of

management and provision for the military contingent not only on the territory of the Soviet

Union, but also for the Soviet military forces located on the territory of foreign States (the group

of the Soviet forces in Germany, the group of Soviet military specialists on Cuba and so on).

The next important factor, which defines the strong influence of the military leadership and

military traditions on the organizational structure of civil organizations, is that the military

service is compulsory for each citizen of the Russian Federation who has attained 18 years and is

healthy for the service.

A logical conclusion from this factor is that a number of young people holding the military

service and a large number of former officers, have received the necessary leadership skills,

which certainly have influenced on further labor activity of these people and an organizational

structure of companies, where they will work.

The combination of these aspects is a direct evidence of the influence of the Military leadership

and army on a civil sphere of life in the Russian Federation.

1.3. Current issues related to leadership through the Army

I acco da ce w th the A my’s eade sh p doct a ma ua , F e d Ma ua (FM) 6-22 (2006),

A my eade sh p s ‘the p ocess of fluencing people by providing purpose, direction, and

motivation while operating to accomplish the m ss o a d mp ove the o a zat o ’ (p. 1-1). In

acco da ce w th commo def t o of eade sh p ve by Fa ese (2010), ‘ eade sh p s the

process of influencing others by providing purpose, motivation and direction to accomplish

m ss o s a d mp ove the o a zat o ’ (p. 31). These def t o s h h ht the fact that the

Army views leadership as a process and that this process requires specific competencies to be

effective.

‘I a y A my, a y t me, the pu pose of “ eade sh p” s to et the ob do e’ (Ko d tz 2007, p.

35). The competent military leaders develop trust, focus on their effort, clarify objectives, inspire

confidence, build teams, set the example, keep hope alive, and rationalize sacrifice. For this

century or the next, there is a little mystery about requisite leader competencies or behaviors.

Desirable qualities and skills may vary a bit, but the basic formula for leader success has changed

little in 2,000 years. However, the method for routinely inculcating, supporting, and sustaining the

desired leader behaviors has yet to be determined. (Ulmer 2010, p.131)

We can compare the modern Army with high-tech organization, which uses modern

technologies, scientific developments, advanced weapons systems, and requires highly qualified

staff with skills of military leadership, able to make decisions and trained to perform tasks.

Therefore, we argue that nowadays military leadership solves similar tasks as civil organizations

(logistics, supply, organizing, planning, motivation, etc.), so the military leaders can use their

skills and knowledge in a civil sphere. This fact may explain high demands placed on modern

military leader. For example,

platoon commanders are typically out of college for less than one year when they are given

responsibility for every facet of performance and discipline for 30 soldiers. Generally, a company

Malkov & Sobolev 12

commander is only six to eight years senior to a platoon commander and is responsible for 200

soldiers. (Maldonado 2012, p. 3)

High military education has always been one of the most prestigious and competitive in the labor

market, first of all it is connected with the fact that military universities provide the highest level

of educational services and allow to use the received knowledge and skills not only in military,

but also in civil organizations.

It is necessary to understand how exactly the preparation of a military specialist is different from

the training of a civil servant. First, the a my uses ‘a “up o out” system’ (Wh te 2014, p. 11), n

which soldiers who fail in promotion must ultimately leave the Army. This stands in contrast to

civilian organizations, in which an employee can attain a certain level and then remain at that

eve u t et eme t. Seco d y, the state does ot h e eade s outs de. I stead, comma de ’s

positions are filled by individuals, which were promoted within the organization.

These two characteristics highlight why it is pa t cu a y c t ca fo the A my ‘to devote

esou ces to deve op eade s’ (Pete so 2012, p. 43). G ve th s co text, t s ot su p s

that the Army is a world-class training institution as well as a major contributor to researches of

the leadership development.

A professional formation of an officer is a dynamic process, contributing the development of

professional and personal qualities of an officer to help shape the behavior of obligation and

providing installation on the absorption of professional knowledge, abilities and skills, which are

necessary for successful performance the special duties not only in the military, but also in the

civil sphere.

As the Army requires lots of high-intelligence p ofess o a s w th ‘b a s’, the military leaders

can be best-trained, experienced and mission-driven employees in the civilian workforce. Huge

changes have occurred in military leadership in recent twenty years. So we can conclude that

nowadays the Army uses modern technology and equipment and has common points with civil

organizations.

1.4. Research Field

From our point of view, the army is a social institute bringing up a particular leadership style. In

this way, we think it is important to investigate the elements of personal development in the

context of military leadership. In order to consider military leadership as a personal

characteristic, we have decided to formulate our understanding of the military mentality, which

includes special traits, values and principles. So in this work we formulate the concept of unique

leadership style, which distinguishes the military leaders from the civilian leaders.

In accordance with Sewell (2009) we can define three levels of leadership in the Army: direct

(the level of platoon commanders), organizational (the level of battalion commanders) and

strategic (the level of generals) (p. 101). However our study is conducted on direct and

organizational levels, because on these levels commanders communicate with their subordinates.

Functions of the military leaders at these positions are similar to functions of middle managers in

civil organizations.

Indeed, decision-making and problem solving processes in the army have own special features

supporting the authority and credibility of the military leaders. We assume that elements of

thinking and practices of the military leaders can be implemented in civil organizations. Hence,

we believe that it is necessary to explore how these elements are used in civil organizations at the

present time.

One of the most crucial parts in our work is the real experience of Russian former officers who

are holding leading positions in business, entrepreneurship and public organizations. So we want

Malkov & Sobolev 13

to determine how the military experience of real Russian officers and their leadership skills

influence on organizational structures, which they manage.

Eventually, it is important for us to define what we can learn from the process of implementation

elements of military leadership in civil organizations. In order to understand this effect we

decided to conduct a series of interviews with people who hold leadership positions in the middle

management of commercial and government organizations. Each personality has different

military ranks, a special military experience in different types of troops, a different way of how

he or she has come to civilian work. We are interested to identify the relationship between the

past military experience, success or difficulties in current places of work and leadership as a

result of personal development during the military service. Thus, in our interviews we want to

determine how the army impacts on leadership potential and what can be contributed to

leadership in civil organizations from the military experience.

1.5. Research Focus and Research Question

Our aim in this work is to define possible benefits of the military experience, which are used in

civil organizations by the former officers. We were not sure what kind of impact military

leadership has on the work of civil organizations. So for us it is important to recognize the

positive and negative nature of the influence of the military experience on civil organizations.

We want to determine what might hinder the effective using of the military experience in civil

organizations. Hence, it is important to define how to avoid a baneful influence and get more

benefits from the military experience and what ideas can be borrowed from the military

experience.

Thus, we formulated our research question in the following way:

How does the military experience influence the performance, efficiency or failure of leadership

in civil organizations?

Also, we would like to add that we agree with following definition of research question: ‘The

problem is that one presupposes that social scientists possess a “u que k ow ed e” of what is

ca ed the “occup ed popu ace”’ (Daudi 1986, p. 117). At the beginning of our work we will

explain our methodology. Then we will present our analysis of the scientific literature within the

research field. We will show previous researches on the military leadership with relevance to the

focus on research question. We will investigate the components that define unique military

leadership style. It is important to show the influence of the army on the personal development of

the officers.

The main part of our thesis is based on empirical data gathered through qualitative interviews

with the former military officers working in civil organizations. We will show their personal

understanding of leadership, the development of their leadership through military experience and

how they evaluate the possible benefits or negative sides of the impact of their military

experience on the present work.

In conclusion, we will present an analysis of our findings. Based on analysis of scientific

literature and a set of interviews, we will try to deduce the general features characterizing the

influence of the military experience on the work of former officers in civil organizations.

2. Methodo o y

In this chapter of the thesis we will share our methodological approach. We will show how we

approached our research, how we collected our data, and how we analyzed the data. We have

decided to use qualitative approach in our study.

Malkov & Sobolev 14

Persons choose to do research because they have a dream that somehow that will make a difference

in the world through the insights and understandings they arrive at. There are many reasons for

choosing to do qualitative research, but perhaps the most important is the desire to step beyond the

known and enter into the world of participants, to see the world from their perspective and in doing

so make discoveries that will contribute to the development of empirical knowledge. (Corbin &

Strauss 2008, p. 15)

2.1. Qualitative researchers: our perception of the research problem

Corbin and Strauss (2008) name the person conducting research and attempting to reach the

essence of the esea ch quest o as a ‘qua tat ve esea che ’ (p. 13). During the time of working

on the thesis, we have conducted data collection, analysis of information and other activities of

research character in accordance with the definition of the qualitative researcher. Later in this

part, we would like to express what we mean by this definition. According to our understanding,

qualitative researchers aim at deep understanding of human behavior and the reasons that lead to

such a behavior. The qualitative method investigates all spheres of decision-making process. In

accordance with Corbin and Strauss (2008) qua tat ve esea che s e oy the ‘se e d p ty’ a d

the ‘d scove y’ (p. 25). We believe that these qualities are very important in conducting research,

especially in the process of obtaining data for the study from the interviews. In our study we will

conduct in-depth interviews with different people, where we will definitely have to use

serendipity, inner intuition and sensitivity. The process of collection of theoretical and empirical

information, further analysis of the received data is a necessary stage in the work of researchers,

if they want to achieve objectivity in the esea ch. ‘Se s t v ty sta ds co t ast to ob ect v ty. It

equ es that a esea che put h mse f to the esea ch’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 32). The

qualitative method allows to qualitative researchers present a full participants point of view on

the studied object.

The most important thing for us is the desire to step beyond the known data and enter into the

world of participants, to see the world from their perspective and make a research that will

co t bute to the deve opme t of emp ca k ow ed e. As Co b a d St auss (2008) states, ‘a

qua tat ve esea che shou d be cu ous, c eat ve, a d ot af a d to t ust h s o he st cts’ (p.

27).

Furthermore, on the basis of books written by such authors as Corbin, Strauss, Denzin, Savin-

Baden, we can cite the main characteristics, which a qualitative researcher should have:

‘A huma st c be t’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 13);

‘C eat v ty a d ma at o ’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 13);

‘A se se of o c’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 13);

‘The ab ty to eco ze d ve s ty as we as e u a ty’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 13);

‘A w ess to take sks’ (De z 2005, p. 24);

‘The ab ty to wo k th ou h p ob ems the f e d’ (De z 2005, p. 24);

‘A accepta ce of the se f as esea ch st ume t’ (Sav -Baden 2013, p.58)

‘T ust the se f a d the ab ty to see va ue the wo k that s p oduced’ (Sav -Baden

2013, p.58).

We as qualitative researchers would like to add that it will be useful for us if the subject of our

study is interesting, not only in the scientific circle, but also among people who are interested in

the p ob em a sed ou thes s. ‘Th s s because the qua tat ve esea che s take w th eat

seriousness the wo ds a d act o s of the peop e’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 14).

2.2. A qualitative approach

We have decided to use a qualitative approach for our research. Denzin (2005) defines the

qualitative research as a method of inquiry applied in many different academic disciplines,

Malkov & Sobolev 15

traditionally in social sciences, but also in market researches a d fu the co texts (p. 38). ‘The

basis of philosophy of the qualitative research is idea that our reality is the accumulated

expe e ce of the peop e vo ved the commu cat o p ocess’ (S av -Baden 2013, p. 46). By

using a qualitative method, we want to obtain accurate and valid data and also we want achieve

the correct description and interpretation of the social phenomena, which we study in our thesis.

‘Th s app oach to stud es ves us the poss b ty to do esea ch whe e tt e has bee do e so fa ’

(Reinisch & Weber 2013, p. 13).

According to Corbin and Strauss (2008), interpretation is

the basis of qualitative research, in which experts are focused on the study of complexity, the

correctness of the hypothesis on the relationship between the context of the researcher and the

context of the investigated phenomena, and also they try to minimize inaccuracies conclusions. (p.

30)

I most cases, a qua tat ve study takes p ace the ‘ atu a e v o me t’ (Co b & St auss

2008, p. 25; Marshall & Rossman 1989, p. 16). Thus, the topics of the research are problems

with that we encounter every day in our daily life (Van Maanen 2003, p. 67). So, Denzin argues

that the basis of qualitative research is the interpretation, which can be characterized by three

signs. First, the qualitative research is the study of discourse. Secondly, the qualitative approach

helps to study interpretive principles that people use in the process of deciphering information.

Third, the qualitative research is the identification of contextual-forming factors (Denzin 2005, p.

54). We believe, that this method will be good at our study, because ‘the method plays a decisive

role in determining whether one will be able to grasp meaningful dimensions of reality’ (Daud ,

p. 116).

‘O e of the v tues of qua tat ve esea ch s that the e are ma y a te at ve sou ces of data’

(Corbin & St auss 2008, p. 27). That’s mea that we ca use te v ews, obse vat o s, v deos,

documents and other sources for gaining information for our research. The strength of the

qua tat ve esea ch s ts ‘ab ty to p ov de comp ex textua desc pt o s of how people

expe e ce a ve esea ch ssue’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 28). It p ov des fo mat o about

the personal side of an issue – that is, the often opposite behaviors, beliefs, opinions, emotions,

and relationships of individuals. In our opinion, qualitative methods are also very effective

because they can help researchers to define and identify such intangible factors as social norms,

moral factors, socioeconomic status, gender roles, the psychology of the respondent, ethnicity,

and religion, whose o e the esea ch ssue may ot p ay a s f ca t o e. ‘Qua tat ve

research is especially effective in obtaining culturally specific information about the values,

op o s, behav o s, a d soc a co texts of pa t cu a popu at o s’ (St auss & Co b 2008, p.

231). Qualitative research can help us to interpret and better understand the complex reality of a

given situation and the implications of qualitative data. Even more important advantage of using

this method is that an qualitative approach allows us to get the internal experience of participants

in our research and to define how meanings are formed through and in culture, and to discover

rather than test variables.

The basis for practical information in our work is in-depth interviews with experts. The number

of respondents in our case will not exceed 8 people, thus we consider it advisable and useful to

use a qualitative research approach.

In our opinion, we should clarify the differences between qualitative and quantitative

approaches. According to Kumar (2005), the main difference of qualitative methods in compare

with quantitative methods is that, in the first case, data is collected from a quite small group of

espo de ts a d a a yzed by us stat st cs (p. 97). ‘Qua tat ve methods volve collecting

fo mat o a f ee fo m’ (Kuma 2005, p. 122). In our vision this means that qualitative

methods do ’t focus o stat st c measu eme ts, but they a e based o u de sta d , exp a at o

and interpretation of empirical data to formulate hypotheses and productive ideas. The task of the

qualitative methods of research is to obtain exploration data.

Malkov & Sobolev 16

Another reason explaining why qualitative methods involve collecting information in a free form

is that we have many choices related to data collection ranging from grounded theory practice,

storytelling, classical ethnography, or shadowing. Savin-Baden (2013) states that the most

common method using in the qualitative research is interview (p. 68). In our study we use

another methods of the data collection: observations, reflections, field notes. In our case the main

way to obtain empirical information in the study is a conducting interviews with experts in our

esea ch f e d. ‘Stat st cs m ht be te est , but t s the e d ess poss b t es to learn more

about peop e that qua tat ve esea che s eso ate to’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 13).

According to De z (2005), o e adva ta e of qua tat ve methods esea ch s us of ‘ope -

ended questions and probing gives participants the opportunity to respond in their own words,

athe tha fo c them to choose f om f xed espo ses, as qua t tat ve methods do’ (p. 77). We

suggest that open-ended questions have the ability to evoke responses that are:

• ‘mea fu a d cu tu a y sa e t to the pa t c pa t’ (De z 2005, p. 78);

• ‘u a t c pated by the esea che ’ (De z 2005, p.78);

• ‘ ch a d exp a ato y atu e’ (De z 2005, p.79).

We suppose that researcher should listen carefully to what participants say, engage with them

according to their individual personalities and styles, and use intuition and subquestions to

encourage them to elaborate on questions. We believe that, in general, qualitative approach will

be ve y usefu fo us because by us th s app oach ‘as esea ches we a p eco nition of that

we study, be t peop e, oups, soc ety, o spec f c phe ome a’ (Daud , p. 126).

2.3. Grounded Theory

The Grounded Theory first was introduced by Glaser a d St auss (1967) the book ‘The

D scove y of G ou ded Theo y’. Scientists have developed a methodology that can allow

researchers to use the process of collecting and analyzing the data as a basis for generating a

theory.

During the years grounded theory has been evolving. Some points of the theory have been

changed by Strauss and Corbin (1990) who applied the principles of symbolic interactionism. As

Blumer (1969) a ues, ‘symbo c te act o sm s a theo y of huma oup fe a d huma

co duct’ (c ted L cqu sh & Se bo d 2011, p. 12). Acco d to th s theo et ca app oach,

people take part in different social events and develop own meanings of these interactions. In

order to interpret such meanings through social interactions symbolic interactionism includes

‘obse vat o of face-to-face te act o s’ (E wa d 2013, p. 37). O this basis, Strauss and

Corbin consider that the theory should be interpreted by observer, but not be grounded in the

data. In other words, the observer develops the theory based on the data only to understand some

social events. Furthermore, Strauss and Corbin introduced more complex procedure of the data

a a ys s o de to ou ded theo y was mo e measu ab e. G ase (2007) c t c zes th s St auss’s

a d Co b ’s app oach to the grounded theory. He a ues that ‘applying a preconceived

theoretical framework to a grounded theory project is contrary to the inductive nature of the

p ocess’ (Licqurish & Seibold 2011, p. 12).

The grounded theo y ca be co s de ed as a ‘systematic research approach involving the

discovery of theory through data collection and ana ys s’ (Engward 2013, p. 37). It allows

researchers to generate theory through research data. The basic elements of the grounded theory

are collection, coding and analysis of qualitative data. Glaser and Strauss (1967) regard the

theo y ‘as an ever-developing entity, not as a pe fected p oduct’ (p. 32). In other words, the

generation of the theory is unceasing, continuous process, which includes simultaneous

collection, coding and analysis of the data.

Malkov & Sobolev 17

The generation of the theory involves a process of ‘theo et ca samp ’. It s ‘the process of

data collection for generating theory whereby the analyst jointly collects, codes and analyzes his

data a d the dec des what data to co ect ext a d whe e to f d them’ (G ase & St auss 1967,

p. 45). This process is controlled by the emerging theory (Glaser & Strauss 1967, p. 45). The

procedure of theoretical sampling begins during the data collection and involves searching the

most important categories for the generating theory. It gives the opportunity to test or refine new

ideas getting during the process of data collection.

The process of analyzing data is based o ‘cod ’ data into categories, which are compared with

each other. Glaser (1978) d st u shes betwee ‘substa t ve’ a d ‘theo et ca ’ coding (p. 55).

‘Substa t ve codes co ceptua ze the emp ca substa ce of the a ea of esea ch’ (G ase 1978,

p. 55). This process refers to coding closely related to data. Theoretical coding involves

te p etat o s of ‘how the substa t ve codes may elate to each other as hypotheses to be

integrated into the theory' (Glaser 1978, p. 55).

St auss a d Co b d st u sh betwee th ee phases of cod : ‘ope cod ’ (St auss a d

Co b 1990, p. 195), ‘ax a cod ’ (St auss a d Co b 1990, p. 195) a d ‘se ect ve cod ’

(St auss a d Co b 1998, p. 143). Ope cod efe s to a p ocess of ‘b eak data apa t a d

delineating concepts to stand for blocks of raw data' (Strauss and Corbin 1990, p. 195). Open

coding allows generating concepts and categories that te p et the data. Ax a cod s ‘the act

of e at co cepts/cate o es to each othe ’ (St auss a d Co b 1990, p. 198). Du ax a

coding concepts and categories are putting back together by making connections between them.

And selective cod s ‘the p ocess of te at a d ef the theo y’ (St auss a d Co b

1998, p. 143). According to this process, the core category is selecting. It fills in poorly

developed categories and characterizes the main ideas of the theory.

A strategic method for generating theory in the grounded theory is using of constant comparative

analysis of the data. I th s method, ‘each unit of coding is compared to every other unit of

coding, and each category is compared to other categories; codes are compared to categories,

c de ts to c de ts’ (Connely 2013, p. 124).

During the process of comparative analysis we can et such e eme ts of data as, ‘conceptual

categories and their conceptual properties; and hypotheses or generalized relations among the

catego es a d the p ope t es’ (Glaser & Strauss 1967, p. 35).

According to Glaser and Strauss (1967), a cate o y s ‘a conceptua e eme t of the theo y’ (p.

36) a d a p ope ty s ‘a co ceptua aspect o e eme t of a cate o y’ (p. 36) indicated by the data.

‘Hypotheses have at first the status of suggested, not tested, relations among categories and their

properties, though they are verified as much as poss b e the cou se of esea ch’ (Glaser &

Strauss 1967, p. 39).

G ou ded theo y ca be used to ‘increase unde sta d of soc a phe ome a’ (Clamp and

Gough 1999 cited in Engward 2013, p. 37). It means that the grounded theory is considered as an

app oach that exp a s ‘relationships and events that reflect the life experiences of those people

and processes that the researche s attempt to u de sta d’ (Lawrence & Tar 2013, p. 31).

This is a one of the main aspects, which distinguishes grounded theory from other qualitative

methodologies. We have discovered social phenomena of the military leaders in civil

organizations by looking at their military and life experience. We were guided by personal

stories of our interviewees, problems, which they face, and methods, which help them to solve

these problems.

Turner (1981) supposes that grounded theory is su ted to dea w th ‘qualitative data of the

kind gathered from participant observation, from the observation of face-to-face interaction,

from semi-structured or unstructured interviews, from case-study material or documentary

sou ces’ (cited in Lawrence & Tar 2013, p. 35). For our thesis we have chosen in-depth

interviews as a method to collect data for our theory. This method generates information in

Malkov & Sobolev 18

disorganized format that is difficult for the perception. Grounded theory offers special methods

for selecting and analyzing this kind of data like theoretical sampling, coding, and comparative

analysis.

Another important advanta e of ou ded theo y s that ‘a documented record of the progress of

the a a ys s s e e ated’ (Lawrence & Tar 2013, p. 35) during the study. Grounded theory

approach has allowed us to trace the development of the theory on each stage, from the

beginning of the study till the final version of the theory. Our data was changing during the

process of generating theory, but we can look through all alterations of theory due to our memos

and field notes, which contain additional information about the research process.

Another important aspect of grounded theory, which distinguishes it from other qualitative

research methods, is its focus on the theory development (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). The

processes of data collection and analysis were conducted simultaneously. According to the

ou ded theo y, ‘the theories are constructed not only at the end, but already during the process

of esea ch’ (Re sch & Webe 2013, p. 15). We were reading articles and books during the

whole research process. We prepared questions for interviews, changed those questions and

added new ones. Finally, we formulated the theoretical categories to divide the collected data in

groups using our field notes and memos.

Grounded theory is helpful for researchers investigating a social phenomena where there are

minimal previous researches. As Enqward (2013) claims, the grounded theory provides a

methodology to 'develop and understanding of social phenomena that is not pre-formed or pre-

theoretically developed with existing theory and paradigms' (p. 38). The researches of leadership

in the context of our thesis are poorly represented in the scientific literature. Hence, we did not

keep well informed about military leadership in civil organizations and have created our

theoretical framework during the research process.

Consequently, we suppose that grounded theory approach is well suited for generating new

theo es that offe ‘fresh insights into and interpretations of socia p ocesses th ou h compa so ’

(Glaser & Strauss 1967, p. 92). As Simmons (2006) w tes, ou ded theo y ‘avoids making

assumptions and instead adopts a more neutral view of human act o a soc a co text’ (cited in

Engward 2013, p. 37). We did not need to define in advance what result we wanted to get and

how a social phenomenon will be investigated. We determined research methods, collected data

and analyzed it in accordance with principles of grounded theory.

2.4. Analysing our data: comparative analysis

The important part of our study is analyzing the data. As Arbnor and Bjerke (2009) notes,

a a ys s mea s ‘a tho ou h vest at o of a ex st s tuat o ’ (p. 93). In order to provide

such investigation we used the constant comparative method and coding procedures. We have

t ed to be ‘the co st ucto s of a theo y, athe tha ts d scove e s’ (Re sch & Webe 2013, p.

16). We separated the process of analyze in several stages, which are presented in Figure 1. This

demonstrates the way in which we have conducted our research from formulating theoretical

framework and collecting primary and secondary data till generating substantive theory through

comparative analyze and coding process.

2.4.1. Open coding

According to Charmaz (2006), cod s ‘a p vota k betwee co ect data a d deve op

a eme e t theo y to exp a these data’ (p. 39). Ope cod a owed us to e e ate as ma y

ideas as possible from early collected data. Glaser (1978) gives three questions that help us to

implement the open coding:

What s th s data a study of? … What cate o y does th s c de t d cate? … What s actua y

happening in the data? What is the basic social psychological problem(s) faced by the participants

in the action scene? (cited in Lawrence & Tar 2013, p. 32)

Malkov & Sobolev 19

We tried to keep in mind these questions during the process of analyze. We started with test of

ou te v ew’s otes e by e to de t fy ma themes. We s ed out the most e eva t fo

our research words and phrases in each sentence of interview records. We did this in order to

determine key ideas that characterized each interviewee in the most extent. Afterward, we

compared those words and phrases to each other to define similarities and differences between

participa ts of ou su vey (Re sch & Webe 2013). As Law e ce & Ta (2013) suppose, ‘ deas,

actions, thoughts that are found to be conceptually similar or related in meaning are grouped

u de mo e abst act co cepts te med cate o es’ (p. 32). O the bas s of s m larity and

difference, we classified the words and phrases into groups to identify the basic categories. At

this stage we don't know exactly which of them will be most valuable for our theory.

Figure 1. Grounded theory in our thesis (source: adapted from Reinisch & Weber 2013)

MILITARYEXPERIENCE

MILITARYLEADERSHIP

CIVILLEADERSHIP

Primaryandsecondarydata

Theoreticalframework Theoreticalframework

Comparativeanalysis

FIRST-STAGECODES

BASICCATEGORIES

CORECATEGORIES

SUBSTANTIVETHEORY

Opencoding

Axialcoding

Selectivecoding

Malkov & Sobolev 20

2.4.2. Axial coding

The fo mu at o of cate o es s a ded by the ‘co sta t compa at ve method’ (G ase & St auss

1967; Strauss & Corbin 1990). Compa at ve a a ys s, as a method, ‘forces the researcher to

“tease out” the emerging category by searching for its structure, temporality, cause, context,

dimensions, consequences and its re at o sh p to othe cate o es’ (Hutchinson 1988 cited in

Lawrence & Tar 2013, p. 34). According to this method, t s eed to make ‘coding an incident

for a category, and compare it with previous incidences in the same and different groups coded

the same cate o y’ (G ase a d St auss 1967, p. 106). Ax a cod s co s de ed as ‘a method

of integrating analysis through connecting categories – by deploying as a general frame of

reference the context, conditions, strategies and consequences that cha acte ze te act o ’ (Dey

2004 cited in Seale et al. 2007, p. 85)

We analyzed categories through axial coding the data and wrote down important memos on our

ideas simultaneously. We needed to decide which of the open codes are most relevant, and which

of them contribute most to the analysis. Hence, the process of coding became increasingly

selective. We compared basic categories in order to understand connections between them and

tried to think more abstractly about what sense the various categories have and what is different

between them.

2.4.3. Selective coding

Finally, we stopped our data analysis when we interpreted our basic categories and came to the

core category that explains the theory (St auss a d Co b 1990) a d ‘best ef ects the

pa t c pa ts’ solution to their main concer w th the p ocess u de study’ (Scott 2009 cited in

Connely 2013, p. 124).

The final result of our study is a comprehensive theory that explains our research object and

answers on the main research question. We formulated our findings in a substantive theory. It is

‘a theory for the substantive area o wh ch t has do e esea ch’ (Glaser & Strauss 1967, p. 114).

In other words, we generated the theory that explains the influence of military experience on

leadership in civil organizations. This theory is based on our theoretical framework and results of

interviews with the former military officers.

2.4.4. Memos

We were writing memos of events, cases, categories and relationships between categories during

data collection and ana ys s. Memo w t he ped us ‘to organize thinking about how the data

fits together and to help in the articulation of patterns and eme ks betwee codes’ (Glaser

& Strauss 1967, p. 108).

When we analyzed and coded our interviews, we wrote memos to catch the important ideas

about codes through the data analysis and coding. In addition, we used memos to reflect on our

personal background that may affect the study. This method was useful for us also, when we

read additional literature for our study. We made short notes about all books and articles, which

we had read. These abstracts contained a lot of additional information and our personal

reflections about the research question.

2.5. Data collection

2.5.1. Primary Data: Face-to-Face Research

‘I te v ew s a commo y used method of co ect fo mat o peop e’ (Kuma 2005, p.

123). During our life we collect information through different forms of interaction with others.

As Kuma (2005) states, ‘a y pe so -to-person interaction between two or more individuals with

a spec f c pu pose m d s ca ed te v ew’ (p. 121). Acco d to o da (2002),

interviewing can be flexible, when the interviewer has the freedom to formulate questions in that

way they come to his or her mind around the investigating issue (p. 221).

Malkov & Sobolev 21

‘The e a e seve a types of u st uctu ed te v ew ; fo examp e: -depth interviewing, focus

oup te v ew , a at ves a d o a h sto es’ (Kuma 2005, p. 124). We th k that the

process of data collection through unstructured interviewing is important and beneficial for our

research.

One of the main sources to obtain empirical data in our work is a conducting interviews with

experts in the field of military leadership, the former military officers of the Soviet and Russian

armies who work in a civil sphere at the present time. This type of interview is called in-depth

interviews. Conducting our interviews with the participants of the research, we asked the

respondents basic questions prepared in advance and additional questions concerning the topic of

ou study. As Re sch & Webe (2013) otes, th s eads ‘to very interesting and thought

p ovok esu ts that have p ov ded us w th e e y to co t ue ou esea ch w th e thus asm’

(p. 19).

We believe that only this way can provide an objective and correct information for our analysis.

Also we would like to point that ‘the process of collecting data about human behavior is itself a

social process and shares features in common with other situations and events of human

inte act o ’ (Daud 1986, p. 120).

We would like to conduct in-depth interviews with our respondents. According to Denzin

(1984), ‘ -depth interviewing is repeated face-to-face encounters between the researcher and

informants directed towards understanding informants perspectives on their lives, experiences, or

s tuat o s as exp essed the ow wo ds’ (p. 138). Th s def t o u de es two esse t a

characteristics of in-depth interviewing:

1. ‘It vo ves face-to-face, repeated interaction between the resea che a d h s fo ma ts’

(Denzin 2005, p. 139);

2. ‘It seeks to u de sta d the atte ’s pe spect ves’ (Tay o 2005, p. 42).

In conducting in-depth interviews, we established a trust relationship with our respondents; it is

assumed that the rapport between the researcher and the informant is enhanced. Hence, we could

get frank answers and reliable information. Ultimately, we want to ensure that interviews were

held in an informal and friendly atmosphere, but at the same time, we would not like to go so far

away from pre-written plan of questions.

We had prepared a list of basic questions, swinging the subject of military leadership. In addition

to the questions we intend to use techniques, which encourage respondents to spend long and

detailed discussions about research issues. We have been conducting our interviews face-to-face

with participants for approximately 50 minutes. During interviews we explored personal

opinions of the respondents, their beliefs and values on the subject of our research. We consider

that it will be very efficient way to co ect fo mat o , because ‘the observer is in a face-to-face

relationship with observed, and, by participating with them in their natural life setting, he gathers

data’ (Daud 1986, p. 131).

We believe it will be interesting for our readers to look a brief biography of participants in our

study and so you can see a full list of people accepted to help us and take part in our study

below:

1. Sergei Ermakov is a colonel. Currently he works at a position of the Dean of research

faculty of the graduate and postgraduate study in the North-West Institute of the Russian

Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration.

2. Natalia Petrova is a captain of justice. Now she is an owner of the law company.

Malkov & Sobolev 22

3. Dmitry Napreev is a major of justice. Now he is the head of the security department in

the North-West Institute of the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and

Public Administration.

4. Ravil Kamalov is a major of justice. Currently he takes a position of the chief of the audit

department in the North-West Institute of the Russian Presidential Academy of National

Economy and Public Administration.

5. Vladimir Petrov is a colonel. Now he is a chief of the IT department in the trade

organization.

6. Vladimir Kupcov is a colonel. Now he is a Deputy General Director of the construction

company.

7. Victor Savin is a colonel. Now he is a chief specialist in the science and technology

center.

8. Vladimir Naumov is a captain of the first rank. Now he is the head of the department of

business informatics in the North-West Academy of Public Administration.

The reasons why we have chosen these people to interview are multiple. Firstly, these people are

experts in a military sphere. They all have rich experience of the service in the army in positions,

which require constant communication with subordinates, and the managing positions in civil

organizations. Another important reason is that all respondents of our survey are our friends or

familiar people. This fact can be explained by the fact that the education and bringing up of the

Soviet and Russian officers is not conducive to the free speaking about information, skills and

abilities, received for years of the service in the Army. If such people agree to take part in an

interview, they prefer to do it with fellow researchers.

We have to note here that conducting interviews with the Soviet and Russian officers make some

limitations on using our results because they reflect the experience of only one country.

Nevertheless, we will unite these results with results of some surveys conducted in other

countries in order to get more useful outcome.

2.5.2. Secondary data

In support of, and in addition to the primary data we have collected secondary data. We can

determine primary data as ‘the data, wh ch has ece ved d ect y by the esea che s the

esea ch p ocess th ou h te v ews, su veys, quest o a es etc.’ (Kuma 2005, p. 124). He e, a

researchers conceives of and develops a research project, collects data designed to address

specific questions, and performs own analyses of the data, which he or she collected. Therefore,

people involved in the data analysis are familiar with the research design and data collection

p ocess. ‘Seco da y data, howeve , s the use of data that was collected by someone else for

some other purpose. In this case, the researchers pose questions that are addressed through the

a a ys s of a data set that they we e ot vo ved co ect ’ ( o da 2002, p. 197). The data

was not collected to answer the esea che ’s spec f c esea ch quest o s; t was co ected fo

another purpose. The one data set can be a primary data set to one researcher and a secondary

data set to another researcher at the same time.

According to Boslaugh (2007), in order to use secondary data in analysis, it should be done some

special procedures. Since the researcher did not collect the data, he or she is usually not familiar

with the data (p. 79). Basically, the researcher needs to become as familiar as possible with the

data set and the data collection process.

Malkov & Sobolev 23

3. Leade sh p c v o a zat o s

In this part of our thesis we want to reveal the main points of leadership theory, which, in our

opinion, is important to consider military leadership in the next part of our thesis. First of all, we

view possible leadership styles that reflect different essential features of the behavior of leaders

in civil organizations. Furthermore, we consider possible approaches to lead people in

organizations, covering different elements of organizational policy. Special attention in this part

is paid to followership, because we believe that the understanding of leadership would be

incomplete without revealing the influence of followers on the leader.

Since our research focus is aimed at military leadership experience in civil organizations, at the

beginning we write about what defines the relationship between superior and subordinates in the

organization – organizational hierarchy and basic management principles.

3.1. Organizational hierarchy

Most social systems are based on stable hierarchical relationships of superiors and subordinates.

The activity of organizations is based on legitimate power, coming from the head of organization

to his subordinates and reinforced by special administrative rules. It is called authority. Indeed, it

defines hierarchical relationships in organization.

Weber created a concept of bureaucracy (1946) where he gave an explanation of the

bureaucratically administered organization. He distinguished three styles of administration based

on different types of legitimative power in organization. These types are

(1) traditional authority in which a person claims identity with some group of persons who have

always had authority, (2) charismatic authority in which an individual has recourse to personality,

expertise, or the use of sacred symbols specific to himself, and (3) rational-legal authority in which

reference is made to some coherent system of laws or rules stemming from an overall system of

administration (Mansfield 1973, p. 477).

The third style is bureaucratic style, which is defined by a system of rules and ordered

procedures. It is based on six principles defined an administrative structure which can

characterize the majority of work organizations. These six principles are following:

(1) there are "fixed and official jurisdictional areas which are generally ordered by rules", (2)

organizations have a strict hierarchical system of authority, (3) administration is based on written

documents, known as the files, (4) management "presupposes thorough and expert training," (5)

bureaucratic activity is a full-time occupation, and (6) the management of the bureaucracy "follows

general rules, which are more or less stable, more or less exhaustive, and which can be learned'.

(Weber 1946 cited in Mansfield 1973, p. 477)

Mansfield (1973) states that, the second principle of strict hierarchical system of authority is the

most important for the organization and 'the rules of the bureaucracy not only legitimate the

power of a superordinate over a subordinate, they also delimit the extent of his authority' (p.

478).

According to Diefenbach and Sillince (2011), hierarchy can be understood as 'vertical formal

integration of official positions within one explicit organizational structure whereby each

position or office is under the control and supervision of a higher one' (p. 1517). The structure of

organizational hierarchy is a set of work positions and formal roles, which defined by system of

rules, orders and control.

Diefenbach and Sillince (2011) consider common types of hierarchical organizations:

1. Bureaucratic or orthodox organizations. It is a traditional type of organization where

subordinates are commanded and controlled by person owning the authority through system of

orders.

Malkov & Sobolev 24

2. Professional organizations. People accomplishing the common work in these organizations

have the same or similar professions.

3. Representative democratic organizations. They ' ep ese ts a comb at o of emp oyees’ d ect

participation in operational decision-making and indirect participation in strategic decision-

making via representatives' (Diefenbach & Sillince 2011, p. 1519).

4. Hybrid or postmodern organizations. These organizations use new management concepts such

as ‘ ea ma a eme t’, ‘bus ess p ocess e-e ee ’, the ‘ ea o a zat o ’ o

‘k ow ed e ma a eme t’ (D efe bach & S ce 2011, p. 1519).

5. Network organizations. There is a special center, which gives orders and makes decisions and

functional groups in this type of organization.

Table 2 gives the main characteristics of each type of organization.

Diefenbach and Sillince (2011) state that all types of organization are based on hierarchy.

Bureaucratic or orthodox, professional and representative democratic organizations use

hierarchical orders in their work. In addition, hierarchy of hybrid and network organizations are

expressed in the work process because they include different work teams or functional groups

who accomplish different projects or functions, which they get from superior or network

coordinator.

Table 2. Types of hierarchical organizations and their formal hierarchy (Diefenbach & Sillince

2011, p. 1520, Table 2)

Bureaucratic/orthodox organizations have the highest level of formal hierarchy. Hierarchy is

quite high in professional organizations too, but here the principle of seniority is equalized by the

principle of professional autonomy. According to the principle of seniority, more senior

members of organization place higher positions and manage junior colleagues (Diefenbach &

Sillince 2011, p. 1522). The principle of professional autonomy means that 'formal structures and

p ocesses a e espec a y mea t to suppo t p ofess o a s’ auto omy, fo examp e, se f-regulating

bodies such as intraorganizational committees, media for publishing and communicating the

profess o ’s deve opme ts' (D efe bach & S ce 2011, p. 1523). Fo ma h e a chy s qu te

high in hybrid organizations, less in representative democratic organizations, and extremely low

in network organizations.

Bureaucratic/orthodox

organization

Professionalorganization

Representativedemocratic

organization

Hybrid/postmodernorganization

Networkorganization

Mainconceptofthesystem

Bureaucracy,rules,managerialism

Professionalism,managerialism

Managerialism,representative(and

participative)decision-making

processes

Managerialism,projectsandteams

Autopoiesis,decentralizedco-

ordinationanddecisionmaking

Formalprincipleofhierarchical

order

Principleofrule-boundline

management

Principleofseniority,principle

ofprofessionalautonomy

Principleofformalhierarchical

representation

Principleofdirectandindirectline

management

Principleofautopoietic

structuresandprocesses

Formalhierarchical

ordervia

Officesatdifferentlevels,lineof

command-and-control,line

management

Rulesandorderoftheprofession,line

management

Linemanagement,committees

Linemanagement,formalprojects

andteams

Emergingformalfunctionsand

taskswithinthenetwork

Formallyhigherand

lowerrankedactors

Masterandservant,superiorand

subordinate

Seniorandjunior,professionaland

supportstaff,superiorandsubordinate

Representativesandrepresented,superiorandsubordinate

Superiorandsubordinate,leadersandmembersof

projectsorteams

Network-coordinator/facilitatorand

members

Malkov & Sobolev 25

Mansfield (1973) notes that management of large organizations can decentralize some of

decision making among organizational levels in order to provide control in it. This opinion

assumes negative relationship between bureaucracy and the centralization of decision-making in

organization. In other words, the larger the organization, the less extent of the centralization in it.

There are studies, conducted by Pugh et al. (1968), Blau and Schoenherr (1971), and Child

(1972) (Mansfield 1973), which prove this idea from practical point of view. They suppose that a

negative relationship between bureaucratization and centralization of decision-making is the

most predictable in large organizations. Top-managers in large organizations have a lot of

organizational work to do, so they can delegate the wright to make decisions to low levels of

management without loss the authority. On the contrary, the heads of small organizations tend to

centralize decision making in their hands. Thus, the studies conclude that 'the relationship

between bureaucratization and the cent a zat o of dec s o mak … te ds to be e at ve'

(Mansfield 1973, p. 487), and 'large bureaucratic organizations are much more likely to have

decentralized the loci of decision making than small nonbureaucratic organizations' (Mansfield

1973, p. 487).

3.2. Principles of management (H. Fayol)

Henri Fayol (1949) formulated 14 principles of management, which help to manage organization

more effectively. These principles were offered for industry organizations in the last century.

However, society is changing and going to the postindustrial type.

According to Rodrigues (2001), this type is characterized by ambiguity, requirement for fast

decision-making and globalization process, by fast growth of the service sector and increasing

knowledge. Hence, Fayol's principles are needed to get new interpretations in connection with

new trends in society. Rodrigues gives some interpretations of each principle, how it is perceived

then and now.

1. Division of work. Then in order to get more effective results, work process is divided in

several elements. Employees perform specific tasks. Now employees perform multiple tasks.

2. Authority and responsibilities. Then managers have the authority and responsibilities for it to

manage people, give orders and have a guarantee of its performance. Now work process includes

employee participation. Employees are empowered and get freedom to make decisions in work

groups.

3. Discipline. Then organizational rules control work relationships between manager and

subordinates. These rules guarantee the employees' performance. Now 'organizations rely more

heavily on informal, group peer pressure controls than in the past' (Rodrigues 2001, p. 882).

4. Unity of command. Then each employee has only one boss who gives orders to him. Now

employees have several managers, specialists in different groups, who give orders.

5. Unity of direction. Then 'there should be only one plan and one boss for each group of

activities having the same objective' (Rodrigues 2001, p. 882). Now an organization includes

several plans and bosses for each function.

6. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest. Then employees' interests in the

company, or group of employees, were not being more important than the company's interests.

Now organizations demonstrate 'more commitment to its employees than in the past' (Rodrigues

2001, p. 882).

7. Remuneration of personnel. Then reasonable rewards were given for work. Now payments

depend on work performance.

8. Centralization. Then 'a balance between centralization and decentralization' (Rodrigues 2001,

p. 883) was established. Now decision-making is realized throu h ‘”ad hoc ce te ”, which is

Malkov & Sobolev 26

defined by task relevant, specialized knowledge; centers of control, authority, and

communication are problem-specific and dependent on where the expertise to solve a problem

ests’ (Rod ues 2001, p. 883).

9. Scalar chain. Then hierarchical organizational structure of vertical communication between

the highest management level and the lowest positions was organized. It allows controlling

subordinates. Now 'organizations use a less-formalized, less-hierarchical, flatter decision-making

organizational structure than in the past' (Rodrigues 2001, p. 884).

10. Order. The ‘o a zat o 's mate a s shou d be the ht p ace at the ht t me, a d ts

emp oyees shou d be ass ed to the obs best su ted to them’ (Rod ues 2001, p. 884). Th s

principle provides control in organization. Now the principle is the same, but the aim is not an

internal control, but a coordination to get information about organization.

11. Equity. Then employees should be leaded in according of fairness and kindness. Now

organizations develop 'the sense of ownership' (Rodrigues 2001, p. 884), involving employees in

organizational process and sharing tasks with them.

12. Stability of tenure of personnel. Then organizations motivate employees to remain and rarely

train them. Now organizations often hire new employees and use ongoing training programs.

13. Initiative. Then 'organizations require managers who possess the ability to conceive new

ideas as well as the ability to implement them' (Rodrigues 2001, p. 885). Now 'organizations rely

less on hierarchical elements and more on employees who think independently and take initiative

than in the past' (Rodrigues 2001, p. 885).

14. Esprit de corps. Then 'the maintenance of high morale and unity among employees was

imperative' (Rodrigues 2001, p. 885). Now the maintenance of high morale and unity among

employees is not imperative.

Table 3 demonstrates differences in old and modern understandings of Fayol's principles.

3.3. Leadership style

The main task of the leader is to improve effective performance from employees. Hence, we

want to consider leadership styles from perspectives of the individual and organizational

efficiency.

3.3.1. Transactional leadership

According to Bass (1985), a transactional leader 'emerges as a result of transactions and

exchanges with group members' (cited in Ruggieri & Abbate 2013, p. 1172). Transactional

leaders get authority among employees, influence on followers, and, hence, achieve working

results through system of rewards and punishments for performance tasks. They concentrate on

the task performance and don't pay attention team needs. Ruggieri & Abbate (2013) notes that

'the activity of leaders consists of implementing interpersonal transactions in which tasks,

expectations, and related awards are indicated and clarified' (p. 1172). Thus, employees consider

manager as a transactional leader and fulfill tasks in order to get rewards.

Giltinane (2013) supposes also that transactional leadership style can be used effectively in

situations when the time of task performance is strictly limited, because this approach to make

employees concentrated on fast and successful performance of tasks.

Horwitz et al. (2008, cited in Giltinane 2013, p. 36) categorize transactional leaders into three

types: 'contingent reward'; 'management by exception-active', when leaders influence on

followers before their behavior becomes falling short of organization requirements; and

'management by exception-passive', when leaders influence on followers after their behavior

becomes falling short of organization requirements.

Malkov & Sobolev 27

Table 3. The 14 principles of management: then and now (Rodrigues 2001, p. 881, Table 1)

Co t e t ewa d mea s that ‘followers receive incentives after they accomplish their tasks to

stimu ate fo owe s’ task mot vat o ’ (Breevaart et al. 2014, p. 139). Leaders who use this

method motivate followers because they set definite goals and define what employees can get

when they achieve them. According to Burke et al. (2006), transactional leaders using contingent

rewards can influence on employees' performance and work satisfaction from the positive side.

However, management by exception-active and exception-passive are less effective methods.

Management-by-exception method is 'the anticipation of mistakes and the enforcement of rules

that may prevent mistakes from happening' (Breevaart et al. 2014, p. 139).

3.3.2. Transformational leadership

Transformational leaders 'express a clear, compelling vision of the future, intellectually inspire

followers, identify individual differences and assist followers to develop their strengths' (Bass

2008 cited in Giltinane 2013, p. 37). Leader's vision focuses the staff on understanding and

performance work assignments. It helps the leader to inspire people, makes them aware of the

organization strategy. In terms of this concept the challenge for leader is to create own vision.

Further the leader should articulate the vision and motivate the staff through this vision. By

doing so, the leader provide conditions for further development of organization. As Bennis and

Nanus (2004) notes, 'leaders articulate and define what has previously remained implicit or

unsaid; then they invent images, metaphors, and models that provide a focus for new attention'

(p. 37).

Transformational leaders inspire employees to work, shape their values through clear vision and

understanding of situation, share with them common responsibilities and include employees in

decision-making process. According to Bass (1985), a transformational leader 'adapts to the

Principle Then Now

1 Specializationinworkers'jobdesign Generalizationinworkers'jobdesign

2 Managersareempowered Employeesareempowered

3 Formalizedcontrols Informal,peer-pressurecontrols

4 Subordinatesreporttoonlyoneboss Subordinatesreporttomultiplebosses

5 Functionshaveonlyoneplanandoneboss Functionshavemultipleplansandbosses

6 Employeesarecommittedtotheorganization Organizationiscommitedtoemployeesandviceversa

7 Reasonablepayrewardsystem Performance-basedrewardsystem

8 "Trickle-down''decisionmaking Taskrelevant,adhocdecisonmaking

9Hierarchical,formalizedcommunicationstructure10Internalinformationsystemforcontrolpurposes

Less-formalized,flattercommunicationstructureInternalinformationsystemforcoordinationpurposes

10 Internalinformationsystemforcontrolpurposes Internalinformationsystemforcoordinationpurposes

11 Commitmentobtainedthroughkindness Commitmentobtainedthrougha`senseofownership''

12 Trainemployeesandencouragethemtoremain On-goingemployeetraininganddevelopment

13 Managersconceiveandimplementnewideas Workersconceiveandimplementnewideas

14Maintaininghighmoraleamongworkersis

imperativeMaintaininghighmoraleamongworkersisnotas

imperative

Malkov & Sobolev 28

changes and instability of the situation and involves, motivates, and supports followers in a

manner consistent with the required transformations' (cited in Ruggieri & Abbate 2013, p. 1172).

Transformational leadership can be characterized by the fou I’s: ' dealized influence,

inspirational motivation, individual consideration, and intellectual stimulation' (Breevaart et al.

2014, p. 140).

Idealized influence means leaders have the trust and support of their subordinates.

Transformational leadership is based on followers' trust, because its aim is a change (Giltinane

2013, p. 38). If followers trust in a leader's vision and support him, a leader can achieve results

and changes with his team more successfully.

Inspirational motivation means that transformational leaders transfer their vision of

organizational development and confidence success to fo owe s. They ‘communicate an

appea v s o of the futu e a d show co f de ce the fo owe s’ ab ty to co t bute to the

realization of th s v s o ’ (Seibert, Wang, & Courtright 2011 cited in Breevaart et al. 2014, p.

142).

Individual consideration means an individual approach of leaders to followers' needs. Leader

makes followers identifying their own value system with organizational vision and provides a

strong collaboration between leader and followers in achieving common organizational goals.

They aim on satisfying desired needs of subordinates in personal development, self-expression

and self-esteem.

Intellectual stimulation means an ability of leaders to stimulate employees for creating new

solutions in work. Leader should organize innovative learning process for organization,

including the following elements: 'reinterpretation of history', 'experimentation, 'analogous

organizations', 'analytical processes', 'training and education' (Bennis & Nanus 2004, pp. 182-

186). Rolfe (2011) stated about transformational leaders that 'leaders should be visible role

models and empower followers to become leaders' (cited in Giltinane 2013, p. 37). Such

followers have more motivation, inspiration and satisfaction from the work. This can be

explained by the assumption that leaders transmit in followers their own vision and aspiration to

achieve common goals. Followers feel own importance in organizational work process and tend

to develop their skills, to work better with a great pleasure.

It seems obvious that transformational leadership is more effective than transactional behavior.

Acco d to ass (1985), t a sact o a eade s 'mot vate the fo owe s to fu f the eade s’

expectations, while transformational leaders motivate their followers to perform beyond what is

expected of them' (cited in Breevaart et al. 2014, p. 139). Leaders can use both styles in different

situations but it's more efficiently to use more often transformational behavior.

3.3.3. Directive leadership

Directive leadership is 'leader behaviors that provide followers with specific guidance regarding

goals, means of achieving goals, and performance standards' (Martin, Liao & Campbell 2013, p.

1374). In this case leaders actively use system of rewards and punishments for controlling

employee performance. Doing this, they stimulate people to work better. Hence, work

motivation is enhancing.

Indeed, the main task for directive leaders is to increase a work performance in organization.

Such leaders direct their followers to perform core tasks. They set goals for subordinates and

give them instructions described what they should do. They clarify goals and formulate specific

methods to achieve these goals. Directive leaders examine employees' performance constantly

and correct their work through time direction (Martin, Liao & Campbell 2013, p. 1374).

A study provided by Lorinkova et al. (2013) concludes that directive leadersh p sty e ‘increases

collective clarity about roles and responsibilities, facilitating performance at earlier stages of

teamwo k’ (cited in Martin, Liao & Campbell 2013, p. 1374).

Malkov & Sobolev 29

D ect ve eade sh p a so ‘ mproves wo k u t co e task p of c e cy’ (Martin, Liao & Campbell

2013, p. 1374), but ‘decreases wo k u t p oact ve behav o s’ (Martin, Liao & Campbell 2013, p.

1375).

Martin, Liao & Campbell differentiate directive leadership from transactional leadership because

directive leaders guide employees how to achieve goals in opposite with transactional leaders

who draw a great attention a result and a system of rewards and punishments which provide

achieving this result (Martin, Liao & Campbell 2013, p. 1374).

3.3.4. Empowering leadership

Empowering leadership is the approach by 'which leaders share power with employees by

providing additional responsibility and decision-making authority over work and resources as

well as the support needed to handle the additional responsibility effectively' (Martin, Liao &

Campbell 2013, p. 1375).

Empowering leadership is based on sharing responsibilities with followers (Mills & Ungson

2003). Empowering leaders delegate authority to followers and allow them to take part in

decision-making process. They give followers an opportunity to explore core tasks and find ways

to perform these tasks.

Thus, empowe eade sh p ‘increases wo k u t p oact ve behav o s’ (Martin, Liao &

Campbe 2013, p. 1376) a d ‘improves wo k u t co e task p of c e cy’ (Martin, Liao &

Campbell 2013, p. 1377).

Empowering leaders focus on employee behavior. They tend to cultivate self-confidence, self-

esteem, self-management, and communication skills in followers.

Bennis and Nanus (2004) define the following leader's actions: 1) to give the employees the

sense of significance of their work in organization, 2) to provide competence, i.e. constant

development on the job; 3) to establish organizational community; 4) to provide enjoyment from

the work process.

It's important to note that Martin, Liao & Campbell (2013) differentiate empowering leadership

from transformational leadership because transformat o a eade s emphas ze ‘cha sma, v s o ,

intellectual stimulation, and individual zed co s de at o of fo owe s’ (Martin, Liao &

Campbell 2013, p. 1375), and not all visionary leaders empower followers.

3.3.5. Charisma

ass (1985) states that ‘charisma is a subcomponent of t a sfo mat o a eade sh p’ (cited in

Antonakis, Fenley & Liechti 2011, p. 375). However, Antonakis et al. (2011) distinguish the

conception of charisma from transformational leadership. They suggest that the conception of

transformat o a sty e s b oade a d ‘includes means of influence predicated on the leader

having a developmental and empowering focus (e.g., individualized consideration) and on using

“ at o a ” f ue c mea s (e. ., te ectua st mu at o )’ (Antonakis, Fenley & Liechti 2011,

p. 375). Hence, the influence of charisma developed in the perception of followers, who accept

the charisma of the leader.

Weber (1968) gave the first definition of charisma. He co s de ed cha sma as a ft ‘of the body

and spirit not access b e to eve ybody’ (Weber 1968, p. 19). House (1977) formulated the first

psychological theory of cha sma. He efe ed t to ‘leaders who by force of their personal

abilities are capable of having profound and ext ao d a y effects o fo owe s’ (p. 189). He

notes that because of such special effects, the followers are sure that leaders will give lots of

benefits and positive changes.

As a result of this belief, followe s of cha smat c eade s show ‘devotion and loyalty toward the

cause that the eade ep ese ts’ (Antonakis, Fenley & Liechti 2011, p. 375).

Antonakis and House (2002) suppose that charisma concerns

Malkov & Sobolev 30

leaders who use symbolic means to motivate followers ... and in whom followers can ex- press

their ideals. Charismatic leaders are viewed as strong and confident based on attributions that

followers make of these leaders. Followers respect and trust these leaders [who display] moral

conviction and are idealized and highly respected by followers. This perspective contrasts with the

“take-it-or-leave- t” radical perspective of revolutionary leaders. (p. 8)

Antonakis et al. (2011) offer the conception of organizational charisma, which is based on

interactions between the leader and followers. As a result of these relations the leader has got a

symbolic power. This power does ’t use reward and punishment system. It is based on ideology

and emotions. They suppose that charismatic leaders have the strong influence on followers, are

perceived as competent specialists, and, hence, produce followers' trust.

3.3.6. Leadership approaches

Farkas and Wetlaufer (1996) define 5 different approaches to leadership. Speaking about

approach, they mean,

which areas of corporate policy – for example, strategic planning, R&D, or recruiting – receive the

most attention, what kind of people and behaviors the CEO values in the organization, which

decisions the CEO makes personally or delegates, and how he or she spends each day. (Farkas &

Wetlaufer 1996, p. 111)

According to them, good leader adopt leadership approach, which best suits the needs of the

organization (Farkas & Wetlaufer 1996, p. 111).

1. The Strategy Approach

Leaders who use this approach tend to formulate and implement the long-term strategy in their

companies. They define ways in which their companies should be developed.

Such leaders make a lot of efforts to implement long-term strategy in organization (Farkas and

Wetlaufer 1996). They provide special researches and planning sessions, examine different parts

of their business, involve consultants, collect external information and then analyze collected

data. They d aw atte t o to custome s’ behav o a d eeds, a so to compet to s’ st ate y. They

spe d ‘80% of the t me to matte s exte a to the o a zat o 's ope at o s – customers,

competitors, technological advances, and market trends – as opposed to internal matters such as

h o co t o systems’ (Fa kas a d Wet aufe 1996, p. 111). It mea s that they de e ate da y

tasks to employees. This approach is applied in complex organizations in changing, risky

environment.

2. The Human-Assets Approach

Acco d to Fa kas a d Wet aufe (1996), the ma ob of th s k d of eade s s ‘to mpa t to

their organizations certain values, behaviors, and attitudes by closely managing the growth and

developme t of d v dua s’ (p. 112).

These leaders develop their employees through implementation major company values in every

emp oyee. I o de to do th s, they p ov de p ocedu es of ec u t , emp oyees’ t a , and

stuff motivation, rewarding programs. They pay attention face-to-face communication with

subordinates to know their personal matters. They believe that the best method to improve the

competition advantages is to give followers an opportunity to take part in decision-making,

launching new products and interaction with customers (Farkas and Wetlaufer 1996, p. 115).

3. The Expertise Approach

Leade s who use th s app oach be eve that ‘the CEO's most mpo ta t espo s b ty s se ect

and disseminating within the corporation an area of expertise that will be a source of competitive

adva ta e’ (Fa kas a d Wet aufe 1996, p. 112). They def e a d deve op a compet t ve

expe t se the o a zat o . They focus o p o ams a d p ocedu es ke ‘study ew

technological research, analyzing competitors' products, and meeting with engineers and

custome s’ (Fa kas a d Wet aufe 1996, p. 112). They t y to h e emp oyees who possess a deep

knowledge in some area of an expertise.

Malkov & Sobolev 31

This approach is appropriate to organizations, which need to achieve success through creating

special competencies, making the sustainable advantage in compare with their rivals on the

market.

4. The Box Approach

A box s ‘a set of p ocedu a , f a c a , a d cu tu a co t o s to wh ch membe s of the

o a zat o must co fo m’ (Fa kas a d Wetlaufer 1996, p. 118). Leaders using this approach

think that in order to achieve success they need to create a consistent and safe experience for

custome s a d emp oyees. They be eve that they ca do t ‘by c eat , commu cat , a d

monitoring an explicit set of controls – financial, cultural, or both – that ensure uniform,

p ed ctab e behav o s a d expe e ces fo custome s a d emp oyees’ (Fa kas a d Wet aufe

1996, p. 112).

Leaders spend a lot of time to generate detailed plans, procedures, explicit rules, and reward

systems. They design controls and track down the work of organization units in accordance with

these co t o s. They use ‘ te a ev ews a d exte a aud ts, emp oyee at sca es, st ct

po c es, a d f a c a epo ts’ (Fa kas a d Wetlaufer 1996, p. 119). They involve auditors,

organize managers meetings, and consider business reports.

Thus, this approach is usually used in regulated industries, demanding safety and clarity in work

of business units.

5. The Change Approach

Leaders tend ‘to c eate a e v o me t of co t ua e ve t o , eve f such a e v o me t

produces anxiety and confusion, leads to some strategic mistakes, and temporarily hurts financial

pe fo ma ce’ (Fa kas a d Wet aufe 1996, p. 112).

These leaders concentrate on the process of achieving changes. They motivate employees to

accept changes. They attempt to reinvent products and organizational processes, take risks

constantly. They use different forms of communication with employees, customers and

stakeholders like speeches, negotiations, and meetings (Farkas and Wetlaufer 1996).

3.3.7. Diminisher/multiplier style

Wiseman and McKeown (2010) touch upon the problem of differences between leadership styles

and their impact on the organization. They explain that there are two types of leaders.

‘D m she s’ (Wiseman & McKeown 2010, p. 117) are leaders who decide everything

themselves, without any discussion with employees or guided by their opinion to a small degree.

D m she s ‘underutilize people and leave creativity a d ta e t o the tab e’ (Wiseman &

McKeow 2010, p. 117). ‘Mu t p e s’ (Wiseman & McKeown 2010, p. 117) are leaders who

discuss issues with their employees and consider their opinions. In fact, multiplier and

employees develop the problem solution process jointly; leader only controls the process of

discussion.

There are some significant differences between these leadership styles. The main characteristics

of both styles of leadership are following:

Diminishers:

1. Shut down emp oyees’ smarts

2. Stifle the flow of ideas

3. Are centralized in decision-making process

4. Consider themselves as most capable persons in organization. (Wiseman & McKeown 2010)

Multipliers:

1. Develop and use talents of their employees

Malkov & Sobolev 32

2. Create an intense productive environment that helps employees working and creating

3. Set directions for employees by asking questions

4. Cultivate debate among team members

5. Shift the responsibility for thinking to their employees and give an opportunity to make

mistakes. (Wiseman & McKeown 2010)

Thus, leaders who use diminisher style in their work cannot stimulate their followers to make

more effective results. On the contrary, if leader leads like a multiplier, he will get more efforts,

energy, and new ideas from team members.

Multipliers give a lot of work freedom their subordinates. First, they let other team members

thinking with their own deep knowledge, because any employee may possess special skills from

different areas that can help in his/her present work. Secondly, they give others an opportunity to

be successful. Thirdly, they left space for employees to contribute in common business. Effective

leaders must not be conceited. They should allow their employees to achieve results themselves.

(Wiseman & McKeown 2010)

It's obvious that the value of diminisher style shouldn't be ignored. In different situations the

eade s ca use d ffe e t sty es of eade sh p. oth sty es have the ow adva ta es. Mu t p e ’s

style is more appropriate for companies operating successfully, because they have enough

esou ces a d t me fo wo k expe me ts a d emp oyees’ m stakes. Th s sty e w be poss b e

for the top managers who need to get some new ideas and can use potential of their employees.

On the contrary, the diminisher leadership style will be more effective for new companies or

companies in crisis, which need fast and appropriate decisions of skillful leader.

3.3.8. Soft leadership

Rao (2013) supposes that soft leadership is 'an integrative, participative, relationship, and

behavioral leadership model adopting tools such as persuasion, negotiation, appreciation,

motivation, and collaboration to accomplish the tasks effectively' (p. 144). It focuses on human

personality and behavior. This style aims to transform personality of followers and to make

employees' behavior more effective. It stimulates the development of personal and professional

sides of employees.

Soft leadership is based on soft skills. Soft skills are personal qualities that reinforce human

interactions and work performance in organization. Robles (2012) identified the main 10 soft

sk s: ‘integrity, communication, courtesy, responsibility, social skills, positive attitude,

professionalism, flexib ty, teamwo k, a d wo k eth c’ (p. 453).

Soft leadership focuses on people. Soft leaders care for employees. They organize negotiations

between people, use team building and motivational methods; app ec ate fo owe s’ contribution

in the wo k p ocess. ‘The soft leaders believe in setting a personal example, empathy,

persuasion, e ot at o , a d asse t ve ess’ (Rao 2013, p. 145). Hence, they encourage people to

be more free and to experiment in work.

Thus, the pressure on followers is decreased. They feel less stress and escape conflicts in

organization.

Rao notes that soft leadership should be distinguished from transformational leadership, which

focuses o 4 Is such as ‘ dealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation,

and individualized co s de at o ’ (Breevaart et al. 2014, p. 140). On the contrary, soft leadership

is based on 11 Cs – ‘character, charisma, conscience, conviction, courage, communication,

compassion, commitment, consistency, consideration, and contribution to make a difference in

the ves of the pa t e s’ (Rao 2013, p. 144). Indeed, it seems difficult to possess all these

characteristics. Nevertheless, the true soft leader should have the most of them and make efforts

to develop others.

Malkov & Sobolev 33

Soft leadership should also be distinguished from transactional leadership, because soft leaders

focus on people in order to perform tasks and transactional leaders pay attention on transaction

of tasks (Rao 2013, p. 144).

3.3.9. Followership

We think that understanding of leadership theory is incomplete without a conception of

followership. Hersey and Bla cha d's (1969) su ested that ‘leaders should strike a balance

between their task- and people-oriented behaviors depending on the confidence and skill set of

the fo owe s’ (cited in Oc & Bashshur 2013, p. 920).

There are three approaches viewed leaders and their followers. Uhl-Bien et al. (2014) offer the

following three approaches:

1. Leader-centric approach

According to this approach, leaders are v ewed as ‘power-wielding actors who affect group and

o a zat o a outcomes’ (Yukl & Van Fleet 1992 cited in Uhl-Bien et al. 2014, p. 84). Leaders

play a main role in achieving goals. They motivate and direct followers to perform tasks. They

influence on their behavior and attitudes. Followers are considered as subordinates who get

orders and carry out them without any resistance and doubt. Hence, they don't have performance

initiative.

2. Follower-centric approach

Followers have a significant role in orga zat o . Th s app oach v ews ‘leader emergence as

generated in the cognitive, attributional, and social de t ty p ocesses of fo owe s’ (Uhl-Bien et

al. 2014, p. 86).

3. Relational view

This app oach v ews eade sh p as ‘a mutual influence process among eade s a d fo owe s’

(Uhl-Bien et al. 2014, p. 87).

Uhl-Bien et al. (2014) states that eade sh p s ‘a dynamic system involving leaders (or leading)

and followers (or fo ow ) te act to ethe ’ (p. 89). This conception includes two

understandings of followership: followership as a role and followership as a process.

A role-based followership approach views followership as roles, which employees are provided

in accordance with a formal or informal position in organization (Uhl-Bien et al. 2014, p. 89).

This approach focuses on followe s’ behavior and behavioral styles. It identifies how followers’

features, traits influence on effectiveness, attitudes and behavior of leader.

According to a constructio st app oach, fo owe sh p s ‘a relational interaction through which

leadership is co-created in combined acts of ead a d fo ow ’ (Uhl-Bien et al. 2014, p. 89).

Leadership and followership are co-created through work relational interactions between

followers and leader. In addition, Meindl (1995) argues that the effectiveness of leadership

depends on followers because eade sh p focuses o ‘the linkage between leaders and followers

as constructed the m ds of fo owe s’ (Meindl, 1995, p. 220).

Carste et a . (2010) otes that ‘followership adopts the follower as the primary focus and

explores how followership behaviors are related to organizational outcomes of interest (e.g.,

eade sh p, pe fo ma ce)’ (Carsten et al. 2010, p. 543).

According to Kelley (1988), effective followers should have the following qualities:

1. They manage themselves well.

2. They are committed to the organization and to a purpose, principle or, person outside

themselves.

3. They build their competence and focus their efforts for maximum impact.

4. They are courageous, honest, and credible. (p. 144)

Malkov & Sobolev 34

Kelley (1992) distinguishes two dimensions of effective followership behavior. The first

d me s o s ‘ depe de t c t ca th k ’ (cited in Blanchard et al. 2009, p. 112). Followers

who critically think estimate and analyze situations, make independent judgments. According to

Blanchard et al. (2009), critical thinking can improve task performance through constant learning

process (p. 112).

The seco d d me s o s ‘act ve e a eme t’ (Kelly 1992 cited in Blanchard et al. 2009, p. 112).

Followers who are act ve y e a ed ‘take initiative, assume ownership, and actively participate

pe fo m the ob’ (Blanchard et al. 2009, p. 112).

Blanchard et al. (2009) advise ma a e s ‘to ensure that their employees are actively engaged in

the obs’ (p. 128). They note that ‘active engagement is by far the stronger driver of the

relationship to comm tme t a d sat sfact o ’ (Blanchard et al. 2009, p. 128).

3.3.10. The dark side of leadership

In this chapter we attempt to view different aspects of leadership in organization, which are

relevant to our research focus. It seems obvious that organizational leadership can be a source of

positive and negative outcomes in organizations. Thus, we want to consider destructive nature of

leadership.

According to Padilla, Hogan and Kaiser (2007), the sense of destructive leadership relate to

'negative organizational outcomes, and certain processes are more likely than others to lead to

such outcomes' (p. 178). They formulate main features of destructive leadership:

1. Destructive leadership can not be totally destructive, because any leadership has both positive

and negative sides.

2. Destructive leadership is characterized by 'dominance, coercion, and manipulation rather than

influence, persuasion, and commitment' (Padilla, Hogan & Kaiser 2007, p. 179).

3. Destructive leadership is characterized by a selfish orientation. It focuses more on leader's

goals than needs of followers.

4. Destructive leaders, susceptible followers and conducive environments are responsible for

negative organizational results.

Kellerman (2007) formulates seven types of bad leadership: 'incompetent, rigid, intemperate,

callous, corrupt, insular, and evil' (p. 17).

Padilla, Hogan and Kaiser (2007) notes that destructive leadership should be viewed in the frame

of 'the toxic triangle' including destructive leaders, susceptible followers, and conducive

environments (p. 176). According to them, destructive leadership is characterised by such factors

as negative charisma, personalized need for power, narcissism, negative life themes and an

ideology of hate. A need for power plays a special role in destructive character of leadership. As

Tost, Gino & Larrick (2013) states, a high sense of power reduces team communication and

diminishes performance. They argue that teams whose 'formal leader experiences a high

subjective sense of power' (Tost, Gino & Larrick 2013, p. 1468) demonstrate lower levels of

communication openness and work performance than teams whose formal leader possesses a

neutral sense of power.

Susceptible followers contribute in the appearance of destructive leadership. They are

conformers or colluders. Conformers submit to destructive leaders and accept their authority.

Their behavior is based on basic needs, negative self-evaluations, and psychological immaturity.

Colluders support the destructive leaders and take part in their activity. Their behavior is based

on ambitions, selfishness and the destructive leaders' values and beliefs. (Padilla, Hogan &

Kaiser 2007)

Malkov & Sobolev 35

Finally, the conducive environment facilitate development destructive leadership in

organizations. This environment appears in unstable organizations, in which there are no proper

control system of checks and balances on power, there are no strong cultural values.

Malkov & Sobolev 36

4. Leade sh p the A my

In this section of our thesis we would like to explore the nature of military leadership, the

relevance of military leadership and highlight main features, which is inherent to this type of

leadership.

This part of our thesis is very important, because in this section we want to show why we believe

that military leadership is important for society. In our opinion, military leadership today is very

important for two main aspects:

1. Today the army is a modern organization and an essential part of society, whose

employees after the service integrate into society and start career in a civil sphere;

2. The tense political and economic situation in the world, which requires the intervention

of the military in the resolution of arising crises a d combat act o s. ‘Their primary

purpose is to project or employ force under the direction of nation states to defend their

peoples o the hts a d te ests’ (Hannah 2010, p. 6).

4.1. The Army as a Contemporary Organization

‘Today’s m ta y eade s, mo e so tha po t ca eade s a d co po ate execut ves, face

ove whe m vo at ty, u ce ta ty, comp ex ty, a d amb u ty’ (Lau e ce 2010, p. 490). This

quote is very accurately highlights the importance of military leadership in our time. As modern

world with each passing year is becoming more and more uncertain, dynamic and complex,

hence, in such conditions for any organization, especially for the Army it is very important to

have the ability not only survive in these difficult realities, but also to accomplish perform tasks.

‘U ke ma y othe ove me ta o a zat o s, the m ta y must co t uous y p epa e fo

su p se a d da e ’ ( e et 2009, p. 328).

The call of duty obliges military leaders often to be in situations, which require an ability to

analyze the vast amounts of information, an ability to instantly navigate in the current situation

and to make correct management decisions, which may even effect on the lives of people. And

the matter is not only that the military officers take a part in the combat actions, but the fact that

‘ iven changes in the global political landscape and associated changes in both civilian and

military organizations led to the fact that the army become a unique, huge and diverse,

o a zat o that p ays a key o e both the at o a d the wo d’ (La sso 2006, p. 70).

In order to understand the level of skills and complexity of managing people in the army, we

wou d ke to b the Ame ca a my as a examp e. ‘I te ms of s ze, the umbe of peop e

the military is huge. In the U.S. alone, there are 1.37 million military men and women in

u fo m’ (Wo 2003 p. 659).

Speaking about money implementation in the military sphere, we would like to say that ‘ n 2010

the US Army spent 79,1 billion dollars on the development and purchase of modern technical

equ pme t’ (Roma ov 2011 p. 75), fo compa so , the ‘bud et of the Russian Army in 2013

was 90,7 b o do a s’ (Kokosh 2010, p. 40). Based on these data, we can conclude that

military leaders manage a large number of subordinates, concurrently use high technologies in

casual activity. Today, any modern army has equipped with a huge number of computers,

sate tes, a d othe tech ca dev ces. ‘O e cou d a ue that today’s m ta y cha e e s o

mo e comp ex tha that of the 1970s a d 1980s’ (Ha p 2010, p. 482).

By this reason, the army is a high-tech organization, which prepares their own high-qualified

specialists who are able to apply their skills and experience gained during the service at work in

civil organizations. The army and the military leadership have involved in continuous process of

self-improvement in order to fully meet the objectives and requirements set in the 21st century.

Malkov & Sobolev 37

‘M ta y o a zat o s have become c eas y k ow ed e-centric, not only sharing

knowledge with citizens, but often providing the energy, morale, excitement and discipline that

e cou a e the c eat o a d app cat o of k ow ed e’ ( e et 2009, p. 314).

4.1.1. Combat Actions

The archeologists have found the remains of ancient people with the tips of arrows and swords;

this idea means that mankind has always struggling and constantly led wars for power, resources

and superiority. If we return in modern times, we can see that the number of military conflicts, in

comparison with the past, has grown significantly, over the period from 1990 to 2010, 51

military conflicts occurred in human history throughout our planet. The largest and most famous

wars are presented in Table 4.

y a a yz th s fo mat o , we ca co c ude that the ‘ o e of the m ta y wo d affa s has

ece t y expa ded’ (Wo 2003, p. 660). Ma y people and experts believed that the role of the

army and military leadership after collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War in

the solution of geopolitical and economic conflicts in the world will be reduced, but the war in

Iraq, antiterrorist operation in Afghanistan and the North Caucasus clearly prove that, as well as

20 years ago, the Army remains one of the most important elements in holding of national

policies.

Table 4. Significant warfares in the world history from 1990 till 2010 (source: made by the

authors)

Despite the emergence and using in the army super computers, modern systems for the exchange

of operational information, and other complex gadgets, the conduct of hostilities is still the

responsibility of officers and so d e s. ‘The st eets of os a, the mou ta s of Af ha sta , a d

the dese ts of I aq equ e ‘‘boots o the ou d’’ to ach eve v cto y’ (Ko d tz 2007, p. 26).

That’s why the m ta y comma d does ’t e y o p o amme s o ma a e s, they give a

significant role in achieving goal process to leaders. Thus, leadership was and always will

remain a key aspect in the preparation and training of the off ce s. ‘Lo befo e eade sh p

became a topic of discussion in the corporate, academic, or even public realm, militaries have

bee e amo ed by eade sh p (e. ., Su Tzu, 500 C)’ (Wo 2003, p. 660).

Timeperiod Nameofwarfare

1991 WarinPersianGulf

1992-1995 BosnianWar

1994-1996 FirstChechenWar

1999 CombatNATOoperationagainstYugoslavia

1999-2009 SecondChechenWar

2001 BeginningthewarinAfghanistan

2003-2011 IraqWar

2008 WarinSouthOssetia

Malkov & Sobolev 38

4.2. The Nature of Military Leadership

Military leadership is a specific type of activity, presenting highest requirements for the

motivational, emotional and intellectual spheres of the character of military leader. The United

States A my def es eade sh p as ‘the process of influencing people by providing purpose,

direction, and motivation while operating to accomplish the mission and improving the

organizatio ’ (Department of the Army 2006, pp. 1–2). The similar definition of leadership also

has the United States Air Force (USAF): ‘the a t a d sc e ce of f ue c a d d ect peop e

to accomplish the assigned missio ’ (Department of the Air Force 2006, p.1). In these two

definitions we can quite clearly highlight two important elements, which are inherent to the

leadership process; it is the mission and the people who should perform the delivered tasks.

‘The e s a c ea de eat o of powe ac oss h e a chical levels and clear prescriptions about

how eade s a d subo d ates a e expected to te act’ (Wo 2003, p. 660). The essence of

military leadership is formally enshrined in the military Charters, which systematize and regulate

relations between office s a d subo d ates. ‘I a m ta y e v o me t, th s have to be do e,

but leadership is not just getting things done, but getting them done in the way in which the

eade wa ts them do e’ (Thompso 2011, p. 97).

As we mentioned before, the army and military leadership have attended in the process of

improvement, changes has not bypassed the process of mutual relations and making orders

between managers and subordinates. Particular importance in modern conditions has acquired

the evolving relationships betwee the off ce s a d so d e s. ‘The 2006 Quad e a Defe se

Rev ew p oc a med that the U.S. was fo a “ o wa ” that wou d dema d t a sfo mat o ,

coope at ve e at o sh ps o pa t e sh ps, a d cu tu a u de sta d ’ (Lau e ce 2011, p. 490).

Due to the fact that today the army solves a much more complex task than it was 20 or 30 years

ago, the military leaders must fully explain to subordinate the essence of the task before

beginning of the operation in order to minimize possible losses and to establish normal relations

with his subordinates. The military leaders and their subordinates very often have to act in

conditions of dangerous environment performing certain kinds of job. According to Campbell

(2010), we can define dangerous environments as those in which leaders or their followers are

personally faced with highly dynamic and unpredictable situations and where the outcomes of

leadership may result in severe physical or psychological injury (or death) to unit members (p.

3). In our opinion, in such situations, it is especially important to have feelings of mutual trust

between the m ta y eade a d h s subo d ates. ‘T ust was a so a ce t a facto a seco d

defining characteristic of leading in the Viet am co text’ (Campbe 2010, p. 8).

Realities of the new century, the development of the Armed Forces, the practical experience of

warfare in local armed conflicts, the implementation of peacekeeping operations by the Armed

Forces testify on their accomplishment of specific tasks related to the using not large-scale

capabilities but small units, groups and teams too. As example of conducting such operations a

m ta y ope at o u de the code ame ‘Red w s’ can be. It was conducted by the U.S. army

on 28th

of June in 2005 in Afghanistan. On the basis of memoirs of participants of this operation

in 2014 film director Peter Berg shot the movie a d ca ed t ‘Lo e Su v vo ’.

In this film, all interested readers can see an example of using military leadership in the

co d t o s of mode wa fa e. ‘Today’s batt ef e d dema ds adaptab e, f ex b e, s tuat o a , a d

participative leadership styles — a ta o de deed’ (Lau e ce 2011, p. 493). In this context, we

are talking about so-ca ed ‘p a mat c sty e of eade sh p’. ‘P a mat c eade sh p vo ves

developing a plan and taking action based on careful observation and analysis of the unique

s tuat o ’ (Lau e ce 2011, p. 493). In the process of the execution of service duties, as in the

army and at work in civil organization, the officer often needs quickly and qualitatively to make

decisions of administrative character and maintain a healthy moral and psychological condition

Malkov & Sobolev 39

of their subordinates. Between the officer and his subordinates should be open and trust

relationship, based on mutual assistance and respect to each other, especially in the combat zone.

Only in this case the m ta y u t s ab e to pe fo m the task. ‘Today’s eade s a e ca ed upo to

engage socially across cultures – to build trust, create alliances, read intentions, and influence

a d u de sta d peop e a d the mot vat o s’ (Lau e ce 2011, p. 491).

4.3. Features of Military Leadership

‘It s easo ab e to assume that most of soc ety e a ds the m ta y off ce as a eade ’

(Thompson 2011, p. 97). In this section we talk about features of military leadership, which are

he e t fo a my du the p epa at o of futu e m ta y eade s. ‘The most mpo ta t th to

understand is that every member of the military is trained to be a leader and is expected to be

o e’ (Wh te 2014, p. 11). For some items in this section we use the survey to confirm our ideas.

This survey was conducted among 200 respondents in the Armed Forces of Bosnia and

Herzegovina. The aim of this study was to give a description of military leadership, to highlight

personal characteristics, which are inherent to military leaders and express the opinion of the

respondents about the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of military leadership in general. We

found the data about this study at the science magazine ‘International Journal of Academic

Research in Business and Social Sciences’. We a so wa t to adm t that all participants of this

survey took part in combat actions.

4.3.1. Training of the Military Leaders

‘Remembe , the m ta y does ’t h e ma a e s m dca ee fo ope at o a obs. It deve ops

them f om e t y eve up’ (Wh te 2014, p. 11). In the process of preparing future leaders, the

army always accustomed to rely on their own resources and opportunities. This is largely due to

the fact that ‘the vast ma o ty of the wo d‘s p ofess o a m ta es a e c osed systems, that

the e s o p ov s o fo ate a e t y to the p ofess o ’ (Ha ah 2010, p. 7).

With this purpose modern armies have a developed network of universities and academies for

training of future specialists for all armed forces. As an example, we would like to show the

American system of training future officers and military leaders. Currently, the United States

‘has 21 educat o a st tut o s’ (Huffma 2008, p. 257) fo t a of m ta y spec a sts. It

should also be noted that, after graduation, every student receives a bachelor's, masters or

doctorate degree, which allows him or her later, without any problems, to get a job in civil

organization. Among the most famous higher educational institutions we can note the Academy

of Land forces (West point, New York), the joint command and staff College of the national

defense (Norfolk, Virginia) and the Center of special warfare of J.F. Kennedy (Fort Bragg, North

Ca o a). ‘Eve yo e s expected to ead a d fo ow as the team a d s tuat o equ e. Natu a y,

some individuals are more skilled, but everyone must acquire and demonstrate leadership

compete ce’ (Wh te 2014, p. 11). In the preparing of future military leader, the army has always

focused on the development of leadership skills among future officers, by formal education,

operational assignments and self-deve opme t. ‘Fo examp e, off ce s the U.S. A my ca

expect to spend 3 years of a 20-year career in Army schools developing the leader competencies

a d sk s eeded fo the ext eve of eade sh p’ (Wo 2003, p. 660). Also we would like to

note the fact that the military officer should be a leader. Leader must make decisions, no matter

whether he wants to do it or not. This fact is caused by the presence in the army special military

statute, which is very clearly delineates all authority and responsibility of the military leaders.

‘Most m ta y o a zat o s have a h h y st uctu ed bu eauc acy’ (Thompso 2011, p. 98).

4.3.2. Up or Out policy

Any leader in the army begins his or her career from the lowest rank and gradually moves up on

the ca ee adde . ‘T a eade s s a ecess ty, a d the m ta y has a “up o out” po cy

Malkov & Sobolev 40

whe e fa u e to be p omoted at ce ta t mes mea s you must eave the o a zat o ’ (Wh te

2014, p. 11). Such a promotion system allows gaining high-class professionals who have a whole

path of career development, with the necessary number of skills and competencies, leader who

knows system from the inside. In the case, if the military leader has no desire to practice and to

use their leadership skills, he eaves the se v ce. ‘Th s s se ous: o eade sh p, o ca ee ’ (Wh te

2014, p. 11).

4.3.3. Dangerous Environment

The activities of the military leaders, in varying degrees, are associated with the risk for life,

because they often have to perform tasks be a combat a ea. ‘The m ta y cu tu e c eates a

ethos where acts of extraordinary bravery are considered part of the job. Though this could lead

to dysfu ct o a “macho” behav o ’ o a zat o ’ (Wh te 2014, p. 12). By this reason, military

leaders have necessary combat training and they are able to act in extreme situations. In order to

understand how the military leaders operate in extreme situation, we propose to get acquainted

with the three-step guidance given by the lecturer of the Department of Behavioral Sciences and

the Leadership Academy of West Po t Co o e Do a d Campbe . ‘Leade sh p the da e ous,

ambiguous context of firefighting revolved around three linked sensemaking processes,

involving framing, heedful interrelating, and adjust ’ (Campbe 2010, p. 5). In our

understanding framing processes mean a number of specific actions that are using by the officers

in order to understand what is currently important and what is not. This step allows the military

leaders to reduce uncertainty in the decision-making process and choose the optimal way out of

specific situation. Heedful interrelating is necessary for all participants because in this step they

are able to evaluate risks and hazards, and to take collective action, leading to the salvation.

Adjusting processes make the leader of the group to adapt for the situation and to use only the

necessary personal qualities that will allow surviving. ‘M ta y eade s a e deve oped a d

educated to deal with stressful, unpredictable situations with a potential for having the worst

poss b e outcomes’ ( e et 2009, p. 317). This kind of experience builds the capacity to handle

with stress, work with people, develop strategies, and deal with the unknown.

As we mentioned earlier, ext eme co d t o s fo the m ta y eade s a e pa t of the wo k, that’s

why ‘ma a th s process is also critical, as understanding is facilitated by action, but action

affects events and can make things worse’ (Weick 1996, p. 306).

In addition to this model, we should devote a special attention for sense-making process when

the m ta y eade s et ext eme s tuat o s. ‘Resea ch a so su ests that eade s p ay a key o e

in d v dua s’ ab ty to make se se out of dy am c a d ext eme co texts’ (Ha nah 2010, p. 22).

When individuals are faced with something dangerous and unknown, they are trying to resolve

the situation or try to find meaning of what is happening. Sense-giving process during combat

action is critical because organization members requ e a se se of mea to ‘get their bearings

a d the c eate fu e , mo e accu ate v ews of what s happe a d what the opt o s a e‖’

(Weick 1988, p. 310). In the context of this situation, the military leaders must act as sense-

givers in order to train their employees properly and efficiently to act in such situations and try to

avo d these m stakes the futu e. ‘Se se-making, however is perhaps most critical during

extreme events such as combat, when individuals face novel, dynamic, and ill-defined events’

(Hannah 2010, p. 22). At the end of this part we want to give the statistical data, which was

obtained during the research conducted among 200 respondents in the armed Forces of Bosnia

and Herzegovina.

Malkov & Sobolev 41

Table 5. Descriptive results for military environment (Zukic 2013, p. 714, Table 8). Mean is an

average value of the respondents answers.

Based on Table 5, we can conclude that the respondents agree with the statement that in extreme

conditions subordinates should be able trust to their leader and the environment in the military is

trustworthy. Moreover, respondents also agree that there is a very complex environment in the

military and there is a well-developed ethical atmosphere in the army.

4.3.4. Moral core of the Military Leaders

In preparation of future military leaders the army pays special attention to the development of

high moral character of the officers. ‘Va ues such as se f-discipline, honesty, integrity, honor and

trust apply to success in the military just as much as they do to success in other government

o a zat o s a d p vate dust y’ ( e et 2009, p. 328). In order to understand how the

military instills a high value to future military leaders, we present the model of Lawrence

Kohlberg's (1981). We have chosen this model because it is often cited as an example in a large

number of scientific articles devoted for the subject of military leadership, for instance Kelley

(2013) and Bennet (2009). Law e ce Koh be 's s a ‘american psychologist, specialist in the

f e d of deve opme ta psycho o y’ (Ke y 2013, p. 123). Also, he is one of the founders of the

theory of cognitivism, including the development theory of morality. According to Kohlberg, the

moral development is hierarchical, with each subsequent stage of six stages reorganizing and

integrating the preceding one and consequently providing a comprehensive basis for moral

decisions (Kohlberg, 1981; see also Figure 2). It should be noted that the average speed of

passing through all phases is calculated, but the speed of each individual depends on its

experience and ability to learn.

In the first phase sequence is entirely based on the penalties for improper performance of the task

and avoiding punishment (Bennet 2009). At the second stage individual acts are performed to

satisfy personal needs. At the third stage interpersonal interaction happened, individuals try to

get approval for their actions from the side of their colleagues. In the fourth stage of this model,

the individual is not trying to find affirmation in the eyes of other people and they want to

complete the task, it is the duty for them. The fifth and sixth stage is a discussion, where

individuals begin understanding abstract moral principles and considering each situation

differently (Bennet 2009). Here, an individual develops their own rules and principles for good

decision-making and behavior.

Also at last two stages individuals becomes more flexible; they become aware of rules of

conduct and the need to protect people from possible threats. In particular at the fifth stage the

person is become aware of the contradictions between different moral beliefs and shapes (Kelly

2013). The sixth stage is the highest stage because person forms his own moral principles that

are followed regardless of the c cumsta ces. ‘Th s mo a code s above a y aw a d pub c

a eeme t’ (Ke y 2013, p.126).

Military Enviroment Mean

There is a very complex environment in the military 5,83

Everybody trusts his leader in the military 5

There is a well-developed ethical atmosphere in the army 5,56

The environment in the military is trustworthy 5,42

Malkov & Sobolev 42

We can note that during the service the military leader begins to perceive values that were

incorporated for him during the training and service, as a guide to actions or attitudes. The core

values of the organization are beginning to be very closely connected with the personality of the

leader, the mission and function of the organization, becoming the above personal desires of

man. This is particularly true in the military setting, where every person is expected to live and

p act ce the co e va ues of the se v ce. ‘Fo examp e, the US Ma e Co ps’ co e va ues a e

ho o , cou a e a d comm tme t, a d the motto Sempe F mea s ‘‘a ways fa thfu ’’’ ( e et

2009, p.318).

4.3.5. Key traits in character of the Military Leaders

This section is very important because it is directly linked with several issues in our research

with the officers of the Russian army and also is necessary for having full and clear presentation

of the military leaders. As a source of information in this case, we will use survey, which was

conducted with 200 respondents in Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the official

scientific materials written by representatives of the British air force.

To begin we would like to highlight the main characteristics of military leaders.

F u e 2. Leve s of k ow ed e comp ehe s o e at ve to Koh be ’s s x sta es of mo a

development (Bennet 2009, p. 319, Table 2)

In accordance with the results of Table 6, we can conclude that the respondents believe that the

military leaders are charismatic, conscientiousness, suitable for leadership, agreeable,

extroversive, stereotyped, situational aware, can easily understand the psyche of their colleagues,

LEVELS OF

KNOWLEDGE

COMPREHENSION

INTELLIGENCE

BALANCE;

SETTING AND

ACHIEVING

GOALS

ANTICIPATION OF

THE FUTURE

CONCEPTUAL

BASIS; THINKING

IN ABSTRACT

MEANING

SYSTEMS:

BOUNDARIES,

CAUSAL

RELATIONSHIPS

UNDERSTANDING INTERACTION

SENSE-MAKINGWHAT’S IN IT

FOR ME ?

INFORMATION

ACTION

IMMEDIATE

CAUSE & EFFECT

RESPONSE

KOHLBERG’S LEVELS

OF MORAL

DEVELOPMENT

POWER OF

AUTHORITY,

AVOID

PUNISHMENT

SATISFYING

PERSONAL

NEEDS

INTERPERSONAL

RELATIONSHIPS;

PLEASING OTHERS

DOING ONE’S

DUTY; INWARD;

FOR OWN SAKE

POSTCONVENTION

AL REASONING;

ABSTRACT;

FLEXIBILITY;

RELATIVISM IN

RULES

PERSONAL

COMMITMENT;

OWN DEALS

SOMEWHAT

INDEPENDENT OF

OTHERS

Malkov & Sobolev 43

loyal to their organizations, motivate, managerially more competent, decisive, personally

sacrificed to their organizations and tasks-oriented. The result also showed that respondents

agree that military leaders are open for the employees, attained with the organizational goals and

easily generate solutions for specific occasions. They also totally agree that the military leaders

are more honest.

To give a rough assessment of benefits that arise in the process of military leadership, we offer

readers to get acquainted with the data presented in Table 7. From this table, it is possible to

consider that respondents definitely agree on statements that: they received a lot of experience,

enhanced their managerial abilities, and increased their leadership success and efficiency from

the military service and military leadership. Consequently, some of them agree that they

increased their leadership effectiveness by military.

Table 6. Descriptive results for characteristics of military leaders (Zukic 2013, p. 713, Table 7).

Mean is an average value of the respondents answers.

Table 7. Descriptive results for military leadership benefits (Zukic 2013, p. 712, Table 6). Mean

is an average value of the respondents answers.

According to Thompson (2012), leadership qualities can be structured into 3 main areas:

'approach to people', 'approach to task', and 'individual orientation' (p. 100). The scheme of

correlation of areas you can see on Figure 3.

Characterist ics of Military Leaders Mean

Military leaders are more charismatic 5,8

Military leaders are more conscientiousness 5,93

Military leaders are more agreeable 5,59

Military leaders are more tasks-oriented 5,6

Military leaders are more honest 6,58

Military leaders are more situational aware 5,64

Military leaders can easily generate solutions for specific occasions 5,43

Military leaders are more decisive 6,01

Military leaders are more motivative 5,79

Military leaders are more suitable for leadership 6,03

Military leaders are more attained with the organizational goals 5,45

Military Leadership Benefits Mean

I gained a lot of experience from military leadership 6,2

I enhanced my managerial abilities by the help of military leadership 6,34

My leadership success has increased by military 6,14

My leadership efficiency has increased by military leadership 5,88

My leadership effectiveness has increased by military 5,2

Malkov & Sobolev 44

Figure 3. Proposed summary of military Off ce ’s Pe so a Qua t es (Thompso 2012, p. 100,

Figure 1)

In addition to these schemes and tables we would like to mention the study, which was

conducted by M. Bailey, Directorate of Recruiting and Selection Royal Air Force. This specialist

took military doctrine of the US ARMY, the ROYAL AIR FORCE COLLEGE, the

CANADIAN ARMED FORCES, the US MARINE CORPS as the basis for his research and

identified main personal characteristics that are inherent to the military leaders from this

organizations (see Table 8).

Table 8. Leadership qualities (Thompson, p. 99, Table 1)

Based on the research conducted among 200 respondents in Armed Forces of Bosnia and

Herzegovina and research of R. Thompson (Table 6, Table 7, Table 8) we can highlight the most

frequently mentioned traits of the military leaders, such as Justice, Confident, Honesty, Initiative,

Decisiveness, Courage and Bearing.

Malkov & Sobolev 45

After analysis of the obtained information, we would like to highlight our definition of military

leadership and the military leader in the modern army.

We can define leadership in the army, as the development process of individual and collective

potential of human resources required for the successful and effective implementation of the

goal.

The leader in the army is a person who voluntarily has devoted his life to the service in the army,

possesses necessary leadership skills, desire to work and can find a common language with his or

her peers, also has a high moral and psychological potential to perform his or her professional

duties for the benefit of homeland.

4.3.6. Toxic Leadership in the Army

Negative leadership sometimes happened in every kind organization. According to Aubrey

(2012), ‘ egative leadership generally leaves people and organizations in a worse condition than

when the leader follower – e at o sh p sta ted’ (p. 3). Logically, we can assume that this kind of

leadership can be even in the army. One of the most famous form negative leadership is toxic

leadership. The colonel of the US Army Stephen Elle in his research p o ect ‘ eak the tox c

leadership paradi m the U.S. A my’ def es tox c eade sh p as a ‘comb at o of se f-

centered attitudes, motivations, and behaviors that have adverse effects on subordinates, the

o a zat o , a d m ss o pe fo ma ce’ (2012, p. 15). In the same paper Elle states that ‘tox c

leaders as commanders who put their own needs first, micro-managed subordinates, behaved in a

mean spirited manner or displayed poo dec s o mak ’ (2012, p.14).

In the army unlike civil organizations it is very important to recognize toxic leaders, because the

army is characterized by a high level of authoritarianism and the concentration a large number of

power in hands of one person who has the legal power to give binding orders to subordinates.

‘Fo sta ce, eute a t the a my ca comma d a compa y of 100 peop e’ (Reed 2014, p. 8).

According to Reed (2014), there are three key elements to define the syndrome of toxic

leadership in the army:

1. An apparent lack of concern for the wellbeing of subordinates.

2. A personality or interpersonal technique that negatively affects organizational climate.

3. A conviction by subordinates that the leader is motivated primarily by self-interest. (p.67)

In accordance with Box (2012) ‘the first principal behavioral trait of a toxic military leader is

micro-management invadi the p vacy of othe s’ (p. 6). Toxic leaders are more interested in

personal life of subordinates, than in moving the organization forward. This types of leaders is

constantly listen phone callings or read mail of their soldiers and believe that it is their right to

monitor or invade the privacy of othe s. ‘The tox c eade has o e a d fo the p ope ty,

fee s, d ty, o p vacy of othe s’ ( ox 2012, p. 6).

Also we would like to note that toxic leaders in the a my do ’t ke to hea othe opinions, they

do ’t ke bad ews, a d they a e usua y volved in some type of unethical or immoral activity

including satisfying own self-interests. These types of eade s do ’t wa t ste the peop e

because they k ow t a . Tox c eade s do ’t make a y f d s f om m stakes. A so these

leaders are not ope to feedback. ‘W thout act ve ste a d behav a eth ca ma e ,

the toxic leader creates a climate and culture of dysfunction and negativity throughout the

o a zat o ’ ( ox 2012, p. 8).

Malkov & Sobolev 46

Toxic leaders are highly competitive. They want to be at the top of the career ladder, even if it

offends subordinates below them. From the toxic leader’s po t of v ew, all other people are less

rapid, less effective and competent.

As a conclusion of this part, we would like to point the main feature of toxic leadership in the

a my. ‘Th s may ach eve esu ts the sho t te m, but o es the othe eade compete cy

cate o es of eads a d deve ops’ (ADP 6-22 2012, p.3). The military service for this kind of

leaders is possibility to gain regular titles and ca ee p omot o , they do ’t ca e about so d e s

and improving their skills and qualities.

Malkov & Sobolev 47

5. A a yz Ou F d s

In this part of our thesis, we conduct the analysis of empirical information, which we had

obtained during interviews with eight former officers of the Russian Army and law enforcement

structures who are experts in the field of military leadership.

We believe that it will be interested for our readers to look a brief biography of participants in

our study and you can see a full list of people accepted to help us and take part in our study

below:

1. Sergei Ermakov was born in 1974. He graduated from the military high school and was

promoted to junior lieutenant. Later he got Ph.D. degree during the military service.

Sergei Ermakov was serving in the army of aerospace defense. He finished his military

service in 2012 with the rank of colonel because he decided to retire because of his own

will in connection with personal and family circumstances. He had to choose between

family interests and the future career in the army. He had chosen the first. The

interviewee explains that the military service especially at chief position requires

maximum return of physical and emotional resources and in this case a military man has

no time for private life and family. But fortunately he founded a good place of working

where he has used his life experience and special skills that had been acquired during the

military service. Currently he works at position of the Dean of the research faculty of the

graduate and postgraduate study in the North-West Institute of the Russian Presidential

Academy of National Economy and Public Administration.

2. Natalia Petrova was born in 17.09.1975. Being a student, she entered at the service of the

military prosecutor of the Russian Federation in 1995. In 1999, after reform of the

military prosecutor's office, she was in rank of a senior inspector. She left the military

service and went to work in the judicial system. Natalia Petrova worked in the judicial

system until 2007 and then decided to leave the service. At the moment of dismissal, she

was in the position of captain of justice. Natalia explains that the main reason for the

dismissal from the service was family circumstances; between the family and the future

career she had chosen the family. But practical knowledge, which had been acquired

during the service, is useful for her at work in commercial organizations. Now Natalia is

the owner of her own law firm, where she uses skills and knowledge obtained in the

course of the military and the judicial services. The interview explains the woman view at

the military leadership, because Natalia assure that woman should not go into the Army,

it is not necessary. The woman has its own, well-defined function to give birth to

children, to bring up children, to be engaged in motherhood. The woman should be

feminine.

3. Dmitry Napreev was born in 15.09.1981. After graduating from law school in 2003 he

entered in the service of the Investigation Committee of the Russian Federation on a post

of the inspector. As a result of personal qualities and excellent performance in 2007

Dmitry became the Deputy Head of investigation Department, and later the head of

investigatory Department. In 2011, he decided to try himself at work in civil

organizations. At the time of dismissal from the service Dmitry was in the rank of major

of justice. The main reason for his departure was a desire to change narrowly criminal

specifics of his work and to develop further as a specialist and try himself on other

professional fields. Currently he works as the head of the security department in the

North-West Institute of the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and

Public Administration. Also he is engaged in teaching process in this Institute at the post

of senior lecturer in criminal law, where he widely use practical experience and

knowledge that had been acquired during the service.

Malkov & Sobolev 48

4. Ravil Kamalov was born in 18.10.1981. In 2003 Ravil graduated from the North-West

Academy of Public Administration and then decided go into the military service in the

Federal Protection Service of the Russian Federation, where he received the rank of

sergeant. After demobilization in 2004, he decided to start working in the judicial system

of the Russian Federation and got a job in the Smolninsky Federal Court. Personal

leadership qualities allowed Ravil to become an assistant judge in criminal cases in 2006

and after 2 years of the service he became the head of the Department of criminal cases.

In 2011, being in the rank of major of justice of the Russian Federation, Ravil decided to

leave the service. The main reasons were quite low wage for professionals of such level

and unwillingness for further career development. Ravil said about this event in his life

the following words: ‘I ca say that I have eached the career ceiling and maybe I was

bored from the service’. Currently he works as the chief of the audit department in the

North-West Institute of the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and

Public Administration.

5. Vladimir Petrov is a chief of the IT department in the trade organization. He was born in

1969. He graduated from the military high school, was promoted to junior lieutenant and

got Ph.D. degree later during his military service. Vladimir was serving in the army of

aerospace defense. He finished his military service in 2012 with the rank of colonel

because his contract with military forces was ended and became a reserve officer.

6. Vladimir Kupcov is a Deputy General Director of the construction company. He was

born in 1956. He got a degree of Master of Engineering in the military high school and

was promoted to junior lieutenant. He was serving in the coastal engineering troops of the

Soviet Navy for 34 years and engaged in construction of naval bases. He is a combat

officer and took part in military conflicts in Mozambique, Yemen, Afghanistan, Angola

and Chechnya. He finished his military service in a position of the unit commander with

the rank of colonel and became a retired officer because of wounds received during the

service. Vladimir got an interesting offer to work in a post of the chief engineer in the

construction company. Eventually, he has become a Deputy General Director in that

company.

7. Victor Savin is a chief specialist in the science and technology center. He was born in

1947. He graduated from the military high school with a degree in radio engineering. He

has a Ph.D. degree too. He was serving in the Soviet Navy. He retired from the military

service in 1997. He is a captain of the first rank. When he left the military service, he

finished semiannual management course about the public administration. Afterward, he

continued to work in the civil organization in the position of a head of the department.

8. Vladimir Naumov is a head of the department of business informatics in the North-West

Academy of Public Administration. He was born in 1952. He got a degree of Master of

Engineering in the Naval Academy and was promoted to junior lieutenant in 1974.

Vladimir was serving on ships of the Black Sea Navy until 1980. He was serving in

various teaching positions at the Naval Academy from 1980 till 2006. He was heading

the graduate departments at that academy from 1995 till 2006. He is a captain of the first

rank. He is a professor, Ph.D. of Military Sciences. He has worked in the North-West

Academy of Public Administration since 2008. He is a head of the department of

business informatics, mathematical and statistical methods since 2014. He is married and

has two sons.

5.1. Open Coding

The interviews took place during confidential conversations with each respondent individually.

The average time of conversation with each respondent was 50 minutes. As the basis of the

interview we had 12 open questions, by means of which we were able to get information about

the subject of our study. To obtain explanatory information and clarifications in the course of the

Malkov & Sobolev 49

interview, we asked spontaneous additional questions, which allowed us to get extensive

information about the subject of military leadership.

On the basis of data, which we gained during the interviews, and in accordance with grounded

theory we allocated 8 basic categories on the open-coding stage, that can provide accurate

assessment of military leadership, as the subject of our study. Respondents gave answers, which

were based on the personal experience getting through the service in the army and law

enforcement organizat o s, fo th s easo , each cate o y be s w th t t e ‘The M ta y

Expe e ce’. Below you can see the categories which we defined:

1. The Military Experience: the officer's character

2. The Military Experience: the perception of leadership

3. The Military Experience: the positive outcome

4. The Military Experience: the negative side (things that they didn't want to tell us)

5. The Military Experience: officers' leadership skills in civil organizations

6. The Military Experience: civil challenges

7. The Military Experience: features of the military organization

8. The Military Experience: the factor of the development of soft leadership

Below we will give a brief description of all 8 categories that we allocated. At the end of each

category we present a table with the key words and phrases that eight respondents told us during

interviews.

Category 1. The Military Experience: the officer's character

In this category we present the main features and qualities, which, in the opinion of our

respondents, the military officers should have. According to their answers, first of all the officer

should be educated person, possessing the necessary competences to work with the subordinates:

‘pe so ca be ve y ta e ted by atu e, but o de to become a eade a d a successfu ma a e

it needs to et p ope educat o ’ (Sergei Ermakov).

Almost all respondents expressed the view that the officer should always take responsibility for

making decisions and do not put it on their subordinates: ‘The eade s ob ed to take the

responsibility fo the dec s o mak p ocess’ (Ravil Kamalov). On the one hand the officer

must be strict and demanding with subordinates in order to maintain the necessary level of

d sc p e a d pe so a autho ty h s m ta y u t. ‘The officer should be strict and demanding

of subordinates in order to maintain a high discipline among soldiers and make orders to be

executed as soo as poss b e’ (Vladimir Petrov). But in the same time the officer must take care

about subordinates, the leader must be inside of the military team and to be aware of problems

and needs of their subordinates. ‘The officer should take care of his soldiers. The officer should

be able to listen to subo d ates, k ow the eeds, keep touch w th them co sta t y’

(Vladimir Kupcov).

We can say that the majority of respondents agree with the statement that the officer should

se ve as a examp e to fo ow amo the subo d ates. ‘Leader should demonstrate how to

work, how to fulfill personal responsibilities through his own example and exper e ce’ (V ad m

Kupcov). Subordinates should take the personal example of the commander to become better and

to develop following features and qualities, for instance, acco d of ou espo de ts: ‘se f-

discipline’, ‘d e ce’ (V ad m Kupcov) a d ‘eff c e cy dec s o mak ’ (Natalia Petrova),

‘ te ty, ho esty, te ac ty, d sc p e’ (Dmitry Napreev).

Respondents devoted special attention to the process of tasks execution by the officer and

subordinates. According to the majority of interviewees, the officer should always achieve goals

in time and do not exceed limits of the law. But absolutely all respondents agreed that despite

Malkov & Sobolev 50

any difficulty of the job, the officer must remain the human, save the face and the honor of the

off ce . ‘You shou d a ways stay a huma ’ (Viktor Savin).

Key words characterized the officer's character:

Category 2. The Military Experience: the perception of leadership

One of the major emphasizes in our interviews with former military officers has been put on the

topic of leadership. Our interviewees talk a lot about how they understand the phenomenon of

leadership in general. They give their own definitions of leadership in terms of their experience

and knowledge.

Vladimir Kupcov defines the leader as "a person who leads people". Sergei Ermakov thinks that

''leadership is the ability to make decisions and not to shift the responsibility for the

consequences on another person''. According to Victor Savin a true leader is "a person who

encourages people to follow him". Dmitry Napreev believes that ''the leadership is the ability to

lead people and subordinates, as well as the ability to take responsibility for decisions''. Ravil

Kamalov tells that ''the leadership is the ability to set organization goals and achieve them''.

Natalia Petrova views leadership as ''a set of certain qualities (efficiency in decision making,

responsibility, knowledge of people, good analytical skills) which acquired by a person in the

process of life under the influence of the society''.

Our participants consider leadership in two ways. The first way views leadership as a set of

qualities, characteristics and abilities that distinguishes a true leader from other people. The

second way views leadership as a set of actions.

Most of interviewees think that an ability to take responsibility is very important. Victor Savin

gives an example that ''only 10 % of all people are able to take responsibility, not expecting

anything in return. They lead the rest of 90 % of people".

Among the most repeated leadership qualities, we can note the authority. Sergei Ermakov says:

''the authority is a recognition and appreciation of leadership and management qualities by

subordinates''.

Our interviewees speak about the relevance of the work capacity, basic and additional education

and self-development. They think that the leader should get new competences and knowledge

constantly. Vladimir Petrov believes that ''who owns the information, owns the world".

Other important traits are confidence and courage. Sergei Ermakov explains that ''in order to

become a leader in the organization the person should not to be afraid to make mistakes and try

to do something new all the time''.

Only three participants pay attention to charisma. Dmitry Napreev says: ''I consider myself as a

charismatic leader, because I have the ability to convince people''.

Speaking about leaders' activity, Vladimir Petrov thinks that ''the leader has a strong influence on

people. He is able to change their opinions and convince them only through conversation".

Vladimir Kupcov believes that the leader should "demonstrate how to work, how to fulfill

personal responsibilities through his own example and experience". He adds that the leader is a

one who can inspire and energize people to do something. Savin agrees with him: ''A leader

should be a source of inspiration, he should be able to motivate people to act''.

high educational level, strict and demanding, care about soldiers, diligence,

achievement of every goal, responsibility, decisiveness, competent, discipline,

honesty, the commitment, a strong will, to be high qualified, to be fair.

Malkov & Sobolev 51

Our interviewees conclude that leadership is not based on the fear and punishment, but on the

attention, concern and encouragement to his subordinates. Vladimir Petrov also thinks that ''the

leader should create such conditions in which his subordinates feel useful. It is important to

make workers be interested in their work''.

Key words characterized the perception of the leadership:

Category 3. The Military Experience: the positive outcome

On the basis of material, which we obtained in the course of interviews, we can conclude that all

participants in our study pointed the fact that the military service is carried to them from the

pos t ve s de: ‘Yes t’s affected on me f om the pos t ve s de’ (Sergei Ermakov). In analysis of

this category, we would like to say about the influence of the military service on the person from

a personal and professional point of view.

First of all, we would like to point out the fact that nobody of our respondents positions

themselves as a future leader before the military service. ‘ efo e the military service, I d d ’t see

myself as a leader, but in the process of the service and trainings I obtained necessary

competencies which allowed me to take leadership positions’ (Sergei E makov) a d ‘du the

service I have shaped my ow eade sh p sty e’ (Viktor Savin).

According to our study, we can conclude that military service has helped these people to develop

personal leadership style, skills and competencies, which are necessary to work with people.

‘The m ta y se v ce has a owed me to deve op ma a e a compete ces, commu cat o sk s,

a d spec a ab t es that I use o c v a wo k ow’ (Vladimir Petrov).

Also the military service allows the respondents to deve op such pe so a qua t es as: ‘se f-

o ous, pu ctua pe fo m tasks a d m ta y dut es’ (Vladimir Kupcov), ‘I ca co s de

myself as a competent expert at working with peop e’ (Dmitry Nap eev), ‘orderliness, discipline,

to analyze any situation’ (Natalia Petrova), ‘comma de 's sk s’ (Ravil Kamalov).

In general, in accordance with the received data we can say that the military service make person

more disciplined and responsible, demanding to themselves and to subordinates, also persons

gain the ability to objectively evaluate and analyze the situation and make a right decisions. ‘The

army has taught me to place strict demands to myself and apply them to my subordinates’

(Vladimir Kupcov).

Speaking from professional point of view about the impact of military service on the person, it

should be noted that a person becomes a qualified specialist of a wide profile in the army. ‘Eve y

army officer should have a wide range of sk s to ma a e peop e’ (Vladimir Naumov).

According to the data, we can note that the officer has to communicate with different people and

government agencies and analyze a huge amount of information in different areas of knowledge.

‘Wo k such a system, you have to deal with many aspects of life constantly’ (Dmitry

Napreev). Respondents also noted that the military service can be very unpredictable, so for the

ability to listen; ability to set goals; to take responsibility; basic and additional education;

charisma; concern for subordinates; to convince through conversation; courage; to

develop people's advantages; experience; flexible; high demands on subordinates; high

discipline; integrity; to make risky decisions; to motivate; own example; respect for

people; self-critical; self-development; self-rigorous; source of inspiration; work capacity.

Malkov & Sobolev 52

officer is extremely important to have the largest possible number of skills and competencies.

‘At work I work. I have ’t take decisions u de the f ue ce of emot o s’ (Natalia Petrova).

Key words characterized positive outcome of the military experience:

Category 4. The Military Experience: the negative side (things that they didn't want to tell

us)

Indeed, the military experience has a negative influence on people. Our interviewees don't pay a

lot of attention this side of military service, but it's possible to find some examples of pernicious

impact.

Most of the interviewees explain that the military service requires a lot of time and efforts and

they paid little attention fam y. Se e E makov: ‘’Pe fo m dut es of the military service on a

managerial position required too much personal time. Also the position required a maximum

etu of phys ca a d emot o a esou ces’’.

Some of our participants talk about ambivalent influence of the military service. Vladimir Petrov

thinks that ''the army may have a different impact on the person. The service can develop

leadership skills and uncover leadership potential in a young man, as it has happened in my case,

or destroy innate inclinations''. Victor Savin adds that the army is not the best place to develop

leadership qualities. He says: ''These qualities are usually formed not because of, but rather in

contrary''. He explains that people have to overcome various difficulties in the army. If one can

cope with all challenges, he will probably become a good leader.

Some of our interviewees note that they have become more rigid, too much strict to people,

cy ca du the m ta y se v ce. A othe p ob em, as V ad m Kupcov otes: ‘’I the a my

the officer has to follow the rules established by the a my e u at o s”. It s the easo of a

absence of creativity, narrow range of interests.

Nevertheless, we admit the using authoritarian style by only two participants, Sergei Ermakov

and Ravil Kamalov. They tend to use authoritarian style in their work: ‘’I most s tuat o s

involving subordinates and decision-mak p ocess I use autho ta a sty e of eade sh p’’

(Sergei Ermakov).

Key words characterized the negative side of the military experience:

Category 5. The Military Experience: officers' leadership skills in civil organizations

absence of creativity; ambivalent influence; army regulations; authoritarian style;

destroy innate inclinations; insufficient level of softness; little attention to family;

love of power; low salary; narrow focus; no emotions; no time for personal life;

rigidity; stiffness.

objectivity, commander’s skills, no emotions, communication skills, managerial

competences, develop leadership skills, to understand subordinates, responsible, to

perform tasks completely, to overcome various difficulties, the great life experience,

to be responsible for words, not afraid of a large team.

Malkov & Sobolev 53

The military officers in the course of the military service acquire special skills and abilities that

they later use in work in civil organizations.

In general, it can be noted that the majority of respondents admitted several specific skills,

obtained in the army and used at work in civil organizations. First of all we would like to start

with objectivity. According to the data it can be concluded that the officers when they make

management decisions including disciplinary decisions try to gather as much information as

poss b e o de to make the ht dec s o . ‘When I make decisions including disciplinary

nature, I always listen the defense and the prosecution side, and only then make my decision. I

am interested in facts’ (Ravil Kamalov).

The officers being on duty constantly communicate with employees. Because of this reason, all

respondents noted that they are very able to understand people and very actively use this skill to

work in civil organizations. ‘Wo k a a e group, I can consider myself as a competent

expe t at wo k w th peop e’ (Dmitry Napreev).

The military service teaches people to act in extreme conditions and quickly make a solution of

problem. Many of the respondents noted that they often have to use this skill at work in civil

organizations, as there sometimes they have to operate in conditions of uncertainty and the

limited time frame.

The respondents also noted that they use the following skills and abilities acquired during the

course of military service: discipline, punctuality, commitment, self-discipline and subordinates,

ability to work in a team, honesty and ability to take responsibility for the decisions.

Key words characterized leadership skills in civil organizations:

Category 6. The Military Experience: Civil Challenges

When our interviewees left the service and came to work in civil organizations, they faced some

problems to adapt to new work environments. Only one of our participants (Victor Savin)

refused to talk about any problems. Victor Savin doesn't see any serious problems connected

with transition from the military position to work in a civil organization. He believes that ''any

experienced officer is able to adapt to new work conditions".

Other participants recognize problems of changing military service to work in civil

organizations.

One of the main obstacles, which hinder the former officers to be effective leaders in civil

organization, is working society, employees in civil organizations. Vladimir Petrov believes that

civil people have a ''different perception of objective reality''. He thinks that “p c p e of u ty

of command in civil organizations are not as well developed as in the army. There is no high

cohesion between people in the c v o a zat o ”. The ma a eme t of the staff in civil

organizations should be more soft and democratic. However, as Dmitry Napreev notes, the

former officers have ''the insufficient level of softness towards subordinates''. Natalia Petrova

tells the same: ''The only difficult thing I had to deal with was to reduce the level of rigidity and

demands to subordinates''. Hence, the main challenge for the former officers is to adopt new

att tudes. V ad m Kupcov exp a s: “The a my co ect ve s u fo m and cohesive. Employees

to be fair, find a way out, decision-making, objectivity, nobility, courage in making

difficult decisions, respect for people, inherent dignity, briefly and clearly,

communication.

Malkov & Sobolev 54

in the civil collective have different characters, genders, ages. Work in a civil organization

demands individual approach to the staff''.

Furthermore, most of our participants mention low performing discipline. For example, Vladimir

Petrov speaks about ''a long time reaction from employees on the problem''. Vladimir Naumov

says that ‘‘you expect less high diligence and less reliable assistants in civil organizations''.

Another difficulty is a difference between documents that regulate the rights, duties, powers,

relationships between the chief and subordinates in the army and in civil organizations. Vladimir

Petrov explains that when he came to the civil organization, ''it was difficult to get used to work

with people at first time because basics of activity of the army and civil organizations are

different. The military service is regulated by the army regulations. The activity of the civil

organization is regulated by the Labor Code of the Russian Federation''. Victor Savin thinks that

the army makes more strict demands and controls people more accurately because of the army

regulations.

Key words characterized challenges in civil organizations for the former officers:

Category 7. The Military Experience: Features of Military Organizations

During the interview all respondents noted the features, which distinguish the army from other

state or commercial organizations. The main difference of the army from a commercial

organization, in the opinion of most respondents, is the ultimate goal. The primary objective in

commerce is making a profit; in the army it is a training and education of personnel. The army

environment, system of training and upbringing of the future officers are aimed at the

development of high moral and human qualities, that is, those qualities, which are necessary to

pe fo m ts tasks a d to p otect the home a d. ‘Only a different goal in commerce is a profit,

the goal in the Army is educat o , t a , m ta y sk s a d b up mo a va ues’ (Natalia

Petrova).

As one of the most important distinguishing features, all respondents noted the presence of the

military Charter in the army, which is an official document, regulating relations between the

personnel. According to our respondents, it describes the presence in the army such features as:

chain of command, the obligation of execution of orders, the liability for breach of orders, speed

of delivery and availability of discipline and hierarchy.

Key words characterized challenges in civil organizations for the former officers:

Category 8. The Military Experience: the factor of development of soft skills

We have discussed with our interviewees the importance of soft skills for leadership. More than

half of the participants consider these skills as the extremely important part of leader's set of

Ability to negotiate; adaptation to the civil structure; be more flexible; be softer;

different ages; different characters; different genders; individual approach;

insufficient level of softness; Labor Code; lack of unity; love of power; low cohesion

between people; low performance discipline; narrow specialization; selfishness.

Military charter, orders, Chain of commands, discipline, bringing up, moral core,

training, education, hierarchy, respect, commitment, no matter whether you want it

or not.

Malkov & Sobolev 55

skills. They think that a leader should use such methods in the management of organization.

They highlight such soft skills as communication, teamwork skills and motivation because ''the

officer and any leader work primarily with people'' (Vladimir Kupcov).

Some participants state that the confidence is very important. Victor Savin explains that it is ''an

ability to safely and positively respond to the any situation''. He notes the importance of

teamwork skills: ''The leader should build efficient relationships with partners and subordinates,

be able to resolve conflicts. ... In general, I think the higher the position, the more

communication and motivation skills for the staff is required from the leader''.

Vladimir Naumov agrees with the previous participant: "The higher the position, the greater role

is played by social skills, while professional knowledge go to the background. The main task for

the superiors is to be able to make right decisions, to motivate employees and successfully lobby

for their ideas".

Civil leaders need to be more self-conscious, self-organized, and self-rigorous. Dmitrii Napreev

states that "it is required by the fact that many people often overlook the faults of others and do

not see own disadvantages''.

Speaking about soft skills, some of our interviewees note that they play a secondary role in their

career. They think that the most important skills are a professionalism, diligence, and

responsibility. Soft skills only support them.

Key words characterized the influence of the military experience on social skills:

5.2. Axial coding

When we formulated 8 basic categories, we tried to combine them into core categories using

comparative approach.

Finally, we have got the following 3 core categories:

1. The image of the Military Leader;

2. The positive influence of the military experience;

3. The negative influence of the military experience.

5.2.1. The image of the Military Leader

Based on our analysis of data, we can conclude that the modern military leader is a person who

has an ability to lead and encourage people, to set organizational goals and achieve them, to

make decisions and take the responsibility for decision-making process. The military leaders

devote a lot of time to education and developing their skills by training. The basic education, as

well as additional education is an important factor of professionalism for them. As White (2014)

otes, ‘training leaders is a necess ty, a d the m ta y has a “up o out” po cy whe e fa u e to

be promoted at certain times means you must leave the orga zat o ’ (p. 11). At the same time

the military leaders pursue self-improvement, gaining new competencies and skills. Hence, the

responsibility; understanding of strengths and weaknesses; communication skills;

confidence; develop professional skills of subordinates; integrity; flexible; honesty;

keep in touch with subordinates; motivation; respect for people; self-conscious; self-

criticism; self-development; self-organized; self-rigorous; teamwork skills.

Malkov & Sobolev 56

military leader is characterized by the high work capacity. They used to make a lot of effort in

their work.

In accordance with the data, which we gained from the interviewees, we can define relevant and

important features of character, which distinguish the good officer and the military leader. These

traits are: responsibility for decision-making process, courage, confident, decisiveness, honesty,

discipline, bearing, taking care and keeping in touch with subordinates. In general, these traits

make a common moral core of the military leader (Bennet 2009, Kelley 2013, Kohlberg 1981).

The key competence for the military leaders is an ability to take responsibility. This quality

relates to all leadership activities. They are responsible for decision making, for the performance

or non-performance of tasks, for providing proper working conditions, for the development of

subordinates. They are able to convince people and change followers' opinions. They have a

strong power of motivation and inspiration for subordinates.

Also, as we said before, based on the research conducted among 200 respondents in the Armed

Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Zukic 2013) and research of R. Thompson (Thompson 2012)

we highlighted the most frequently mentioned traits military leaders, such as Justice, Confident,

Honesty, Initiative, Responsibility, Decisiveness, Courage and Bearing.

Our survey, research of R. Thompson and research conducted among 200 respondents in the

Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina quiet clear show to us that participants of all three

researches could highlight common traits and features of character, which the good military

leader should have, for instance: Responsibility, Decisiveness, Honesty, Courage, Confident and

Bearing.

It is very important to note here, that our respondents acquainted and developed all those skills

during the military service. And they still use it being at work in civil organizations. In addition

to the listed features, we would like to add following military leadership skills that our

respondents carry out in civil organizations; they are objectivity, motivation, courage and

personal example for the subordinates. The military leaders use an own example and a great

work experience to demonstrate how to work and achieve goals.

Furthermore, they use their developed communication skills to interact with people and

teamwork skills to create cohesive team. The military leaders attempt to create special work

environments in which followers are interested in achieving common goals and feel useful.

While they were at the military service, they developed their skills and competencies, which are

necessary to work and communicate with people. All respondents got large experience to

collaborate, communicate, make orders and perform tasks with their subordinates. We suppose

that this experience and qualities have allowed them to improve their leadership style, achieve

high ranks and sustainable social position in life.

Also in accordance with our theory chapter and information from our study, we would like to say

that due to the presence of high quality military educational system and ‘up o out po cy’ the

army, the military leaders are specialists of wide range. During the military service they gained a

lot of practical experience in the field of working with people, machines and laws. Any leaders

in the army begin the career from the lowest rank and gradually move up on the career ladder,

because ‘most m ta y o a zat o s have a h h y st uctu ed bu eauc acy’ (Thompso 2011, p.

98). For examp e, ‘off ce s the U.S. A my ca expect to spe d 3 yea s of a 20-year career in

A my schoo s deve op the eade compete c es a d sk s eeded fo the ext eve ’ (Wo

2003, p. 660). Such a promotion system allows gaining high-class professionals who go through

a whole path of career development, with the necessary number of skills and competencies, the

leaders who knows system from the inside.

Malkov & Sobolev 57

It is very important to say that during the military service our respondents have found true and

faithful friends with whom they still continue to be friends. People usually call this kind of

friendship as “ othe A ms”.

During the military service they mastered the required number of professional competences and

gained University degrees. These aspects have allowed our respondents to find a good place of

working in the civil sphere after the military service.

According to our theoretical chapter and data from interviews, we can define the leadership

style, which our respondents have used, as transformational leadership style including elements

of charisma and human-assets approach to lead people.

5.2.2. The positive influence of the military experience

In accordance with answers of our respondents, we conclude that the military service has helped

them to shape own leadership style. Here we want to specify the fact that no one of our

participants considers him/herself as a future leader. As we mentioned before, we can define the

leadership style, which the military leaders use, as transformational leadership style (Bass 1985;

Bass 2008; Breevaart et al. 2014; Dust 2013; Giltinane 2013; Rolfe 2011; Ruggieri & Abbate

2013; Seibert, Wang & Courtright 2011) with elements of charisma (Antonakis, Fenley &

Liechti 2011; Bass 1985; House 1977; Weber 1968) and human-assets approach (Farkas &

Wetlaufer 1996).

First of all, in accordance with our theory this leadership style is associated with the care that

leader manifests to the personal development of subordinates to satisfy their personal interests

(Bass 1985; Breevaart et al. 2014). All of our respondents said that they always take care about

their employees. They constantly try to understand problems, hesitations and desires of their

subordinates in order to optimize the work process to achieve setting tasks.

The majority of our respondents admitted that as transformational leaders they try to establish

special environment to satisfy their needs. For instance, they allow employees to get interesting

work and training or they give to subordinates such jobs that would develop their skills and

talents. Acco d to Dust (2013), t a sfo mat o a eade s sp e the fo owe s ‘through

creating a compelling vision, role modeling, and takin the wa ts a d ta e ts’ (p. 413).

Our military leaders spoke a lot about inspiration employees to work, shaping their values

through clear vision and understanding of situation and including employees in decision-making

process. As Bass (1985) otes, a t a sfo mat o a eade ‘adapts to the changes and instability of

the situation and involves, motivates, and supports followers in a manner consistent with the

required t a sfo mat o s’ (cited in Ruggieri & Abbate 2013, p. 1172).

Our military leaders as transformational leaders try to create clear, optimistic and realistic picture

of the future, encourages others to raise the level of expectations, reduces complexity by

reducing the problem to the key questions, they use simple language to notify the mission of the

organ zat o to subo d ates. I acco da ce w th Dust (2013) ‘transformational leaders use

intellectual stimulation to encourage followers to challenge the status quo and to solve problems

us ove deas’ (p. 414).

Our leaders talk that they create a vision of the mission, establish high aims and show

perseverance and determination in achieving them, sacrificing their selfish interests for the good

of others, hence, deserve respect and trust. Followers in this type of leadership are ready to invest

additional effort in accomplishing the mission of an organization.

Also we would like to mention that the military leaders try to be a role model for their employees

involving them in a constant process of the change and the development itself. Inspirational

Malkov & Sobolev 58

motivation means that transformational leaders transfer their vision of organizational

development and confidence in success to followers. The leaders transform and motivate

followers through their idealized influence, charisma, intellectual stimulation and individual

attention to them (Breevaart et al. 2014).

ass (1985) states that ‘charisma is a subcomponent of t a sfo mat o a eade sh p’ (cited in

Antonakis, Fenley & Liechti 2011, p. 375). Speaking about charisma, we would like to mention,

that approximately half of our respondents announced that they believe in charisma and consider

themselves as charismatic leaders.

I e e a t a sfo mat o a eade sh p ca be cha acte zed by the fou I’s: 'Idea zed f ue ce,

inspirational motivation, individual consideration, and intellectual stimulation' (Breevaart et al.

2014, p. 140). In accordance with this quote and data from our study, we can consider that all our

espo de ts va y de ees me t o ed a th s I’s.

As we mentioned before, the military leaders apply elements of the human-assets approach. The

military leaders develop their employees through implementation the major organization values

eve y so d e . I o de to do th s, they p ov de p ocedu es of ec u t , emp oyees’ t a ,

and stuff motivation, rewarding programs. They pay attention face-to-face communication with

subordinates to know their personal matters. They believe that the best method to improve the

competition advantages is to give followers an opportunity to take part in decision-making,

launching new products and interaction with customers (Farkas and Wetlaufer 1996, p. 115).

As a conclusion of this part we want to say that in our vision and according to followership

theory the collaboration and communication process between our leaders and their employees

can be considered from positions of re at o a v ew. That mea s ‘a mutual influence process

amo eade s a d fo owe s’ (Uhl-Bien et al. 2014, p. 87).

The Military Experience is the factor of development of soft leadership

The military leaders have not only professional skills and knowledge but also they value soft

skills because they work with people continually. They attempt to build efficient relationships

with partners and subordinates via negotiations and bilateral dialogues with followers.

Such soft skills as communication, confidence, teamwork skills and motivation skills can

describe the military leaders. The military leaders stimulate the development personal and

professional sides of employees (Rao 2013). They admit the importance of training system for

their followers.

Furthermore, the military leaders pay attention own personalities. It is extremely significant to be

self-conscious, self-organized and self-rigorous for them.

The military leaders possess almost all the main soft sk s p ese ted by Rob es: ‘integrity,

communication, courtesy, responsibility, social skills, positive attitude, professionalism,

teamwo k, a d wo k eth c’ (2012, p. 453), which they have gained and enhanced during the

military service.

We can view the military leaders as the soft leaders in civil organizations, because they believe

‘setting a personal example, empathy, persuasion, e ot at o , a d asse t ve ess’ (Rao 2013,

p. 145) as well as soft leaders. Hence, they encourage people to be more free and to experiment

in the work.

The military leaders have more than half key characteristics of soft leadership – ‘character,

charisma, conscience, conviction, courage, communication, consistency, consideration, and

contribution to make a difference the ves of the pa t e s’ (Rao 2013, p. 144).

Malkov & Sobolev 59

Indeed, we should make a proviso that not all the military leaders have this set of soft qualities

and not all the military leaders can be soft leaders. Nevertheless, we sure that the military service

and true officer's personality in total create a powerful basis for the development soft leadership.

5.2.3. The negative influence of the military experience

The army as well as the majority of social systems is based on strong vertical hierarchical

relationships between commanders and subordinates, which supported by legitimate power. This

power can be called as rational-legal authority (Weber 1946, Mansfield 1973), which is defined

by a system of rules, control and ordered procedures.

The army is an orthodox organization, in which subordinates are commanded and controlled by

person owning the authority through system of orders. The army has the highest level of formal

hierarchy among social systems. Hence, a special hierarchical structure and impersonal rules and

orders applying in the army create conditions, which put in unequal social relationships between

commander and subordinates (Diefenbach and Sillince 2011).

These relationships, also all principles of management (authority and responsibilities; discipline;

unity of command; unity of direction; subordination of individual interests to the general interest;

centralization; scalar chain; equity) (Fayol 1949) are established by the army regulations. These

rules make demands to people more strict and control people more accurately.

The military leader in the army is influenced by these prerequisites, which conduce to destructive

leadership.

The army ca be v ewed the f ame of ‘the tox c t a e’ including destructive leaders,

susceptible followers, and conducive environments (Padilla, Hogan & Kaiser 2007).

The army environment can provide most factors of destructive leadership like personalized need

for power, negative narcissism, a selfish orientation, an ideology of hate, dominance and

coercion.

Followers conform to authority of the military leader because of the principle of hierarchy and in

accordance with the military rules. The military officer in the army can be viewed as 'power-

wielding actor who affect group and organizational outcomes' (Yukl & Van Fleet 1992 cited in

Uhl-Bien et al. 2014, p. 84). Leaders in the army play a main role in achieving goals. They

completely influence on followers' behavior and attitudes. They direct followers to perform

tasks. Followers are considered as subordinates who get orders and carry out them without any

resistance and doubt. Hence, they don't have performance initiative (Uhl-Bien et al. 2014).

These circumstances can change the military leader in the army into the toxic leader in a civil

organization. They don't concern about wellbeing of followers, positive organizational

development and pay attention their own ambitions, create negative atmosphere in a team (Box

2012, Elle 2012, Reed 2014).

The military service has an ambivalent character regarding the leadership development. The

army can uncover leadership potential and facilitate the development of leadership skills. In the

same time, it can ruin leadership inclinations. This point is explained by challengeable character

of the military career. People move up on the career ladder from the lowest position to the officer

rank. They have to overcome difficulties of training system, hierarchical relationships with

senior commanders and so on. As Wh te otes, ‘the m ta y has a “up o out” po cy whe e

failure to be promoted at certain times means you must eave the o a zat o ’ (2014 p. 11).

Thus, if one copes with all challenges, he will probably become a good leader.

The m ta y se v ce mpact o the off ce ’s personality. It makes people more rigid and cynical,

too much strict and exacting to subordinates. Most of the former officers have the insufficient

level of softness towards subordinates.

Malkov & Sobolev 60

The military regulations subjugate and regulate interpersonal relations between officers and

subordinates. The officers have to accomplish their duties only in accordance with rules

established by regulations. It is the reason of an absence of creativity in work, narrow range of

interests.

The military principles of unity of command and subordination of individual interests to the

general interest cultivate features of transactional style. Such military leaders focus on task

performance and don't always pay attention team needs (Ruggieri & Abbate 2013). It seems

obvious that they do ’t use ewa ds a d ach eve wo k esu ts o y v a system of pu shme ts.

The military service conduces to the development features of diminisher leadership style

(Wiseman & McKeown 2010). The army principles establish conditions, in which the officers

have to be centralized in decision-making. They don't have to allow subordinates to take part in

discussions.

Civil challenges

When the officers leave the military service and come to work in civil organizations, they can

face some problems to adapt to new work environment and adopt new attitudes.

The sense of principles of unity of command and unity of direction in modern civil organizations

is changing in compare with traditional understanding in the army (Rodrigues 2001). A

hierarchical organizational structure of vertical communication between the highest management

level and the lowest positions is reducing. Now organizational structures are becoming less

formalized, less hierarchical, and flatter. A civil organization can have several bosses for one

organizational function. Hence, the former officer can face with several managers, specialists in

different work groups, who lead on the same organizational level and give orders to

subordinates.

Another challenge for the military leader in civil organizations is characters of civil employees.

Modern c v o a zat o s demo st ate ‘more commitment to ts emp oyees tha the past’

(Rodrigues 2001, p. 882). Now employees are empowered and get freedom to make decisions in

work groups unlike military subordinates. Moreover, the civil collective possesses lower

performing discipline than the military team. Employees need a lot of time to perceive and solve

problem in compare with army subordinates.

The civil collective is not high cohesive like the military team. Employees in the civil collective

have different characters, genders, ages.

Work in a civil organization demands from the military leader individual approach to the staff.

As it mentioned before, the former officers have the insufficient level of softness towards

subordinates. Thus, they should be more soft and democratic to work and lead in civil

organizations efficiently.

Another difficulty is a difference between documents that regulate the rights, duties, powers,

relationships between the senior and subordinates in the army and in the civil organization. The

military leader has to know thoroughly the Labor Code.

Malkov & Sobolev 61

6. Co c us o

In the conclusion we would like to present the outcome of our work with the maste thes s ‘The

military leadership and its consequences on leadership in c v o a zat o s’. Our aim was to

define possible benefits of the military experience, which have impact on practice of leadership

in civil organizations. Thus, we formulated research question in the following way: ‘How does

the military experience influence the performance, efficiency or failure of leadership in civil

o a zat o s?’

Starting our work, we were not sure what kind of impact the military experience could have in

this case. So we were opened for all possible results of our research. Eventually, we have got a

‘substa t ve theo y’, which allow us to make conclusion about the dual character of using the

military experience on leadership positions in civil organizations. We have recognized the

positive and negative nature of the influence of the military experience on civil leadership. We

have defined what might hinder the effective using of the military experience in civil

organizations. Finally, we have defined how to avoid this baneful influence and get more

benefits from the military experience. We hope that following conclusions can be useful and

interesting for readers and further researches.

1) The ‘dark” side of the military leadership

To be w th the ‘da k’ side of the military experience. The military service can create a special

environment for development destructive leadership. This fact is explained by the fact that

military charters establish strong vertical hierarchical structure, system of impersonal rules and

orders, unequal social relationships between commander and subordinates, which supported by

legitimate authority of the higher commander. These conditions make the military leaders more

rigid, inflexible and brutal to people. Hence, they sometimes control people around them stricter

without any well-grounded reasons. The army environment can provide a lot of factors of

destructive leadership like personalized need for power, negative narcissism, a selfish

orientation, an ideology of hate, dominance and coercion. Thus, unreasonable demands,

unwarranted rigidity and inflexibility in behavior of the military officers can exert pressure on

employees those s tuat o s whe t does ’t eed. Thereby, interaction between the leader and

followers can be disturbed; motivation of the staff and the effectiveness of problem solving

process can be decreased.

Starting to work in civil organizations, the military leaders have to adapt for new work

environments and adopt civil leadership behavior in according with new attitudes of civil

organizations. The sense of principles of unity of command and unity of direction in modern

civil organizations is changing in compare with traditional understanding of these principles in

the army. A hierarchical structure of civil organizations is reducing and becoming less

formalized, less hierarchical, and flatter than the army organizational structure. The former

officers should interact with several managers on the same level of organization. Moreover, the

former officers have to take notes about special features of the Labor Code and job contracts,

which are different from the military charters.

Another challenge for the military leaders in civil organizations is special features of civil

employees. It seems obvious that civil collectives are more empowered, more free in decision

making, less disciplined and cohesive than military subordinates.

The military leaders in civil organizations have to be softer, creative, flexible, open-minded, and

apply individual approach to the staff. They should reduce the level of cynicism and rigidity in

work with people. Only these assumptions help them to adapt their leadership style to the civil

system.

Malkov & Sobolev 62

2) The effectiveness of military leadership

Despite the possible negative impact of the military experience on leadership style of the former

officers, our theory proves the fact that in most extent the military experience has a positive

influence on the effectiveness of leadership in civil organizations.

First of all, the military service creates conditions for formation of transformational leadership

style among the officers. This style can be beneficial for both the army and civil organizations,

because transformational leaders always try to create clear, optimistic picture of the future,

encourage others to raise the level of expectations and reduces complexity by solving key

problems.

The transformational military leaders are able to create a clear vision of the organizational

mission, establish precise aims and motivate people to achieve them. They sacrifice their selfish

interests for the good of others, deserve fo owe s’ respect and trust and, hence, strengthen

leadership credibility, stable relationships among employees.

The transformational military leaders are associated with the concern, which they manifest to the

personal development of subordinates and pay attention their personal interests. They try to

understand problems, hesitations and desires of their subordinates constantly in order to optimize

the work process and achieve setting tasks. Also we would like to mention that the

transformational military leaders transfer their vision of the organizational development and

confidence in success to followers. Subordinates in their turn are ready to invest additional

efforts in accomplishing the organizational mission.

Another positive side of the military experience increasing the effectiveness of leadership in civil

organizations is that the army brings up and develops relevant personality traits, which each

leader should have, such as responsibility for decision-making process, courage, confident,

decisiveness, honesty, discipline, bearing, taking care and keeping in touch with subordinates. In

common these traits create the moral core of the military leaders, which is a set of inviolable and

strict internal rules and patterns of behavior for the military leaders in their daily life and work.

Furthermore, the military service allows facilitating the qualities of soft leadership style, which is

very important in an efficient interaction between the leaders and subordinates both in the army

and in civil organizations. The military leaders have the majority of key characteristics of soft

leadership like character, charisma, conscience, conviction, courage, communication,

consistency, consideration, and contribution to make a difference in the lives of their partners.

They draw attention relationships and behavior of their followers. They stimulate negotiations

with employees, use team building and motivational methods. Hence, they allow people to feel

less stress, to be more free in working process, thereby, increasing staff effectiveness.

Figure 4. The effectiveness of civil leadership

True Personality

Military Experience

Effectiveness of Civil

Leadership

Malkov & Sobolev 63

Summing up, we believe that the military experience can be successfully implemented in civil

organizations. The military leaders can increase effectiveness and performance of civil

leadership but only in that case, when the military experience is based on the true personality of

the military leaders (see Figure 4). When we speak about the true personality, we mean a special

moral core and soft skills, which the military service facilitates in people.

Uniqueness of military leadership is explained by the fact that the military leaders combine

transformational style in leading people, the backbone to take responsibility and make decisions,

teamwo k sk s w th qua t es of mo a ty a d ‘soft ess’, ke h h eve of d sc p e, ho esty,

self-discipline, coura e, pate a ca e fo subo d ates, wh ch the c v eade s ofte do ’t

possess. Thus, we think that the military leadership can be valuable for all companies in the

modern world with its instability, uncertainty, rapid changes and crises.

Malkov & Sobolev 64

7. D scuss o

In our thesis we discuss the military leadership and its consequences on leadership in civil

organizations. We have considered the result of the interaction between the personality, social

and organizational environments in the army and civil organizations.

Officials of military units and formations, universities in educational purposes can use our

findings about special features of the formation of the military leadership. The substantive theory

based on the core categories can allow the officers to diagnose the level of formation of

leadership qualities of their subordinates and themselves to make organizational and

management solutions aimed at creating an effective leadership style and positive morale

environment in military units.

Results of the study can also be useful for work socialization perspectives of the former military

officers. The officers who leave the military service to work in civil organizations can focus on

our outcomes and results of future studies in order to be prepared for challenges in civil

organizations.

We recognize that our findings are limited for several reasons and should be subjected to further

study and improvement.

First of all, the data analysis was based on data collected in result of interviews with the Russian

former officers. Interviews were made on a basis of prepared list of questions and clarifying

questions that arise during each interview. We believe that it is necessary to conduct additional

interviews with set of questions covering new issues within the research field.

Besides, we were limited to data collected from a certain group of the military officers,

consisting of 8 people. It seems obvious that this is not enough to make deep incontestable

conclusions on research. We suppose that it is necessary to increase the number of respondents

for more accurate results. Furthermore, a big size of sample of participants allows using

quantitative methods to detect some statistical patterns within the research question.

In addition, we have conducted a survey from a leaders' perspective and paid a few attention to

followers. It is possible that the results might have differed, if the research had been conducted

o the off ce s’ subo d ates, usua so d e s.

In our thesis we consider examples of the former officers working in various civil organizations

– in business, entrepreneurial, public institutions. We think that further researches of the

peculiarities of different kinds of civil organizations are necessary to be conducted.

Finally, in our thesis we have used the data from studies conducted only in several countries.

One of studies identifies the main inherent personal characteristics of the military leaders. It is

based on military doctrines of the US Army and Marine Corps, the Royal Air Force College, the

Canadian Armed Forces. Furthermore, we use survey considered the main characteristics of the

military leaders among 200 respondents in Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Our

interviews reflect the military experience of the officers who have served only in the Soviet and

Russian Armed forces. We admit that results of each study demonstrate essential features of

national military systems in the USA, the Great Britain, Canada, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the

Soviet Union and Russia. Hence, the further surveys should specify data about these countries

and pay attention other national military systems.

Thus, further studies are needed to evaluate, refine, and develop our theory.

Malkov & Sobolev 65

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Appe d x

Appendix A. Questions for interviews

1. What key features, values, and traits can you emphasize in the role of the officer in the army?

2. How do you define leadership? What does the term "leader" mean for you? What qualities are

significant for person to be a leader? What attributes must a leader possess to be effective?

3. Brief biography (age, sex, education, rank, place of work).

4. What is your leadership philosophy? How do you see yourself as a leader? What kind of

leader are you? What is your personal style of leadership? What a e the ‘must have’ sk s fo

today's leaders in civil organizations?

5. What are some of the defining moments in your career that have shaped your leadership style?

6. How has the military service influenced on your human and professional development? What

have you known in the army for your future career? What skills that you have enhanced in the

army do you use at this moment?

7. How have your leadership qualities evolved during your military service?

8. Short story about the transition from military service to civilian work. What happened when

you left the army and decided to begin civil career?

9. What can hinder former officers to be effective leaders in civil organizations? What the main

obstacles have you faced in the work after the military service? What leadership challenges have

you overcome in civil organizations?

10. Can you highlight the similarities and the differences in managing people in the army and

civil organizations?

11. What o e do the «soft sk s» ( ke se f-regulation, motivation, self-awareness) play in your

career? Do you think they are assessed differently in the army and civil organizations?

12. What is your advice to managers who may be thinking about developing their leadership

skills and pursuing a career as a high-level leader? What skills and experiences does a young

person need to develop today in order to be a successful leader tomorrow?

Malkov & Sobolev 72

Linnaeus University – a firm focus on quality and competence

O 1 Ja ua y 2010 Väx University and the University of Kalmar merged to form

Linnaeus University. This new university is the product of a will to improve the quality,

enhance the appeal and boost the development potential of teaching and research, at the

same time as it plays a prominent role in working closely together with local society.

Linnaeus University offers an attractive knowledge environment characterised by high

quality and a competitive portfolio of skills.

Linnaeus University is a modern, international university with the emphasis on the desire

for knowledge, creative thinking and practical innovations. For us, the focus is on

proximity to our students, but also on the world around us and the future ahead.

L æus U ve s ty

SE-391 82 Kalmar/SE-351 95 Väx

Telephone +46 772-28 80 00